Population

All the organisms of a given species that live in a specified region

For other uses, see Population (disambiguation).

Population is a set of humans or other organisms in a given region or area. Governments conduct a census to quantify the resident population size within a given jurisdiction. The term is also applied to non-human animals, microorganisms, and plants, and has specific uses within such fields as ecology and genetics.

## Etymology

[edit]

The word population is derived from the Late Latin populatio (a people, a multitude), which itself is derived from the Latin word populus (a people).[1]

## Use of the term

[edit]

### Social sciences

[edit]

For the statistics of populations, see Demography.

One definition of population density:
0–350/km2 is low
350–700/km2 is medium
700+/km2 is high

In sociology and population geography, population refers to a group of human beings with some predefined feature in common, such as location, race, ethnicity, nationality, or religion.[citation needed]

### Ecology

[edit]

Main article: Population ecology

In ecology, a population is a group of organisms of the same species which inhabit the same geographical area and are capable of interbreeding.[2][3] The area of a sexual population is the area where interbreeding is possible between any opposite-sex pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals from other areas.[4]

In humans, interbreeding is unrestricted by racial differences, as all humans belong to the same species of Homo sapiens.

In ecology, the population of a certain species in a certain area can be estimated using the Lincoln index to calculate the total population of an area based on the number of individuals observed.

#### Dynamics

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Population dynamics.[edit]

Population dynamics is the type of mathematics used to model and study the size and age composition of populations as dynamical systems. Population dynamics is a branch of mathematical biology, and uses mathematical techniques such as differential equations to model behaviour. Population dynamics is also closely related to other mathematical biology fields such as epidemiology, and also uses techniques from evolutionary game theory in its modelling.

### Genetics

[edit]

Main article: Population genetics

In genetics, a population is often defined as a set of organisms in which any pair of members can breed together. They can thus routinely exchange gametes in order to have usually fertile progeny, and such a breeding group is also known therefore as a gamodeme. This also implies that all members belong to the same species.[5] If the gamodeme is very large (theoretically, approaching infinity), and all gene alleles are uniformly distributed by the gametes within it, the gamodeme is said to be panmictic. Under this state, allele (gamete) frequencies can be converted to genotype (zygote) frequencies by expanding an appropriate quadratic equation, as shown by Sir Ronald Fisher in his establishment of quantitative genetics.[6]

This seldom occurs in nature: localization of gamete exchange – through dispersal limitations, preferential mating, cataclysm, or other cause – may lead to small actual gamodemes which exchange gametes reasonably uniformly within themselves but are virtually separated from their neighboring gamodemes. However, there may be low frequencies of exchange with these neighbors. This may be viewed as the breaking up of a large sexual population (panmictic) into smaller overlapping sexual populations. This failure of panmixia leads to two important changes in overall population structure: (1) the component gamodemes vary (through gamete sampling) in their allele frequencies when compared with each other and with the theoretical panmictic original (this is known as dispersion, and its details can be estimated using expansion of an appropriate binomial equation); and (2) the level of homozygosity rises in the entire collection of gamodemes. The overall rise in homozygosity is quantified by the inbreeding coefficient (f or φ). All homozygotes are increased in frequency – both the deleterious and the desirable. The mean phenotype of the gamodemes collection is lower than that of the panmictic original – which is known as inbreeding depression. It is most important to note, however, that some dispersion lines will be superior to the panmictic original, while some will be about the same, and some will be inferior. The probabilities of each can be estimated from those binomial equations. In plant and animal breeding, procedures have been developed which deliberately utilize the effects of dispersion (such as line breeding, pure-line breeding, backcrossing). Dispersion-assisted selection leads to the greatest genetic advance (ΔG=change in the phenotypic mean), and is much more powerful than selection acting without attendant dispersion. This is so for both allogamous (random fertilization)[7] and autogamous (self-fertilization) gamodemes.[8]

## World human population

[edit]

