Political prisoners in Venezuela

Prisoner at La Rotunda wearing bolt and shackle on his ankles

Throughout its history, many people have been arrested and imprisoned in Venezuela for political reasons, mainly during the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez and that of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in the 20th century and during the Bolivarian Revolution in the 21st century.[1]

## Definition

[edit]

The Venezuelan non-governmental organization Foro Penal, which keeps track of political prisoners in the country, has elaborated a definition for political prisoners during the Bolivarian Revolution:[2]

* For political causes: Those persons persecuted or arbitrarily detained who are accused of crimes or infractions traditionally characterized as "political", including "rebellion", "plot" or "treason", among others (as long as no violence has been used), with a political objective, which in turn can be divided into one or more categories.
* For political purposes: Those persons arbitrarily persecuted or detained to fulfill a political objective.
* Supervening: Those persons who are not arbitrarily or illegally persecuted or detained, but are afterwards subjected by the authorities to conditions of persecution, prosecution or imprisonment that flagrantly violate their human rights for a political objective, whether formally declared or not, of the authorities.

Foro Penal also divides into six different categories the objectives or purposes that determine whether a persecution or repressive action is political or not:[2]

* Exclusion: Political persecution for individually representing a political threat to the government for being political or social leaders. The objective of persecution is the exclusion of the individual from the political sphere, his neutralization as a factor of political or social mobilization, and his isolation from the rest of the population.
* Intimidation: Political persecuted who are part of a social group, rather than representing an individual political threat to power. The objective of the persecution is the intimidation of the group or sector to which they belong, including students, activists, journalists, judges, military officers and among others.
* Propaganda: Political targets who, without being considered an individual or collective political threat, are used to support an official narrative or discourse related to a national situation with the aim of evading responsibility for the failure of public policies or measures.
* Extraction: Politically persecuted persons, generally deprived of their liberty, with the objective of obtaining information that will allow the location of other politically persecuted persons. This category includes cases of detention of family members or friends of the person sought, and in several cases the extraction of information is carried out under torture.
* Revenge: Political persecuted whose rights are violated as expressions of abuse of power, personal and direct, by authorities who use their political influence and positions in repressive structures to defend personal or individual interests. The political objective is not collective but personal.
* Hostages: Persons detained or persecuted to obtain influence in negotiations with countries or international organizations in accordance with the Venezuelan government's foreign policy needs.

## History

[edit]

### Antonio Guzmán Blanco dictatorship

[edit]

During the government of Antonio Guzmán Blanco, political repression was constant and overwhelming. Many people were silenced for fear of reprisals. It is estimated that thousands of people were persecuted, imprisoned and exiled, some of which never returned to the country. This also had a negative impact on Venezuelan society, which hindered the development of democracy and freedom of expression in Venezuela.[3]

### Juan Vicente Gómez dictatorship

[edit]

La Rotunda, one of the main prisons during the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez

Initially, Juan Vicente Gómez began his government by granting freedom to political prisoners and reestablishing freedom of the press, but he refuses to dissolve the National Congress and call for a constituent assembly, a petition that was quite popular at the time.[4] Despite the facade of liberties promoted by Gómez, there were early cases of repression of the press and certain political sectors. From 1913 onwards, repression was exacerbated, the year in which Gómez decided to remain in power.[5]

During the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez, people who were imprisoned were shackled with shackles and steel bolts on their feet and were victims of numerous tortures. The shackles held the prisoners' ankles, immobilizing and injuring them. Poison was often put in the food of prisoners under assassination orders, and crushed glass in their drinks to cause greater suffering at the time of death. Opponents to the Gómez regime were killed, imprisoned or disappeared. Torture methods ranged from the most conventional to the death penalty.[6][7]

Many of political prisoners were sent to forced labor, the most famous of which was the construction of the Transandean Highway in the Venezuelan Andes. One of the cruelest torturers in La Rotunda was a common prisoner named Nereo Pacheco who, by orders of Gómez, was used by the guards as an element of punishment against the political prisoners.[8]

### Marcos Pérez Jiménez dictatorship

[edit]

Pedro Estrada, head of the Dirección de Seguridad Nacional during the dictatorship of Marcos Pérez Jiménez.

