Politics of the International Space Station

How nations operate the orbital research complex

This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2022)

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Primary contributing nations

Formerly contracted nations

The politics of the International Space Station have been affected by superpower rivalries, international treaties, and funding arrangements. The Cold War was an early factor, overtaken in recent years by the United States' distrust of China. The station has an international crew, with the use of their time, and that of equipment on the station, being governed by treaties between participant nations.

## Usage of crew and hardware

[edit]

Allocation of US Orbital Segment hardware usage between nations.

There is no fixed percentage of ownership for the whole space station. Rather, Article 5 of the IGA sets forth that each partner shall retain jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers and over personnel in or on the Space Station who are its nationals.[1] Therefore, for each ISS module only one partner retains sole ownership. Still, the agreements to use the space station facilities are more complex.

The station is composed of two sides: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and U.S. Orbital Segment (USOS).[2]

* Russian Orbital Segment (mostly Russian ownership, except the Zarya module)
* Zarya: first component of the Space Station, storage, USSR/Russia-built, U.S.-funded (hence U.S.-owned)
* Zvezda: the functional centre of the Russian portion, living quarters, Russia-owned
* Poisk: airlock, docking, Russia-owned
* Rassvet: storage, docking
* Nauka: multipurpose laboratory
* Prichal: docking, Russia-owned
* Pirs (Deorbited)
* U.S. Orbital Segment (mixed U.S. and international ownership)
* Columbus laboratory: 51% for ESA, 46.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA.[3]
* Kibō laboratory: Japanese module, 51% for JAXA, 46.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA.[4]
* Destiny laboratory: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA.[5]
* Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload & download and communications) are divided 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA, and 2.3% for CSA.[3][4][5]

## History

[edit]

Part of this section is transcluded from International Space Station#End of mission. (edit | history)

In 1972, a milestone was reached in co-operation between the United States and the Soviet Union in space with the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. The project occurred during a period of détente between the two superpowers, and led in July 1975 to Soyuz 19 docking with an Apollo spacecraft.

From 1978 to 1987, the USSR's Interkosmos program included allied Warsaw Pact countries and countries which were not Soviet allies, such as India, Syria, and France, in crewed and uncrewed missions to Space stations Salyut 6 and 7. In 1986, the USSR extended its co-operation to a dozen countries in the Mir program. From 1994 to 1998, NASA Space Shuttles and crew visited Mir in the Shuttle–Mir program.

In 1998, assembly of the space station began.[6] On 28 January 1998, the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) was signed. This governs ownership of modules, station usage by participant nations, and responsibilities for station resupply. The signatories were the United States of America, Russia, Japan, Canada, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom).[7][3] With the exception of the United Kingdom, all of the signatories went on to contribute to the Space Station project. A second layer of agreements was then achieved, four memoranda of understanding between NASA and ESA, CSA, RKA and JAXA. These agreements are then further split, such as for the contractual obligations between nations, and trading of partners' rights and obligations.[3] Use of the Russian Orbital Segment is also negotiated at this level.[8]

Dated January 29, 1998

In 2010, the ESA announced that European countries which were not already part of the program would be allowed access to the station in a three-year trial period.[9]

In March 2012, a meeting in Quebec City between the leaders of the space agencies of Canada, Japan, Russia, the United States, and involved European nations resulted in a renewed pledge to maintain the space station until at least 2020. NASA reports to be still committed to the principles of the mission but also to use the station in new ways, which were not elaborated. CSA President Steve MacLean stated his belief that the station's Canadarm will continue to function properly until 2028, alluding to Canada's likely extension of its involvement beyond 2020.[10]

On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS.[11] Igor Komarov, the head of Russia's Roscosmos, made the announcement with NASA administrator Charles Bolden at his side.[12] In a statement provided to SpaceNews on 28 March, NASA spokesman David Weaver said the agency appreciated the Russian commitment to extending the ISS, but did not confirm any plans for a future space station.[13]

On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.[14]

There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.[15]

In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.[16][17] In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.[18][19][20]