Main articles: World population and Demographics of the world

According to the UN, the world's population surpassed 8 billion on 15 November 2022,[9] an increase of 1 billion since 12 March 2012. According to a separate estimate by the United Nations, Earth's population exceeded seven billion in October 2011. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), growth to such an extent offers unprecedented challenges and opportunities to all of humanity.[10]

According to papers published by the United States Census Bureau, the world population hit 6.5 billion on 24 February 2006. The United Nations Population Fund designated 12 October 1999 as the approximate day on which world population reached six billion. This was about 12 years after the world population reached five billion in 1987, and six years after the world population reached 5.5 billion in 1993. The population of countries such as Nigeria is not even known to the nearest million,[11] so there is a considerable margin of error in such estimates.[12]

Researcher Carl Haub calculated that a total of over 100 billion people have probably been born in the last 2000 years.[13]

### Predicted growth and decline

[edit]

Main article: Population growth

The years taken for every billion people to be added to the world's population, and the years that population was reached (with future estimates).

Population growth increased significantly as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace from 1700 onwards.[14] The last 50 years have seen a yet more rapid increase in the rate of population growth[14] due to medical advances and substantial increases in agricultural productivity, particularly beginning in the 1960s,[15] made by the Green Revolution.[16] In 2017 the United Nations Population Division projected that the world's population would reach about 11.6 billion in 2050 and 24.8 billion in 2100.[17]

PRB 2017 Data Sheet Largest Populations

In the future, the world's population is expected to peak at some point,[18] after which it will decline due to economic reasons, health concerns, land exhaustion and environmental hazards. According to one report, it is very likely that the world's population will stop growing before the end of the 21st century. Further, there is some likelihood that population will actually decline before 2100.[The date at which it stops growing is the exact same date when it starts to decline.][19][20] Population has already declined in the last decade or two in Eastern Europe, the Baltics and in the former Commonwealth of Independent States.[21]

The population pattern of less-developed regions of the world in recent years has been marked by gradually declining birth rates. These followed an earlier sharp reduction in death rates.[22] This transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates is often referred to as the demographic transition.[22]

### Population planning

[edit]

Main article: Human population planning

Human population planning is the practice of changing the rate of growth of a human population. Historically, human population control has been implemented with the goal of limiting the rate of population growth. In the time from the 1950s to the 1980s, concerns about global population growth and its effects on poverty, environmental degradation, and political stability led to efforts to reduce population growth rates. While population control can involve measures that make people's lives better by giving them greater control of their reproduction, a few programs, most notably the Chinese government's one-child per family policy, have resorted to coercive measures.

In the 1970s, tension grew between population control advocates and women's health activists who advanced women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights-based approach.[23] Growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant change in population control policies in the early 1980s.[23]

## See also

[edit]

* Community (ecology)
* Human overpopulation
* List of countries by population
* Lists of organisms by population
* Population ethics
* Population geography

