Political system

System of politics and government

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In political science, a political system means the form of political organization that can be observed, recognised or otherwise declared by a society or state.[1]

It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the governmental legal and economic system, social and cultural system, and other state and government specific systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should be.

Along with a basic sociological and socio-anthropological classification, political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis relative to the liberal values prevalent in the Western world, where the spectrum is represented as a continuum between political systems recognized as democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes, with a variety of hybrid regimes;[2][3] and monarchies may be also included as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4][5]

## Definition

[edit]

According to David Easton, "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society".[6] Political system refers broadly to the process by which laws are made and public resources allocated in society, and to the relationships among those involved in making these decisions.[7]

## Basic classification

[edit]

Social anthropologists generally recognize several kinds of political systems, often differentiating between ones that they consider uncentralized and ones they consider centralized.[8]

* Uncentralized systems
* Band society
* Small family group, no larger than an extended family or clan; it has been defined as consisting of no more than 30 to 50 individuals.
* A band can cease to exist if only a small group walks out.
* Tribe
* Generally larger, consisting of many families. Tribes have more social institutions, such as a chief or elders.
* More permanent than bands. Many tribes are subdivided into bands.
* Centralized governments
* Chiefdom
* More complex than a tribe or a band society, and less complex than a state or a civilization
* Characterized by pervasive inequality and centralization of authority.
* A single lineage/family of the elite class becomes the ruling elite of the chiefdom
* Complex chiefdoms have two or even three tiers of political hierarchy.
* "An autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief"[9]
* Sovereign state
* A sovereign state is a state with a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states.
* Supranational political systems
* Supranational political systems are created by independent nations to reach a common goal or gain strength from forming an alliance.
* Empires
* Empires are widespread states consisting of people of different ethnicities under a single rule. Empires - such as the Romans, or British - often made considerable progress in ways of political structures, creating and building city infrastructures, and maintaining civility within the diverse communities. Because of the intricate organization of the empires, they were often able to hold a large majority of power on a universal level.
* Leagues
* Leagues are international organizations composed of states coming together for a single common purpose. In this way, leagues are different from empires, as they only seek to fulfil a single goal. Often leagues are formed on the brink of a military or economic downfall. Meetings and hearings are conducted in a neutral location with representatives of all involved nations present.

## Western socio-cultural paradigmatic-centric analysis

[edit]

Further information: List of forms of government

The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship between the government and its people and how the government’s power is used. According to Yale professor Juan José Linz, there are three main types of political systems today: democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes (with hybrid regimes).[3][10] Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4] Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.[11][12][3][13]

### Democracy

[edit]

Further information: Types of democracy

Part of the Politics series

Democracy

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Types

* Anticipatory
* Athenian
* Cellular
* Consensus
* Conservative
* Cosmopolitan
* Defensive
* Deliberative
* Direct
* Economic
* Electronic
* Empowered
* Ethnic
* Grassroots
* Guided
* Hybrid regime
* Inclusive
* Industrial
* Jacksonian
* Jeffersonian
* Liberal / Illiberal
* Liquid
* Majoritarian
* Media
* Monitory
* Multiparty
* Non-partisan
* Oral
* Participatory
* Pluralist
* Popular
* Procedural
* Radical
* Representative
* Religious
* Buddhist
* Christian
* Islamic
* Jewish
* Mormon
* Sectarian
* Semi
* Semi-direct
* Social
* Socialist
* Sociocracy
* Sovereign
* Soviet
* Substantive
* Supermajority
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* Workplace

Methods

* Campaign
* Consultation
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* Election
* By-election
* Direct / Indirect
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* Systems
* Legislature / Parliament
* Opinion poll
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* Popular
* War
* Sortition
* Citizens' assembly
* Jury
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Related topics

* Anarchism
* Criticism of democracy
* Democratic backsliding
* Democratic capitalism
* Democratic centralism
* Democratic confederalism
* Democratic peace theory
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* Proportional representation
* Right to petition
* Right to protest
* Right to candidacy
* Right to vote
* Territorial peace theory
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Region

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Part of the Politics series

Basic forms of government
List of forms · List of countries

Source of power

|  Democracy (rule by many)

* Demarchy
* Direct
* Economic
* Liberal
* Representative
* Social
* Socialist
* Others

* * *

Oligarchy (rule by few)