On 12 April 2021, at a meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin, then-Deputy Prime Minister Yury Borisov announced he had decided that Russia might withdraw from the ISS programme in 2025.[21][22] According to Russian authorities, the timeframe of the station’s operations has expired and its condition leaves much to be desired.[21]

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean.[23]

On 24 February 2022, NASA said that American and Russian astronauts currently aboard the ISS would continue normal operations despite the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[24] British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal."[25] On the same day, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?"[26] (The last claim is not true, as the ISS' orbital inclination of 51.66° allows it to overfly the latitude of Saratov.) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.[27] NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.[28]

On 26 July 2022, Borisov, who had become head of Roscosmos, submitted to Putin his plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.[29] However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of space station operations, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.[30] The United States Congress, in its CHIPS and Science Act signed by President Joe Biden on 9 August, approved extending NASA's funding for the ISS through 2030.[31][32]

On 21 September 2022, Borisov stated that Russia was "highly likely" to continue to participate in the ISS programme until 2028, stating that it would be challenging to start up crewed space missions after such a long pause.[33][34]

## By nation

[edit]

This section needs expansion with: more countries and details. You can help by adding to it. (August 2019)

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### Brazil

[edit]

Brazil joined the ISS as a partner of the United States and this included a contract with NASA to supply hardware to the Space Station.[35] In return, NASA would provide Brazil with access to NASA ISS facilities on-orbit, as well as a flight opportunity for one Brazilian astronaut during the course of the ISS program. However, due to cost issues, the subcontractor Embraer was unable to provide the promised ExPrESS pallet, and Brazil left the program in 2007.[36][37] Regardless, the first Brazilian astronaut, Marcos Pontes, was sent to ISS in April 2006 for a short stay during the Expedition 13 where he realized the Missão Centenário.[38] This was Brazil's first space traveler and he returned to Earth safely.[38] Pontes trained on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz, but ended up going up with the Russians, although he did work at the U.S. Johnson Space Center after returning to Earth.[39]

### China

[edit]

Further information: Wolf Amendment

China is not an ISS partner, and no Chinese nationals have been aboard. China has its own contemporary human space program, China Manned Space Program, and has carried out co-operation and exchanges with countries such as Russia and Germany in human and robotic space projects.[40][41] China launched its first experimental space station,[42] Tiangong 1, in September 2011,[43] and has officially initiated the permanently crewed Chinese space station project since 2021.[44]

In 2007, Chinese vice-minister of science and technology Li Xueyong said that China would like to participate in the ISS.[45] In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other 4 partners that China be invited to join the partnership, but that this needs to be a collective decision by all the current partners.[46] While ESA is open to China's inclusion, the US is against it.[47] US concerns over the transfer of technology that could be used for military purposes echo similar concerns over Russia's participation prior to its membership.[48][49] Concerns over Russian involvement were overcome and NASA became solely dependent upon Russian crew capsules when its shuttles were grounded after the Columbia accident in 2003,[50] and again after its retirement in 2011.[51][52]

The Chinese government has voiced a belief that international exchanges and co-operation in the field of aerospace engineering should be intensified on the basis of mutual benefit, peaceful use and common development.[40] China's crewed Shenzhou spacecraft use an APAS docking system, developed after a 1994–1995 deal for the transfer of Russian Soyuz spacecraft technology. Included in the agreement was training, provision of Soyuz capsules, life support systems, docking systems, and space suits. American observers comment that Shenzhou spacecraft could dock at the ISS if it became politically feasible, whilst Chinese engineers say work would still be required on the rendezvous system. Shenzhou 7 passed within about 45 kilometres of the ISS.[41][53][54]

American co-operation with China in space is limited, though efforts have been made by both sides to improve relations,[55] but in 2011 new American legislation further strengthened legal barriers to co-operation, preventing NASA co-operation with China or Chinese owned companies, even the expenditure of funds used to host Chinese visitors at NASA facilities, unless specifically authorized by new laws,[56] at the same time China, Europe and Russia have a co-operative relationship in several space exploration projects.[57] Between 2007 and 2011, the space agencies of Europe, Russia and China carried out the ground-based preparations in the Mars500 project, which complement the ISS-based preparations for a human mission to Mars.[58]