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "population | Etymology, origin and meaning of population by etymonline". etymonline.com. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
2. ^ "Population". Biology Online. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
3. ^ "Definition of population (biology)". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2012. "a community of animals, plants, or humans among whose members interbreeding occurs"
4. ^ Hartl, Daniel (2007). Principles of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates. p. 45\. ISBN 978-0-87893-308-2.
5. ^ Hartl, Daniel (2007). Principles of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates. p. 95\. ISBN 978-0-87893-308-2.
6. ^ Fisher, R. A. (1999). The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford University Press (OUP). ISBN 978-0-19-850440-5.
7. ^ Gordon, Ian L. (2000). "Quantitative genetics of allogamous F2 : an origin of randomly fertilized populations". Heredity. 85 (1): 43–52\. Bibcode:2000Hered..85...43G. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2540.2000.00716.x. PMID 10971690.
8. ^ Gordon, Ian L. (2001). "Quantitative genetics of autogamous F2". Hereditas. 134 (3): 255–262\. doi:10.1111/j.1601-5223.2001.00255.x. PMID 11833289.
9. ^ "Population Clock". www.worldometers.info. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
10. ^ to a World of Seven Billion People (Archived 13 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine). UNFPA, 12 September 2011.
11. ^ "Cities in Nigeria: 2005 Population Estimates – MongaBay.com". Retrieved 1 July 2008.
12. ^ "Country Profile: Nigeria". BBC News. 24 December 2009. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
13. ^ Haub, C. 1995/2004. "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?" Population Today, "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth? - Population Reference Bureau". Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
14. ^ a b As graphically illustrated by population since 10,000BC and population since 1000AD
15. ^ "The end of India's green revolution?". BBC News. 29 May 2006. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
16. ^ Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy (Archived 14 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine)
17. ^ "UN Population Prospects 2017" (PDF).
18. ^ World Population Development Statistics: Forecast, United Nations, 2011.
19. ^ Lutz, Wolfgang; Sanderson, Warren; Scherbov, Sergei (2001). "The End of World Population Growth" (PDF). Nature. 412 (6846): 543–545\. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..543L. doi:10.1038/35087589. PMID 11484054. S2CID 4425080.
20. ^ Ojovan, M.I.; Loshchinin, M.B. (2015). "Heuristic Paradoxes of S.P. Kapitza Theoretical Demography". European Researcher. 92 (3): 237–248\. doi:10.13187/er.2015.92.237.
21. ^ "world demographic trends". gsociology.icaap.org. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
22. ^ a b "Human Population Growth". Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 7 April 2009.
23. ^ a b Knudsen, Lara (2006). Reproductive Rights in a Global Context. Vanderbilt University Press. pp. 2. ISBN 978-0-8265-1528-5. "reproductive rights."

## Further reading

[edit]

* Hopfenberg, Russell. "An expansion of the demographic transition model: the dynamic link between agricultural productivity and population". Biodiversity 15.4 (2014): 246–254.

## External links

[edit]

* United Nations Population Division
* CICRED homepage a platform for interaction between research centres and international organizations, such as the United Nations Population Division, UNFPA, WHO and FAO.
* Population Reference Bureau analyzes demographic data and research providing objective, accurate, and up-to-date population information in accessible formats.
* Baines, Jervoise Athelstane (1911). "Population" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 92–100.
* Hooper, Wynnard (1885). "Population" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XIX (9th ed.). pp. 513–517.
* Current World Population
* Official website of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
* Populations du monde. (in French)
* Understanding the World Today Reports about world and regional population trends
* Lee, Ronald Demos (2008). "Population". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC 237794267.

* v
* t
* e

Population

Major topics|

* Demographics of the world
* Demographic transition
* Estimates of historical world population
* Population growth
* Population momentum
* Human population projections
* World population

Population
biology

* Population decline
* Population density
* Physiological density
* Population dynamics
* Population model
* Population pyramid

Population
ecology

* Biocapacity
* Carrying capacity
* I = P × A × T
* Kaya identity
* Malthusian growth model
* Overshoot (population)
* World3 model

Society and
population|

* Eugenics
* Dysgenics
* Human overpopulation
* Malthusian catastrophe
* Human population planning
* Compulsory sterilization
* Dependency ratio
* Family planning
* One-child policy
* Two-child policy
* Overconsumption
* Political demography
* Population ethics
* Antinatalism
* Intergenerational equity
* Mere addition paradox
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Publications|

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Lists|

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Events and
organizations

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Related topics|

* Bennett's law
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* Commons
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Lists of countries by population statistics

Global|

* Current population
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Continents/subregions|

* Africa
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Intercontinental|

* Americas
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Cities/urban areas|

* World cities
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Past and future|

* Past and future population
* Estimates of historical world population
* Human population projections
* 1
* 1000
* 1500
* 1600
* 1700
* 1800
* 1900
* 1939
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* Population milestones

Population density|

* Current density
* Past and future population density
* Person-to-arable land ratio