The dictatorship of Marcos Pérez Jiménez created a secret police, the Dirección de Seguridad Nacional, that was in charge of arresting, torturing and imprisoning political opponents,[9] and was characterized by its excessive repression of dissidence and torture of detainees. In the National Security headquarters throughout the country, political prisoners were subjected to different methods of torture, such as the ice chamber, standing up barefoot in a car rims, blows with steel balls, electric bands, batons and other forms of physical mistreatment.[citation needed]

Guasina Island prisoners

At that time, the Colón Square in Los Caobos, Caracas, was the epicenter of student protests. During the celebration of Columbus Day in 1951, several Venezuelans who were protesting against the dictatorship were arrested: José Amín, Miguel Astor Martínez, Antonio Ávila Barrios, Francisco Barrios, Federico Estaba, Gerardo Estaba, Luis José Estaba, Darío Hernández, Manuel Vicente Magallanes, Eloy Martínez Méndez, Salom Meza Espinosa and Juan Regalado. This group was known as The Twelve Apostles because they were a dozen detainees. The twelve apostles were forced to stand together for three days, deprived of their physiological needs. Each one was tortured in a personalized way.[10]

Although the Pérez Jiménez regime announced the closure of the labor camp on Guasina Island on 17 December 1952, in Delta Amacuro state, records such as the work Se llamaba SN, by José Vicente Abreu, document the forced labor and subhuman conditions on the island.[citation needed]

On 29 September 1952, in the Turén Municipality of the Portuguesa state, a peasant uprising against the national government began, attacking a National Guard outpost. The movement was strongly repressed, resulting in more than a hundred deaths and several arrests.[11]

### Bolivarian Revolution

[edit]

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) denounced that during the 2017 Venezuelan protests "several thousand people have been arbitrarily detained, many of them have been victims of ill-treatment and even torture".[12] Some of the victims of enforced disappearance have not yet appeared, as is the case of Hugo Marino.[13] Since 2015, at least twelve political prisoners have died in custody.[14] According to the NGO PROVEA, between 2013 and 2023, 53,075 people were detained for political reasons or in the context of illegal actions by police and/or military.[15] By October 2022, the NGO Foro Penal registered 245 political prisoners in Venezuela. At least 166 had been imprisoned without having been convicted and one is a minor.[16]

## By year of arrest

[edit]

The individuals listed below are those whose detentions have taken place in the 21st century and have been qualified as arbitrary by the United Nations Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, prisoners of conscience according to Amnesty International or classified as political prisoners by the non-governmental organization Foro Penal, among other reasons:

Before 2014

* Francisco Usón (2004)
* Henry Vivas [es] (2004)
* Iván Simonovis (2004)
* Lázaro Forero [es] (2004)
* Otoniel Guevara Pérez [es] (2004)
* Rolando Guevara Pérez [es] (2004)
* Carlos Ortega Carvajal (2005)
* Eligio Cedeño (2007)
* Biagio Pilieri [es] (2009)
* María Lourdes Afiuni (2009)
* Raúl Isaías Baduel (2009)
* Alejandro Peña Esclusa (2010)
* Oswaldo Álvarez Paz (2010)

2014

* Daniel Ceballos [es]
* Enzo Scarano
* Gabriel Valles Sguerzi [es]
* Gilberto Sojo [es]
* Inés González Árraga
* Leopoldo López
* Lorent Saleh
* Renzo Prieto [es]
* Rodolfo Pedro González [es]
* Rosmit Mantilla
* Ruperto Sánchez [es]
* Sandra Flores de Garzón [es]
* Víctor Ugas [es]

2015

* Antonio Garbi [es]
* Antonio Ledezma

2016

* Braulio Jatar
* Carlos Andrés García
* Joshua Holt [es]
* Villca Fernández [es]
* Yon Goicoechea

2017

* Alfredo Ramos [es]
* Ángel Zerpa Aponte [es]
* Lisbeth Añez [es]
* Rafael Arreaza [es]
* Raúl Isaías Baduel
* Citgo Six
* Alirio Zambrano
* Gustavo Cárdenas
* Jorge Toledo
* José Pereira
* José Zambrano
* Wuilly Arteaga [es]

2018

See also: Detention of Juan Requesens

* Ángela Expósito [es]
* Ariana Granadillo [es]
* Billy Six
* Emirlendris Benítez [es]
* Enrique Aristeguieta Gramcko [es]
* Fernando Albán Salazar
* Geraldine Chacón
* Igbert Marín Chaparro [es]
* Jesús Medina Ezaine [es]
* José Alberto Marulanda [es]
* Juan Caguaripano
* Juan Requesens
* Pedro Jaimes Criollo [es]
* Rafaela Requesens
* Rubén González [es]
* Vasco da Costa [es]
* Williams Aguado [es]