On 28 April 2021 China launched the first part of an 11 series module space station named Tiangong Space Station. The Tianhe module was launched from the Wenchang Space Launch Site on a Long March 5B rocket, which contains only living quarters for crew members. The entire space station when constructed will require 10 additional launches between years 2021 through to 2022.[59]

### India

[edit]

In spring 2025, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will pilot the Axiom-4 mission to mark India's first human presence on the ISS. This mission is part of a bilateral initiative between India and the US, aiming to prepare for India's Gaganyaan programme with rigorous training and scientific experiments aboard the ISS.[60][61]

ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will instead build a 20 tonne space station on its own.[62] Its completion is expected to be in 2035.[63]

### South Korea

[edit]

South Korea sent an astronaut to the International Space Station in cooperation with Russia, is on the verge of fulfilling its orbital launch capability (soon[when?] to be followed by a lunar orbiter) and plans to strengthen the commercialisation of space assets, particularly satellite imagery.[citation needed]

### Italy

[edit]

Italy has a contract with NASA to provide services to the station, and also takes part in the program directly via its membership in ESA.[64]

### Japan

[edit]

Japan is an International Space Station partner and contributes the Japanese Experiment Module "Kibo".[65] It has also provided cargo transport on the HTV cargo vehicle and is as of January 2025[update] currently developing its successor, HTV-X, with consideration of utilizing a variant for future lunar gateway missions. [66]

## See also

[edit]