Growth indicators|

* Population growth rate
* Natural increase
* Net reproduction rate
* Number of births
* Number of deaths
* Birth rate
* Mortality rate
* Fertility rate
* Past fertility rate

Life expectancy|

* World
* Africa
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
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* world regions
* past life expectancy

Other demographics|

* Age at childbearing
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* Age structure
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* Ethnic composition
* Immigrant population
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* Median age
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* Urban population
* Urbanization

Health|

* Antidepressant consumption
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* Infant and under-five mortality rates
* Maternal mortality rate
* Obesity rate
* Percentage suffering from undernourishment
* Health expenditure by country by type of financing
* Suicide rate
* Total health expenditure per capita
* Health spending as % of GDP
* Body mass index (BMI)

Education and innovation|

* Bloomberg Innovation Index
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* Literacy rate
* Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies
* Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
* Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
* Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
* Tertiary education attainment
* World Intellectual Property Indicators

Economic|

* Access to financial services
* Development aid donors
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* Employment rate
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* Human Development Index
* by country
* inequality-adjusted
* planetary pressures–adjusted HDI
* Human Poverty Index
* Imports
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* Income equality
* Labour force
* Share of income of top 1%
* Number of millionaires (US dollars)
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* Percentage living in poverty
* Public sector
* Unemployment rate
* Wealth inequality

* List of international rankings
* Lists by country

* v
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Hierarchy of life

* Biosphere > Biome > Ecosystem > Biocoenosis > Population > Organism > Organ system > Organ > Tissue > Cell > Organelle > Biomolecular complex > Macromolecule > Biomolecule

* v
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* e

Sustainability

* Outline
* Index

Principles|

* Anthropocene
* Environmentalism
* Global governance
* Human impact on the environment
* Planetary boundaries
* Development

Consumption|

* Anthropization
* Anti-consumerism
* Circular economy
* Durable good
* Earth Overshoot Day
* Ecological footprint
* Ethical
* Green consumption
* Micro-sustainability
* Over-consumption
* Product stewardship
* Simple living
* Social return on investment
* Steady-state economy
* Sustainability
* Advertising
* Brand
* Marketing myopia
* Sustainable
* Consumer behaviour
* Market
* Systemic change resistance
* Tragedy of the commons

World population|

* Control
* Demographic transition
* Dependency ratio
* List
* Family planning
* Intergenerational equity
* Population ageing
* Sustainable population

Technology|

* Appropriate
* Environmental technology
* Natural building
* Sustainable architecture
* Sustainable design
* Sustainable industries
* Sustainable packaging

Biodiversity|

* Biosecurity
* Biosphere
* Conservation biology
* Endangered species
* Holocene extinction
* Invasive species

Energy|

* Carbon footprint
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Food|

* Civic agriculture
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Community-supported agriculture
* Cultured meat
* Sustainable agriculture
* Sustainable diet
* Sustainable fishery

Water|

* Air well (condenser)
* Bioretention
* Bioswale
* Blue roof
* Catchwater
* Constructed wetland
* Detention basin
* Dew pond
* Footprint
* Hydroelectricity
* Hydropower
* Infiltration basin
* Irrigation tank
* Marine energy
* Micro hydro
* Ocean thermal energy conversion
* Pico hydro
* Rain garden
* Rainwater harvesting
* Rainwater tank
* Reclaimed water
* Retention basin
* Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
* Scarcity
* Security
* Small hydro
* Sustainable drainage system
* Tidal power
* Tidal stream generator
* Tree box filter
* Water conservation
* Water heat recycling
* Water recycling shower
* Water-sensitive urban design

Accountability|

* Corporate environmental responsibility
* Corporate social responsibility
* Environmental accounting
* Environmental full-cost accounting
* Environmental planning
* Generational accounting
* Sustainability
* Accounting
* Measurement
* Metrics and indices
* Reporting
* Standards and certification
* Sustainable yield

