Phyllomedusa trinitatis

Species of frog

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Phyllomedusa trinitatis

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification
Domain:  | Eukaryota
Kingdom:  | Animalia
Phylum:  | Chordata
Class:  | Amphibia
Order:  | Anura
Family:  | Hylidae
Genus:  | Phyllomedusa
Species:  |

P. trinitatis

Binomial name
Phyllomedusa trinitatis

Mertens, 1926

Phyllomedusa trinitatis, known as the leaf-nesting frog, Trinidadian leaf frog, or Trinidadian monkey frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is found in Venezuela and the island of Trinidad.[2] It is threatened by habitat loss.

## Description[edit]

P. trinitatis is an arboreal frog with a bright green body, black and yellow eyes, and brown chin and chest, with parotid glands near its eyes.[3][4] However, the color of the frog can differ depending on its local environment.[2] It has smooth skin on its back dotted with small tubercles throughout. The frog lacks webbing on its fore and hindlimbs.[5] Males lack vocal slits.[5]

## Distribution[edit]

The frog can be found throughout northern Venezuela in the following states: Distrito Federal, Sucre, Vargas, Miranda, Aragua, Carabobo, Yaracuy, Monagas, north of Bolivar and Guárico, and eastern Falcón.[6] On the island of Trinidad, it can be found in many areas including Arima, Chatham, and the Northern Range.[2]

Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical, lowland forests, montane forests, savanna, shrublands, freshwater marshes, heavily degraded former forests, ponds, and canals, and ditches.[citation needed]

## Diet[edit]

Based on studies, researchers proposed that P. trinitatis stalks its prey because of its above-average size and slow movement.[7] They suggest that the toe pad shape of P. trinitatis might be related to its predatory behavior and not just its habitat.[7] P. trinitatis is also known to eat insects such as Field crickets.[2]

## Predators[edit]

In a study conducted in Trinidad, West Indies, researchers studied the predation of Phyllomedusa trinitatis tadpoles by the dragonfly larvae Pantal flavescens, one of the predators of P. trinitatis during its tadpole stage.[7] Researchers studied whether the larvae preferred tadpoles of P. trinitatis or Physalaemus pusulosus as prey, especially as the density of each species varied. Their results demonstrated that the relative prey density has no significant bearing on the dragonfly's preference of hunting for P. trinitatis tadpoles over Physalaemus pusulosus[7]

Before adulthood, phorid flies in Trinidad are predators of P. trinitatis eggs and often decimate entire clutches.[8]

## Defense[edit]

This frog exhibits a host of defenses to evade predators and survive in hostile environments. As the frog flees from predators, it can release poison from glands found on its back.[9] Males may also remain silent rather than calling to prevent attracting predators to their locations.[9]

Furthermore, by probing the glands of P. trinitatis via electrical stimulation, scientists have isolated insulinotropic peptides from the frog's secretions. After purifying the secreted fluids of a few frogs, scientists purified four peptides that significantly promoted insulin release in BRIN-BD11 cells, cells capable of secreting insulin.[4] Researchers isolated a 28-amino acid peptide fully homologous to the C-terminal of the precursor to dermaseptin BIV.[4] These results suggest that P. trinitatis secretes an antimicrobial as part of its immune defense, though the specific mechanism of action is still unknown.[4]

Other studies have identified other defense peptides secreted from the frog's skin. One study found 15 dermaseptin peptides with varying antimicrobial properties and evolutionarily conserved amino acid regions.[10] One peptide discovered had only one cysteine residue in its structure (LTWKIPTRFCGVT), an uncommon distribution.[10] The most effective antimicrobial peptides found were phylloseptin-1.1TR and 3.1TR. Like defense proteins found in other frogs, these peptides exhibited more potency against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria.[10]

Some studies provide insight into the structure-activity relationship between phyllo statins. Such studies of immunomodulation and insulinotropic activity may represent that these frogs can be used to develop drug templates for anti-inflammatory and type 2 diabetes treatment.[11]

## Mating[edit]

The mating season for P. trinitatis is usually around the end of the dry season until the beginning of the rainy season.[9] The species exhibits sexual dimorphism, and females are generally larger than males.[9]

Mating rituals of P. trinitatis transpire within foliage surrounding small bodies of water, encompassing ditches and similar locales.[8] P. trinitatis is known to call out to mates similarly to other frogs. In an audio spectrogram of the call of the P. trinitatis, it was a principal note along with five secondary notes.[12] The loud call can function as a deterrent for other males attempting to seek female partners.[12] The fundamental frequency was believed to be 500 Hertz while the dominant frequencies were considered to be around 800 Hertz.[5] Additionally, more vocal males often travel greater distances in the environment. However, some males stay in place while calling out to other frogs.[13] In a realm of non-vocal communication, it is pertinent to note that male frogs exhibit a leg-waving behavior, strategically manifesting their strength as a deterrent against potential adversaries.[9] This behavior serves as a measure to preclude physical confrontations.[9]