* Outer Space Treaty
* Space advocacy
* Space law
* Space policy

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "International Space Station Legal Framework". International Space Station. European Space Agency. 20 July 2001. Retrieved 16 September 2006.
2. ^ "A Look at the Russian Side of the Space Station". Air&Space Mag. 5 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
3. ^ a b c d "ISS Intergovernmental Agreement". ESA. 19 April 2009. Archived from the original on 10 June 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
4. ^ a b "Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Government of Japan Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station". NASA. 24 February 1998. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
5. ^ a b "Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Canadian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station". NASA. 29 January 1998. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
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15. ^ Grush, Loren (24 January 2018). "Trump administration wants to end NASA funding for the International Space Station by 2025". The Verge. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
16. ^ "Commercial space bill dies in the House". SpaceNews.com. 22 December 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
17. ^ Cruz, Ted (21 December 2018). "S.3277 – 115th Congress (2017-2018): Space Frontier Act of 2018". congress.gov. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
18. ^ Nelson, Senator Bill (20 December 2018). "The Senate just passed my bill to help commercial space companies launch more than one rocket a day from Florida! This is an exciting bill that will help create jobs and keep rockets roaring from the Cape. It also extends the International Space Station to 2030!".
19. ^ "House joins Senate in push to extend ISS". SpaceNews. 27 September 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
20. ^ Babin, Brian (26 September 2018). "H.R.6910 – 115th Congress (2017-2018): Leading Human Spaceflight Act". congress.gov. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
21. ^ a b "Russia to decide on pullout from ISS since 2025 after technical inspection". TASS. 18 April 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
22. ^ Dobrovidova, Olga (20 April 2021). "Russia mulls withdrawing from the International Space Station after 2024". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). doi:10.1126/science.abj1005. ISSN 0036-8075. S2CID 235542488.
23. ^ "NASA plans to take International Space Station out of orbit in January 2031 by crashing it into 'spacecraft cemetery'". Sky News. 1 February 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
24. ^ Kelvey, Jon (24 February 2022). "Nasa gives update on International Space Station amid war in Ukraine". The Independent. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
25. ^ "Boris Johnson to Announce New Russia Sanctions After Ukraine Invasion" - via www.youtube.com.
26. ^ "The Russian invasion of Ukraine will have myriad impacts on spaceflight". Ars Technica. 25 February 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
27. ^ Berger, Eric (2 April 2022). "Russia asked NASA to end sanctions to save the ISS, but the West didn't blink". Ars Technica. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
28. ^ "Nasa explores how to keep international space station in orbit without Russian help". the Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 1 March 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
29. ^ Harwood, William (26 July 2022). "Russia says it will withdraw from the International Space Station after 2024". CBS News. ViacomCBS. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
30. ^ Roulette, Joey (26 July 2022). "Russia signals space station pullout, but NASA says it's not official yet". Reuters. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
31. ^ Johnson, Lamar (9 August 2022). "Biden ends slog on semiconductor bill with signature". POLITICO. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
32. ^ Errick, Kirsten (4 August 2022). "NASA Authorization Act Aims to Strengthen U.S. Space Exploration". Nextgov.com. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
33. ^ Wall, Mike (27 July 2022). "Russia will stay in ISS program at least until 2028: report". Space.com. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
34. ^ "Russia is likely to take part in International Space Station until 2028 -RIA". Reuters. 21 September 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
35. ^ "NASA Signs International Space Station Agreement With Brazil". NASA. 14 October 1997. Retrieved 18 January 2009.
36. ^ Emerson Kimura (2009). "Made in Brazil O Brasil na Estação Espacial Internacional" (in Portuguese). Gizmodo Brazil. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
37. ^ "G1 > Brasil - NOTÍCIAS - Brasil está fora do projeto da Estação Espacial (ISS)".
38. ^ a b "Brazil's First Astronaut, Fresh ISS Crew Reach Orbit". Space.com. 30 March 2006.
39. ^ Rohter, Larry (8 April 2006). "Brazil's Man in Space: A Mere 'Hitchhiker,' or a Hero?". The New York Times.
40. ^ a b 28 September 2011 Posted: 20:25 BJT(25 GMT) xinhuanet (28 September 2011). "Ministry of Commerce People'S Republic of China". English.mofcom.gov.cn. Retrieved 1 May 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
41. ^ a b "We're sorry, that page can't be found" (PDF). 6 February 2017.
42. ^ "NASA – 09-29-2011". Nasa.gov. 29 September 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
43. ^ "Tiangong I". Chinese Space Agency. 4 June 2011. Archived from the original on 4 May 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
44. ^ "China modular space station program officially initiated". Chinese Space Agency. 4 June 2011. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
45. ^ Sebastian Rice (17 October 2007). "China wants to help with Space Station". iTWire. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
46. ^ "ESA Chief Lauds Renewed U.S. Commitment to Space Station, Earth Science". Peter B. de Selding, Space News. 2 March 2010.
47. ^ Spotts, Pete (16 October 2010). "NASA's Bolden walks tight rope on China trip". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
48. ^ "Can China enter the international space family?". Universetoday.com. 10 January 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
49. ^ Kulacki, Gregory (June 2011). "US and China need contact, not cold war". Nature. 474 (7352): 444–445\. doi:10.1038/474444a. PMID 21697927. S2CID 205065370.444-445&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205065370#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/21697927&rft_id=info:doi/10.1038/474444a&rft.aulast=Kulacki&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1038%2F474444a&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Politics+of+the+International+Space+Station" class="Z3988">
50. ^ "GAO-04-201T NASA: Shuttle Fleet's Safe Return to Flight Is Key to Space Station Progress" (PDF). Retrieved 1 May 2012.
51. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.hq.nasa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2022.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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66. ^ "JAXA | Next generation vehicle"HTV-X"". JAXA | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 27 April 2024.

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
* Space policy
* Space traffic management
* Space debris management
* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
* Planetary protection principle
* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War space race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
* Space competition

Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
* European Space Research and Technology Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
* European Data Relay System
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme
* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* list of scientists
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble Space Telescope
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)
* list of scientists

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* South Korean space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* African Space Agency
* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* Australia
* Brazil
* Canada
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Germany
* Iran
* AJA
* IRGC
* Israel
* Japan
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Russia
* South Korea
* Spain
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Vietnam
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* Italy
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African
and pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* EgSA
* NARSS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* KSA
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

Latin America
and the Caribbean|

* ALCE
* AEM
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian|

* APSCO

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* PLAASF
* CASIC
* JAXA
* ISAS
* JSS
* NICT
* NATA
* KASA
* KARI
* KASI
* SaTReC
* TASA

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO 2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* BRIN
* ORPA
* INASA
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

West Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSA
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESTEC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR 2
* BELSPO
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSA
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NOSA
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VVKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA 2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA
* UNOSAT

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* LAPAN
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

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