2019

* Antonia Turbay
* Edgar Zambrano
* Gilber Caro
* Karen Palacios
* Luis Carlos Díaz
* Pedro Santana
* Diego Sánchez Díaz
* María Auxiliadora Delgado [es]
* Rafael Acosta Arévalo
* Roberto Marrero
* Salvador Franco

2020

* Darvinson Rojas
* Gabriel Andrés Medina [es]
* Nicmer Evans [es]
* Roland Carreño [es]

2021

* Freddy Guevara
* Javier Tarazona [es]
* Milagros Mata Gil
* Orlando Moreno [es]
* Rafael Rattia [es]

2022

* Alcides Bracho [es]
* Alonso Meléndez [es]
* Emilio Negrín [es]
* Gabriel Blanco [es]
* Néstor Astudillo [es]
* Olga Mata
* Reynaldo Cortés [es]

2023

* John Álvarez [es]
* Leoner Azuaje [es]
* María Fernanda Rodríguez
* Nelson Piñero [es]
* Roberto Abdul [es]

2024

See also: Detention of Rocío San Miguel

* Guillermo López (disappeared)
* Juan Freites (disappeared)
* Luis Camacaro (disappeared)
* Víctor Venegas
* Rocío San Miguel

## Current political prisoners

[edit]

Among the current political prisoners are the following:

Prisoner  | Arrest date  | Detention time

|
|

Héctor Rovain | 19 April 2003  | 22 years and 13 days
Erasmo José Bolívar | 19 April 2003  | 22 years and 13 days
Luis Molina | 19 April 2003  | 22 years and 13 days
Otoniel Guevara Pérez [es] | 23 November 2004  | 20 years, 5 months and 9 days
Rolando Guevara Pérez [es] | 23 November 2004  | 20 years, 5 months and 9 days
Juan Caguaripano | 6 August 2017  | 7 years, 8 months and 26 days
Igbert Marín Chaparro [es] | 8 March 2018  | 7 years, 1 month and 24 days
Emirlendris Benítez [es] | 5 August 2018  | 6 years, 8 months and 27 days
Ángela Expósito [es] | 21 September 2018  | 6 years, 7 months and 11 days
Rubén González [es] | 30 November 2018  | 5 years, 5 months and 2 days
María Auxiliadora Delgado [es] | 19 March 2019  | 6 years, 1 month and 13 days
Gilberto Sojo [es] | 25 February 2021  | 4 years, 2 months and 7 days
Javier Tarazona [es] | 2 July 2021  | 3 years and 10 months
Ángel Vivas | 10 May 2022  | 2 years, 11 months and 22 days
Nelson Piñero [es] | 21 November 2023  | 1 year, 5 months and 11 days
Juan Freites | 23 January 2024  | 1 year, 3 months and 9 days
Luis Camacaro | 23 January 2024  | 1 year, 3 months and 9 days
Guillermo López | 24 January 2024  | 1 year, 3 months and 8 days
Rocío San Miguel | 9 February 2024  | 1 year, 2 months and 23 days
Jesús Armas | 10 December 2024  | 4 months and 22 days

## See also

[edit]

* Revolving door effect
* Torture in Venezuela
* Enforced disappearances in Venezuela

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Venezuela: Silencio a la fuerza: Detenciones Arbitrarias por Motivos Políticos en Venezuela". Amnistía Internacional (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-08-01.
2. ^ a b "Presos Políticos". Foro Penal. Retrieved 2023-09-03.
3. ^ Briceño Iragorry, Mario (1965). El Progreso y la Represión: Venezuela durante el Guzmán Blanco (in Spanish). Monte Ávila Editores Latinoamericana.
4. ^ "Gómez, Juan Vicente". Fundación Empresas Polar. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
5. ^ Pino Iturrieta, Elías (2017-12-11). "Dictador desde el principio". Prodavinci. Retrieved 2021-09-01.
6. ^ "Las cámaras de tortura más escalofriantes de las dictaduras latinoamericanas". Breinguash. 13 May 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
7. ^ Fundación Polar. "La Rotunda". Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela.
8. ^ Pocaterra, José Rafael: Memorias de un venezolano de la decadencia, Monte Ávila Editores Latinoamericana, C.A.,Caracas, Venezuela, 1997
9. ^ de Cervantes, Miguel (1999). Sevilla Arroyo, Florencio (ed.). Don Quijote de la Mancha. Madrid: Editorial Castalia. pp. 729–741\. ISBN 9788470398131.
10. ^ Magallanes, Manuel Vicente (1873). Los partidos políticos en la evolución histórica venezolana. Mediterráneo.
11. ^ Se Llamaba SN. José Vicente Abreu. Retrieved 2022-12-09.
12. ^ "ONU denuncia el uso de "fuerza excesiva" y "torturas" en Venezuela". El Heraldo. 8 August 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2017.
13. ^ "Hugo Marino, más de 1.000 días desaparecido y la incertidumbre de no saber si está muerto". El Nacional (in Spanish). 2022-09-25. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
14. ^ "Con Leoner Azuaje son 12 presos políticos y por corrupción fallecidos en custodia". El Pitazo (in Spanish). 2023-04-21. Retrieved 2023-04-24.
15. ^ "ONG denuncia que durante gobierno de Maduro 9.465 personas han sido asesinadas por la policía y militares". La Tercera. 2023-04-17. Retrieved 2023-08-08.
16. ^ Cambero, Luis Daniel (2022-10-20). "▷ 245 presos políticos hay aún en Venezuela, según Foro penal #20Oct". El Impulso (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-10-28.