Economic|

* Debt Sustainability Analysis
* Fiscal sustainability

Applications|

* Advertising
* Art
* Business
* City
* Cultural sustainability
* Climate finance
* Community
* Disinvestment
* Eco-capitalism
* Eco-cities
* Eco-investing
* Eco-socialism
* Ecovillage
* Environmental finance
* Green economy
* Construction
* Fashion
* Finance
* Gardening
* Geopark
* Green
* Development
* Infrastructure
* Marketing
* Green roof
* Greening
* Impact investing
* Landscape
* Livelihood
* Living
* Market
* Organic movement
* Organizations
* Procurement
* Refurbishment
* Socially responsible business
* Socially responsible marketing
* Sanitation
* Sourcing
* Space
* Sustainability organization
* Tourism
* Transport
* Urban drainage systems
* Urban infrastructure

Sustainable management|

* Environmental
* Fisheries
* Forest
* Humanistic capitalism
* Landscape
* Materials
* Natural resource
* Planetary
* Recycling
* Waste

Agreements and
conferences|

* UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)
* Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)
* Our Common Future (1987)
* Earth Summit (1992)
* Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)
* Agenda 21 (1992)
* Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
* Lisbon Principles (1997)
* Earth Charter (2000)
* UN Millennium Declaration (2000)
* Earth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg)
* UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012)
* Sustainable Development Goals (2015)
* UNESCO MONDIACULT conferences

* Category
* Lists
* Science
* Studies
* Degrees

* v
* t
* e

Ethnicity

Concepts|

* Clan
* Ethnic group
* Ethnographic group
* Ethnolinguistic group
* Ethnonational group
* Ethnoreligious group
* Ethnographic realism
* Diaspora
* Immigration / Emigration
* Hyphenated ethnicity
* Indigenous peoples
* In-group and out-groups
* Meta-ethnicity
* Metroethnicity
* Minority group
* Influence
* Monoethnicity
* Nation
* Nationality
* Panethnicity
* Polyethnicity
* Population
* Race
* Supraethnicity
* Symbolic ethnicity
* Tribe

Ethnology|

* Anthropology
* Ethnic studies
* Ethnoarchaeology
* Ethnobiology
* Ethnobotany
* Ethnoecology
* Ethnomycology
* Ethnozoology
* Ethnocinema
* Ethnogeology
* Ethnography
* Autoethnography
* Clinical
* Critical
* Institutional
* Netnography
* Online
* Person-centered
* Salvage
* Transidioethnography
* Video
* Ethnohistory
* Ethnolinguistics
* Ethnology
* Ethnomathematics
* Ethnostatistics
* Ethnomedicine
* Ethnomethodology
* Ethnomuseology
* Ethnomusicology
* Ethnophilosophy
* Ethnopoetics
* Ethnopsychopharmacology
* Ethnoscience
* Ethnosemiotics
* Ethnotaxonomy

Groups by region|

* World
* Contemporary ethnic groups
* Countries by ethnic groups
* Africa
* Americas
* Indigenous
* Canada
* Greenland
* Mexico
* United States
* Caribbean
* Central America
* South America
* Asia
* Central Asia
* East Asia
* Northern Asia
* South Asia
* Southeast Asia
* West Asia
* Australia
* Aboriginal groups
* Torres Strait Islanders
* Europe
* Oceania
* Indigenous
* European

Identity and
ethnogenesis

* Cross-race effect
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural identity
* Demonym
* Development
* Endonym
* Ethnarch
* Ethnic flag
* Ethnic option
* Ethnic origin
* Ethnic religion
* Ethnicity in censuses
* Ethnofiction
* Ethnonym
* Folk religion
* Historical
* Imagined community
* Kinship
* Legendary progenitor
* Linguistic homeland
* Mores
* Mythomoteur
* Nation-building
* Nation state
* National language
* National myth
* Origin myth
* Pantribal sodality
* Statistext
* Tribal name
* Tribalism
* Detribalization
* Neotribalism
* White ethnic