* Anocracy
* Aristocracy
* Broligarchy
* Gerontocracy
* Kleptocracy
* Kritarchy
* Meritocracy
* Noocracy
* Particracy
* Plutocracy
* Stratocracy
* Technocracy
* Theocracy

* * *

Autocracy (rule by one)

* Despotism
* Dictatorship
* Military dictatorship
* Tyranny

* * *

Anarchy (rule by none)

* Anarchism
* Free association
* Stateless

* * *

Power ideology

* Monarchy
* Republic

(socio-political ideologies)

* Absolute
* Communist
* Constitutional
* Directorial
* Legalist
* Parliamentary
* Presidential
* Semi-presidential

* * *

* Authoritarian
* Libertarian

(socio-economic ideologies)

* Anarchism
* Colonialism
* Communism
* Despotism
* Distributism
* Fascism
* Feudalism
* Islamism
* Socialism
* Totalitarianism
* Tribalism

* * *

* Religious
* Secular

* State religion
* Secular state
* Separation of church and state
* State atheism

* * *

* Global
* Local

(geo-cultural ideologies)

* City-state
* Intergovernmental organisation
* National government
* World government
* Nationalism
* Internationalism
* Globalism

Power structure

|  Unitarism

* Unitary state
* Empire
* Principality

* * *

Client state

* Associated state
* Dependent territory
* Dominion
* Protectorate
* Puppet state
* Puppet monarch
* Satellite state
* Self-governing colony
* Tributary state
* Buffer state
* Vassal state
* Viceroyalty

* * *

Federalism

* Confederation
* Devolution
* Federation
* Superstate
* Supranational union

* * *

International relations

* Small power
* Middle power
* Regional power
* Emerging power
* Great power
* Superpower

* * *

Related

* Administrative division
* Democracy indices
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Democracy (from Ancient Greek: δημοκρατία, romanized: dēmokratía, dêmos 'people' and krátos 'rule')[14] is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state.[15][16][17] Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections.[18][19][17]

### Authoritarianism

[edit]

Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political status quo, and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and the rule of law.[20][21] Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic and may be based upon the rule of a party or the military.[22][23] States that have a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism have sometimes been characterized as "hybrid democracies", "hybrid regimes" or "competitive authoritarian" states.[24][25][26]

### Totalitarian

[edit]

Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sphere and the private sphere of society. In the field of political science, totalitarianism is the extreme form of authoritarianism, wherein all political power is held by a dictator. This figure controls the national politics and peoples of the nation with continual propaganda campaigns that are broadcast by state-controlled and state-aligned private mass communications media.[27]

### Monarchy

[edit]

A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy), to fully autocratic (absolute monarchy), and may have representational, executive, legislative, and judicial functions.[28]

The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary, often building dynasties; however, monarchies can also be elective and self-proclaimed.[29] Aristocrats, though not inherent to monarchies, often function as the pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet and court), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements. The political legitimacy of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of representation of people and land through some form of relation (e.g. kinship) and divine right or other achieved status.

### Hybrid

[edit]

Further information: Democratization and Democratic backsliding

A hybrid regime[a] is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa).[b] Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections.[b] According to some definitions and measures, hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources such as petro-states.[39][37][40] Although these regimes experience civil unrest, they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time.[b] There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the Cold War.[41][42]

The term hybrid regime arises from a polymorphic view of political regimes that oppose the dichotomy of autocracy or democracy.[43] Modern scholarly analysis of hybrid regimes focuses attention on the decorative nature of democratic institutions (elections do not lead to a change of power, different media broadcast the government point of view and the opposition in parliament votes the same way as the ruling party, among others),[44] from which it is concluded that democratic backsliding, a transition to authoritarianism is the most prevalent basis of hybrid regimes.[b][45] Some scholars also contend that hybrid regimes may imitate a full dictatorship.[46][47]

## Marxist/Dialectical materialistic analysis

[edit]

See also: Dialectical materialism

19th-century German-born philosopher Karl Marx analysed that the political systems of "all" state societies are the dictatorship of one social class, vying for its interests against that of another one; with which class oppressing which other class being, in essence, determined by the developmental level of that society, and its repercussions implicated thereof, as the society progresses through the passage of time. In capitalist societies, this characterises as the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie or capitalist class, in which the economic and political system is designed to work in their interests collectively as a class, over those of the proletariat or working class.