## External links

[edit]

* Presos políticos, Foro Penal
* Lista de Presos Políticos en Venezuela

* v
* t
* e

Crisis in Venezuela

* Protests against Nicolás Maduro
* Venezuelan presidential crisis
* History of Venezuela (1999–present)
* COVID-19 pandemic

Events|

| Ongoing|

* Economic crisis
* Bolivarian missions
* Bolivarian Revolution
* Bolivarianism
* Censorship
* Chavismo
* Crimes against humanity
* Corruption
* Defections
* Devaluation of the Venezuelan bolívar
* Economic policies under Nicolás Maduro
* Energy crisis (Zulia energy collapse)
* Human rights abuses
* Hyperinflation
* Illegal drug trade
* International sanctions
* U.S. sanctions
* Interventions of political parties
* Negotiations
* Refugee crisis and diaspora
* Resource shortages
* State protectors
* State-sponsored terrorism
* States of emergency in Venezuela
* Catatumbo campaign
* Pemon conflict
* Coronavirus pandemic

|

2010|

* Colombian diplomatic crisis
* Death of Franklin Brito
* PDVAL affair
* Parliamentary election
* III National Assembly of Venezuela

2012|

* Amuay tragedy
* Presidential election
* Regional elections

2013|

* Death of Hugo Chávez
* Presidential election
* Dakazo
* Municipal elections

2014|

* La Salida
* 2014 protests
* timeline
* Detention of Leopoldo López
* Panama diplomatic crisis (1st)
* Defense of Human Rights and Civil Society Act

2015|

* Detention of Antonio Ledezma
* Colombian diplomatic/migration crisis
* Resolution 8610
* 2015 protests (timeline)
* Narcosobrinos affair
* Parliamentary election
* IV National Assembly of Venezuela

2016|

* Tumeremo massacre (1st)
* Recall referendum movement
* 2016 protests (timeline)

2017|

* Detention of Gilber Caro
* Constitutional crisis
* Mother of All Marches
* Caracas helicopter incident
* Referendum
* National Assembly attack
* Constituent Assembly election
* Members
* Regional elections
* Municipal elections
* Attack on Fort Paramacay
* Death of Carlos Andrés García
* Law against Hatred
* 2017 protests
* timeline

2018|

* El Junquito raid
* Presidential campaign of Nicolás Maduro
* Valencia fire
* Panama diplomatic crisis (2nd)
* Presidential election
* El Paraíso stampede
* Caracas drone attack
* Detention of Juan Requesens
* Economic reforms and Viernes Rojo
* Murder of Fernando Albán
* Tumeremo massacre (2nd)
* 2018 protests (timeline)

2019|

* Inauguration of Nicolás Maduro
* Venezuela TPS Act of 2019
* Plan País
* Humanitarian aid mission
* Amnesty Law
* Venezuela Aid Live
* Statute Governing the Transition to Democracy
* Murder of Alí Domínguez
* Widespread blackouts
* Detention of Roberto Marrero
* Disappearance of Gilber Caro
* 30 April uprising attempt
* Acarigua prison riot
* Death of Rafael Acosta Arévalo
* Attack of Rufo Chacón
* Death of Juan Carlos Márquez
* Murder of Edmundo Rada
* Operación Alacrán
* 2019 protests
* timeline

2020|

* National Assembly leadership election
* Death of Addy Valero
* Cagua fire
* Barquisimeto shooting
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Guanare prison riot
* Operation Gideon
* El Palito oil spill
* Detention of Alex Saab
* Parliamentary election
* V National Assembly of Venezuela