### Breeding site attendance[edit]

Most females only attend once in breeding, but for those who attended more than once, the nesting interval averaged 27.6 days. Males showed high pond loyalty; a few participate in two ponds while always preferring one. There are three attendance patterns for males. They may stay for multiple nights, sporadic attendance, or only once. Most frogs appear on multiple nights. However, there is also no evidence that a particular model is the best choice for reproductive success.[14]

## Development and life cycle[edit]

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### Life cycle[edit]

P. trinitatis mate and lays eggs in vegetation above water. Like other frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa, P. trinitatis enclose their eggs in folded leaves. The leaf case protects the egg clutch and shields the jelly plug from rainfall.[8]

The eggs are covered with jelly capsules or plugs produced by the mother. The jelly plugs are made of 96 to 97% water and 2 to 3% dry matter. The jelly capsules are composed of mucopolysaccharides and possess a dense core surrounded by a matrix. The jelly plug and capsule prevent water absorption during rainfall.[8] Unlike other amphibians, incubation in water kills Phyllomedusa eggs.[8] The mechanism by which embryos survive with potential hypoxia is unknown.[15]

P. trinitatis has no leaf preference when deciding on where to have their nest. The same is true for the number of leaves they use. Hatching success is not influenced by the health of the leaves. As one embryo hatches, it influences other eggs to hatch.[8] After hatching, the tadpoles fall into the water.[7]

### Physical development[edit]

The first paper to explain the development of toe pads in Phyllomedusa trinitatis used light and scanning electron microscopy to show that the adult toe pad has some mucosal pores in "hexagonal-shaped cells".[8] The study also found that the frog has flat pads that lack lateral grooves on the front of each digit. This distinguishes the Trinidad frog from other tree frogs or hylids with different features, such as convex pads.[8] P. trinitatis has about 12 cell layers on its toe pad, including columnar and cuboidal cells. [8]

Using Gosner's (1960) staging table for frog development, they showed the stage-by-stage changes that occur in frog toe pads. For this page, when a stage is mentioned, it will concern Gosner's staging paradigm rather than Kenny's staging (1968). It is noted that in earlier stages of development, the forelimb appears to develop faster than the hindlimb based on how separated the digits were. By stage 38, all digits were layered with an epithelium of simple squamous cells.[8] At stage 39, the long toe had an expanded distal end and the toe pad had widened.[16] At stage 40, the circumferal groove became very apparent in the toe pads and was fully developed by stage 46, the end of metamorphosis.[8]

Researchers have claimed that, unlike other species of frogs, P. trinitatis has no evidence of having hatching gland cells during its development. Looking at Gosner stages 18 to 23, the scientists did not see hatching gland cells on the heads of the frogs.[17] These findings suggest that P. trinitatis might have a different hatching mechanism distinct from other frogs of other species.[17] Other studies, however, have shown conflicting results.[8] Embryos farther along in their development were shown to have hatching gland cells on the laterodorsal surface of the head.[8]

## Research limitations[edit]

One study focused on best practices for tracking the frogs for field research and found that neither bobbins nor radio tags were suited for the frog. Initial attempts of using fluorescent dye proved ineffective as the dye had a deleterious impact on the frog.[18] Bobbins and radio tags had no significant effect on the distance the frog traveled, even though most of the tracking devices were 15 to 20% of the frog's weight.[18] However, frogs became lethargic and less mobile by the third day of the trial. The radio tag failed to locate the frogs in areas of high altitude or vegetation as the signal became less clear. On the other hand, placing bobbins on the frogs often led to physical harm like bruising.[18]