Marx devised this theory by adapting his forerunner-contemporary Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's notion of dialectics into the framework of materialism.

## See also

[edit]

* Political structure
* Polity
* Systems theory in political science
* Tractatus Politicus
* Voting system

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Scholars use a variety of terms to encompass the "grey zones" between full autocracies and full democracies.[30] Such terms include: competitive authoritarianism, semi-authoritarianism, hybrid authoritarianism, electoral authoritarianism, liberal autocracy, delegative democracy, illiberal democracy, guided democracy, semi-democracy, deficient democracy, defective democracy, and hybrid democracy.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]
2. ^ a b c d Debates over what can be called "hybrid" still exist, see #Definition section for details.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Political system | Types, Components, Functions, & Facts | Britannica".
2. ^ Dobratz, B.A. (2015). Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology. Taylor & Francis. p. 47\. ISBN 978-1-317-34529-9. Retrieved Apr 30, 2023.
3. ^ a b c Juan José Linz (2000). Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Lynne Rienner Publisher. p. 143\. ISBN 978-1-55587-890-0. OCLC 1172052725.
4. ^ a b Ginny Garcia-Alexander; Hyeyoung Woo; Matthew J. Carlson (3 November 2017). Social Foundations of Behavior for the Health Sciences. Springer. pp. 137–. ISBN 978-3-319-64950-4. OCLC 1013825392.
5. ^ "14.2 Types of Political Systems". 8 April 2016. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
6. ^ Easton, David. (1971). The political system: an inquiry into the state of political science. Knopf. OCLC 470276419.
7. ^ "Political System | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
8. ^ Haviland, W.A. (2003). Anthropology: Tenth Edition. Wadsworth:Belmont, CA.
9. ^ Carneiro, Robert L. (2011). "The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State". In Jones, Grant D.; Kautz, Robert R. (eds.). The Transition to Statehood in the New World. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–79\. ISBN 978-0-521-17269-1.
10. ^ Jonathan Michie, ed. (3 February 2014). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. p. 95\. ISBN 978-1-135-93226-8.
11. ^ Allan Todd; Sally Waller (10 September 2015). Allan Todd; Sally Waller (eds.). History for the IB Diploma Paper 2 Authoritarian States (20th Century). Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–. ISBN 978-1-107-55889-2.
12. ^ Ezrow & Frantz 2011, pp. 14–17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEzrowFrantz2011 (help)
13. ^ Sondrol, P. C. (2009). "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner". Journal of Latin American Studies. 23 (3): 599–620\. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00015868. JSTOR 157386. S2CID 144333167.
14. ^ "Democracy". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
15. ^ Schwartzberg, Melissa (2014). "Democracy". The Encyclopedia of Political Thought. pp. 851–862\. doi:10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0248. ISBN 978-1-4051-9129-6.
16. ^ "Democracy | Definition, History, Meaning, Types, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023-08-16. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
17. ^ a b Przeworski, Adam (2024). "Who Decides What Is Democratic?". Journal of Democracy. 35 (3): 5–16\. doi:10.1353/jod.2024.a930423. ISSN 1086-3214.
18. ^ Dahl, Robert A.; Shapiro, Ian; Cheibub, Jose Antonio (2003). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. p. 31\. ISBN 978-0-262-54147-3.
19. ^ Møller, Jørgen; Skaaning, Svend-Erik (Jan 2013). "Regime Types and Democratic Sequencing". Journal of Democracy. 24 (1): 142–155\. doi:10.1353/jod.2013.0010. ISSN 1045-5736. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024.
20. ^ Kalu, Kalu N. (2019). A Functional Theory of Government, Law, and Institutions. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-1-4985-8703-7. OCLC 1105988740.
21. ^ Cerutti, Furio (2017). Conceptualizing Politics: An Introduction to Political Philosophy. Routledge. p. 17\. "Political scientists have outlined elaborated typologies of authoritarianism, from which it is not easy to draw a generally accepted definition; it seems that its main features are the non-acceptance of conflict and plurality as normal elements of politics, the will to preserve the status quo and prevent change by keeping all political dynamics under close control by a strong central power, and lastly, the erosion of the rule of law, the division of powers, and democratic voting procedures."
22. ^ Ezrow, Natasha M.; Frantz, Erica (2011). Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders. Continuum. p. 17.
23. ^ Lai, Brian; Slater, Dan (2006). "Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950–1992". American Journal of Political Science. 50 (1): 113–126\. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00173.x. JSTOR 3694260.
24. ^ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. (2010). Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Problems of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511781353. ISBN 978-0-521-88252-1. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