2021|

* La Vega raid
* Apure clashes

2022|

* Arauca clashes
* Recall referendum project

2023|

* Anti-Solidarity Law
* Barbados Agreement
* Unitary Platform presidential primaries
* Referendum
* Guyana–Venezuela crisis
* El Palito oil spill

2024|

* Detention of Rocío San Miguel
* Law against Fascism, Neofascism and Similar Expressions
* Bulla Loca mine disaster
* Presidential election
* international reactions
* protests
* political crisis
* Widespread blackouts
* Argentine embassy siege

2025|

* Third inauguration of Nicolás Maduro
* Catatumbo clashes
* American deportations of Venezuelans to El Salvador
* Elections
* Parliamentary
* Municipal
* Regional

Deaths during protests|

| 2014|

* Bassil Da Costa
* Robert Redman
* Génesis Carmona
* Geraldin Moreno

|

2015|

* Kluivert Roa

2017|

* Paola Ramírez
* Juan Pablo Pernalete
* Armando Cañizales
* Miguel Castillo
* Paúl Moreno
* Orlando Figuera
* Neomar Lander
* Fabián Urbina
* David Vallenilla
* Xiomara Scott

People|

| Pro-Maduro|

* Nicolás Maduro
* F. Ameliach
* D. Cabello
* A. Chávez
* T. El Aissami
* arrested in 2024
* H. Escarrá
* T. W. Saab
* C. Flores
* A. Istúriz
* E. Jaua
* T. Lucena
* I. Alfonzo
* N. Maduro Guerra
* C. Mata Figueroa
* C. Meléndez
* C. Alcalá Cordones
* until 2013
* L. Ortega Díaz
* until 2017
* V. Padrino López
* R. Ramírez
* until 2018
* L. Parra
* H. Rangel Silva
* D. Rodríguez
* J. Rodríguez
* J. Arreaza
* I. Rodríguez
* T. W. Saab
* I. Varela
* D. Vivas
* E. Amoroso
* B. Lugo
* M. C. Figuera
* until 2019
* E. Farías
* F. Bernal
* I. Alfonzo
* Y. Gil

|

Anti-Maduro|

* Juan Guaidó
* E. González
* Óscar Pérez
* C. Alcalá Cordones
* since 2013
* J. Borges
* L. Ortega Díaz
* since 2017
* Rafael Ramírez
* since 2018
* María Corina Machado
* H. Capriles
* H. Falcón
* Adrián
* Arria
* Aveledo
* Caro
* F. Guevara
* A. Ledezma
* L. López
* Mantilla
* Mendoza
* Pérez Álvarez
* Pérez Vivas
* Ramos Allup
* J. Requesens
* R. Requesens
* F. Rosales
* M. Rosales
* H. Salas Feo
* V. S. Scarano
* L. Tintori
* J. Torrealba
* A. Velásquez
* J. L. Silva
* M. C. Figuera
* since 2019
* D. Solórzano
* O. Barboza
* J. J. Rendón
* J. P. Guanipa
* T. Guanipa

Organizations|

| Pro-Maduro|

* Union of South American Nations
* Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas
* Political parties
* Great Patriotic Pole
* United Socialist Party of Venezuela
* PODEMOS
* People's Electoral Movement
* Media outlets
* Agencia Venezolana de Noticias
* Telesur
* Venezolana de Televisión
* Asamblea Nacional Televisión
* State organizations
* Supreme Tribunal of Justice
* National Electoral Council
* Constituent National Assembly
* Bolivarian Intelligence Service
* Bolivarian National Guard
* Mission Barrio Adentro
* Local Committees for Supply and Production
* Carnet de la Patria
* Colectivos

|

Anti-Maduro|

* Organization of American States
* Mercosur
* Political parties
* Democratic Unity Roundtable
* Popular Will
* Justice First
* Democratic Action
* Un Nuevo Tiempo
* Come Venezuela
* Copei
* Movimiento al Socialismo
* Progressive Advance
* Agreement for Change
* National Assembly (majority)
* Media outlets
* Armando.Info
* Capitolio TV
* DolarToday
* Efecto Cocuyo
* El Chigüire Bipolar
* El Nacional
* La Patilla
* Runrunes
* TV Venezuela
* VIVOplay
* VPItv

Related|

* Enforced disappearances in Venezuela
* Guaire miners
* Human rights in Venezuela
* International Criminal Court investigation
* Orinoco Mining Arc
* Perrera
* Political prisoners in Venezuela
* Revolving door effect
* Torture in Venezuela

In popular culture|

* Simón (2023)
* Bolivarian Revolution in film

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