Multiethnic society|

* Consociationalism
* Cultural appropriation
* Diaspora politics
* Dominant minority
* Ethnic democracy
* Ethnic enclave
* Ethnic interest group
* Ethnic majority
* Ethnic media
* Ethnic nationalism
* Ethnic pornography
* Ethnic theme park
* Ethnoburb
* Ethnocracy
* Ethnographic film
* Ethnographic village
* Ethnopluralism
* Indigenous rights
* Middleman minority
* Minority rights
* Model minority
* Model minority myth
* Multinational state

Ideology and
ethnic conflict

* Allophilia
* Ethnic bioweapon
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnic party
* Ethnic penalty
* Ethnic slurs
* Ethnic stereotype
* Ethnic violence
* Ethnic riots
* Ethnocentrism
* Ethnocide
* Ethnofuturism
* Ethnosymbolism
* Indigenism
* Indigenization
* Nativism
* Remigration
* Separatist movements
* Xenocentrism
* Xenophilia
* Xenophobia

Related|

* Minzu (anthropology)

* v
* t
* e

Evolutionary biology

* Introduction
* Outline
* Timeline of evolution
* History of life
* Index

Evolution|

* Abiogenesis
* Adaptation
* Adaptive radiation
* Altruism
* Cheating
* Reciprocal
* Baldwin effect
* Cladistics
* Coevolution
* Mutualism
* Common descent
* Convergence
* Divergence
* Earliest known life forms
* Evidence of evolution
* Evolutionary arms race
* Evolutionary pressure
* Exaptation
* Extinction
* Event
* Homology
* Last universal common ancestor
* Macroevolution
* Microevolution
* Mismatch
* Non-adaptive radiation
* Origin of life
* Panspermia
* Parallel evolution
* Signalling theory
* Handicap principle
* Speciation
* Species
* Species complex
* Taxonomy
* Unit of selection
* Gene-centered view of evolution

Population
genetics|

* Artificial selection
* Biodiversity
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Fisher's principle
* Fitness
* Inclusive
* Gene flow
* Genetic drift
* Kin selection
* Inbreeding avoidance
* Kin recognition
* Parental investment
* Parent–offspring conflict
* Mutation
* Population
* Natural selection
* Sexual dimorphism
* Sexual selection
* Flowering plants
* Fungi
* Mate choice
* Social selection
* Trivers–Willard hypothesis
* Variation

Development|

* Canalisation
* Evolutionary developmental biology
* Genetic assimilation
* Inversion
* Modularity
* Phenotypic plasticity

Of taxa|

* Bacteria
* Birds
* origin
* Brachiopods
* Molluscs
* Cephalopods
* Dinosaurs
* Fish
* Fungi
* Insects
* butterflies
* Life
* Mammals
* cats
* canids
* wolves
* dogs
* hyenas
* dolphins and whales
* horses
* Kangaroos
* primates
* humans
* lemurs
* sea cows
* Plants
* pollinator-mediated
* Reptiles
* Spiders
* Tetrapods
* Viruses

Of organs|

* Cell
* DNA
* Flagella
* Eukaryotes
* symbiogenesis
* chromosome
* endomembrane system
* mitochondria
* nucleus
* plastids
* In animals
* eye
* hair
* auditory ossicle
* nervous system
* brain

Of processes|

* Aging
* Death
* Programmed cell death
* Avian flight
* Biological complexity
* Cooperation
* Color vision
* in primates
* Emotion
* Empathy
* Ethics
* Eusociality
* Immune system
* Metabolism
* Monogamy
* Morality
* Mosaic evolution
* Multicellularity
* Sexual reproduction
* Gamete differentiation/sexes
* Life cycles/nuclear phases
* Mating types
* Meiosis
* Sex-determination
* Snake venom

Tempo and modes|

* Gradualism/Punctuated equilibrium/Saltationism
* Micromutation/Macromutation
* Uniformitarianism/Catastrophism