25. ^ Diamond, Larry (2002). "Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes". Journal of Democracy. 13 (2): 21–35\. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0025. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 154815836. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
26. ^ Gunitsky, Seva (2015). "Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics". Ranking the World: Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance. Cambridge University Press: 112–150\. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316161555.006. ISBN 978-1-107-09813-8. SSRN 2506195.
27. ^ Conquest, Robert (1999). Reflections on a Ravaged Century. Norton. pp. 73–74\. ISBN 0393048187.
28. ^ "Monarchy | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-02-28.
29. ^ "The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth". In Our Time. 14 October 2021. BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
30. ^ Gagné, Jean-François (Mar 10, 2015), Hybrid Regimes, Oxford University Press (OUP), doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0167
31. ^ Plattner, Marc F. (1969-12-31). "Is Democracy in Decline?". kipdf.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
32. ^ "Hybrid Concepts and the Concept of Hybridity". European Consortium for Political Research. 2019-09-07. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
33. ^ Urribarri, Raul A. Sanchez (2011). "Courts between Democracy and Hybrid Authoritarianism: Evidence from the Venezuelan Supreme Court". Law & Social Inquiry. 36 (4). Wiley: 854–884\. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01253.x. ISSN 0897-6546. JSTOR 41349660. S2CID 232400805. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
34. ^ Göbel, Christian (2011). "Semiauthoritarianism". 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 258–266\. doi:10.4135/9781412979351.n31. ISBN 9781412969017.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
35. ^ Tlemcani, Rachid (2007-05-29). "Electoral Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
36. ^ "What is Hybrid Democracy?". Digital Society School. 2022-05-19. Archived from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
37. ^ a b Zinecker, Heidrun (2009). "Regime-Hybridity in Developing Countries: Achievements and Limitations of New Research on Transitions". International Studies Review. 11 (2). [Oxford University Press, Wiley, The International Studies Association]: 302–331\. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00850.x. ISSN 1521-9488. JSTOR 40389063. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
38. ^ "Index". Dem-Dec. 2017-09-23. Archived from the original on 2022-11-21. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
39. ^ Croissant, A.; Kailitz, S.; Koellner, P.; Wurster, S. (2015). Comparing autocracies in the early Twenty-first Century: Volume 1: Unpacking Autocracies - Explaining Similarity and Difference. Taylor & Francis. p. 212\. ISBN 978-1-317-70018-0. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.
40. ^ Carothers, Christopher (2018). "The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. 29 (4): 129–135\. doi:10.1353/jod.2018.0068. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 158234306.
41. ^ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2002). "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. 13 (2). Project Muse: 51–65\. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 6711009.
42. ^ "Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War". Department of Political Science. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
43. ^ "Hybrid Regimes". obo. Archived from the original on 2019-07-29. Retrieved 2019-08-13.
44. ^ Mufti, Mariam (Jun 22, 2018). "What Do We Know about Hybrid Regimes after Two Decades of Scholarship?". Politics and Governance. 6 (2). Cogitatio: 112–119\. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i2.1400. ISSN 2183-2463. S2CID 158943827.
45. ^ "Home - IDEA Global State of Democracy Report". International IDEA. Archived from the original on April 4, 2023. Retrieved Nov 26, 2022.
46. ^ Schedler, Andreas (Aug 1, 2013). "Shaping the Authoritarian Arena". The Politics of Uncertainty. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–75\. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199680320.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-968032-0.
47. ^ Brooker, P. (2013). Non-Democratic Regimes. Comparative Government and Politics. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 222\. ISBN 978-1-137-38253-5. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Douglas V. Verney (15 April 2013). The Analysis of Political Systems. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-03477-1.
* Almond, Gabriel A., et al. Comparative Politics Today: A World View (Seventh Edition). 2000. ISBN 0-316-03497-5.
* Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. The Real World An Introduction to Sociology. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co, 2012. Print.
* "political system". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2012.

## External links

[edit]

* Topic guide on political systems at Governance and Social Development Resource Centre

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