## References[edit]

1. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Phyllomedusa trinitatis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T55867A109536663. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T55867A109536663.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
2. ^ a b c d Kirton, Sparcle (2014). "Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Leaf-nesting Frog)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. UWI.
3. ^ Walls, Jerry G. (1996). Red-eyes and other leaf-frogs. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. ISBN 0793820510.
4. ^ a b c d Marenah, L.; McClean, S.; Flatt, P. R.; Orr, D. F.; Shaw, C.; Abdel-Wahab, Y. H. A. (August 2004). "Novel Insulin-Releasing Peptides in the Skin of Phyllomedusa trinitatis Frog Include 28 Amino Acid Peptide From Dermaseptin BIV Precursor". Pancreas. 29 (2): 110–115. doi:10.1097/00006676-200408000-00005. PMID 15257102. S2CID 36423729.
5. ^ a b c Barrio-Amorós, César L. (7 September 2006). "A new species of Phyllomedusa (Anura: Hylidae: Phyllomedusinae) from northwestern Venezuela". Zootaxa. 1309 (1): 55. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1309.1.5.
6. ^ Barrio-Amorós, C.L. (30 December 2004). "Amphibians of Venezuela, Systematic list, Distribution and References; an Update". Revista Ecología Latino Americana. 9: 1–48.
7. ^ a b c d e Sherratt, Thomas N.; Harvey, Ian F. (1989). "Predation by Larvae of Pantala flavescens (Odonata) on Tadpoles of Phyllomedusa trinitatis and Physalaemus pustulosus: The Influence of Absolute and Relative Density of Prey on Predator Choice". Oikos. 56 (2): 170–176. doi:10.2307/3565332. JSTOR 3565332.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Downie, J. Roger; Nokhbatolfoghahai, Mohsen; Bruce, Duncan; Smith, Joanna M.; Orthmann-Brask, Nina; MacDonald-Allan, Innes (18 June 2013). "Nest structure, incubation and hatching in the Trinidadian leaf-frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Hylidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 12 (1): 13–32. doi:10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v12i1p13-32.
9. ^ a b c d e f Smith, Joanna. "Glasgow University Exploration Society Trinidad Expedition 2001" (PDF).
10. ^ a b c Mechkarska, Milena; Coquet, Laurent; Leprince, Jérôme; Auguste, Renoir J.; Jouenne, Thierry; Mangoni, Maria Luisa; Conlon, J. Michael (1 December 2018). "Peptidomic analysis of the host-defense peptides in skin secretions of the Trinidadian leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Phyllomedusidae)". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics. 28: 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.cbd.2018.06.006. PMID 29980138. S2CID 49714213.
11. ^ Pantic, Jelena; Guilhaudis, Laure; Musale, Vishal; Attoub, Samir; Lukic, Miodrag L.; Mechkarska, Milena; Conlon, J. Michael (April 2019). "Immunomodulatory, insulinotropic, and cytotoxic activities of phylloseptins and plasticin‐TR from the Trinidanian leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis". Journal of Peptide Science. 25 (4): e3153. doi:10.1002/psc.3153. ISSN 1075-2617. PMID 30734396. S2CID 73418326.
12. ^ a b Rivero, J; Esteves, Andrés (1969). "Observations on the agonistic and breeding behavior of Leptodactylus pentadactylus and other amphibian species in Venezuela". Breviora. 321: 1–14.
13. ^ Kirton, Sparcle. "Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Leaf-nesting Frog)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. UWI.
14. ^ Boyle, Cameron M.; Gourevitch, Eleanor H. Z.; Downie, J. Roger (2021-06-30). "Breeding site attendance and breeding success in Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Phyllomedusidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 20 (1): 53–66. doi:10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v20i1p53-66. ISSN 2316-9079. S2CID 237895080.
15. ^ Hutter, Damian; Kingdom, John; Jaeggi, Edgar (2010). "Causes and Mechanisms of Intrauterine Hypoxia and Its Impact on the Fetal Cardiovascular System: A Review". International Journal of Pediatrics. 2010: 401323. doi:10.1155/2010/401323. ISSN 1687-9740. PMC 2963133. PMID 20981293.
16. ^ Ba‐Omar, T. A.; Downie, J. R.; Barnes, W. J. P. (February 2000). "Development of adhesive toe‐pads in the tree‐frog ( Phyllomedusa trinitatis )". Journal of Zoology. 250 (2): 267–282. doi:10.1017/S0952836900002120.
17. ^ a b Nokhbatolfoghahai, M.; Downie, J. R. (1 August 2007). "Amphibian hatching gland cells: Pattern and distribution in anurans". Tissue and Cell. 39 (4): 225–240. doi:10.1016/j.tice.2007.04.003. PMID 17585978.
18. ^ a b c Gourevitch, Eleanor H. Z.; Downie, J. Roger (18 December 2018). "Evaluation of tree frog tracking methods using Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Phyllomedusidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 17 (2): 233–246. doi:10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v17i2p233-246. S2CID 92035738.

Taxon identifiers|

* Wikidata: Q2699800
* Wikispecies: Phyllomedusa trinitatis
* ADW: Phyllomedusa_trinitatis
* AmphibiaWeb: 665
* ASW: Phyllomedusa-trinitatis
* BioLib: 177592
* EoL: 330420
* GBIF: 2427980
* iNaturalist: 23734
* IRMNG: 10995013
* ITIS: 208166
* IUCN: 55867
* NCBI: 332092
* uBio: 4782468

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