Speciation|

* Allopatric
* Anagenesis
* Catagenesis
* Cladogenesis
* Cospeciation
* Ecological
* Hybrid
* Non-ecological
* Parapatric
* Peripatric
* Reinforcement
* Sympatric

History|

* Renaissance and Enlightenment
* Transmutation of species
* David Hume
* Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
* Charles Darwin
* On the Origin of Species
* History of paleontology
* Transitional fossil
* Blending inheritance
* Mendelian inheritance
* The eclipse of Darwinism
* Neo-Darwinism
* Modern synthesis
* History of molecular evolution
* Extended evolutionary synthesis

Philosophy|

* Darwinism
* Alternatives
* Catastrophism
* Lamarckism
* Orthogenesis
* Mutationism
* Saltationism
* Structuralism
* Spandrel
* Theistic
* Vitalism
* Teleology in biology

Related|

* Biogeography
* Ecological genetics
* Evolutionary medicine
* Group selection
* Cultural evolution
* Cultural group selection
* Dual inheritance theory
* Hologenome theory of evolution
* Missing heritability problem
* Molecular evolution
* Astrobiology
* Phylogenetics
* Tree
* Polymorphism
* Protocell
* Systematics
* Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance

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Evolutionary psychology

* History
* Evolutionary thought
* Theoretical foundations
* Adaptationism
* Cognitive revolution
* Cognitivism
* Gene selection theory
* Modern synthesis
* Criticism

Evolutionary
processes|

* Adaptations
* Altruism
* Cheating
* Hamiltonian spite
* Reciprocal
* Baldwin effect
* By-products
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Exaptation
* Fitness
* Inclusive
* Kin selection
* Inbreeding avoidance
* Kin recognition
* Parental investment
* Parent–offspring conflict
* Mismatch
* Natural selection
* Sexual selection
* Costly signaling
* Male/female intrasexual competition
* Mate choice
* Sexual dimorphism
* Social selection
* Species-typical behavior

Areas|

| Cognition /
Emotion|

* Affect
* Display
* Display rules
* Facial expression
* Behavioral modernity
* Cognitive module/modularity of mind
* Adaptive unconscious/Unconscious cognition
* Automatic and controlled processes
* Cognitive specialization
* Computational theory of mind
* Domain generality
* Domain specificity/learning
* Dual process theory
* Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
* Evolution of the brain
* Evolution of nervous systems
* Fight-or-flight response
* Arachnophobia
* Basophobia
* Ophidiophobia
* Folk biology/taxonomy
* Folk psychology/theory of mind
* Intelligence
* Flynn effect
* Wason selection task
* Motor control/skill
* Multitasking
* Numerical cognition
* Number sense
* Approximate number system
* Parallel individuation system
* Sleep
* Visual perception
* Color vision
* Eye
* Naïve physics

|

Culture|

* Aesthetics
* Literary criticism
* Musicology
* Anthropology
* Biological
* Crime
* Language
* Origin
* Psychology
* Speech
* Morality
* Moral foundations
* Religion
* Origin
* Universals

Development|

* Attachment
* Bonding
* Affectional/maternal/paternal bond
* Caregiver deprivation
* Childhood attachment
* Cinderella effect
* Cognitive development
* Education
* Language acquisition
* Personality development
* Socialization

Human factors /
Mental health|

* Cognitive ergonomics
* Computer-mediated communication
* Engineering psychology
* Human–computer interaction
* Media naturalness theory
* Neuroergonomics
* Depression
* Digital media use and mental health
* Hypophobia
* Imprinted brain hypothesis
* Mind-blindness
* Psychological effects of Internet use
* Rank theory of depression
* Schizophrenia
* Screen time
* Smartphones and pedestrian safety
* Social aspects of television
* Societal effects of cars
* Distracted driving
* Lead–crime hypothesis
* Mobile phones and driving safety
* Texting while driving

Sex|

* Activity
* Adult attachment
* Age disparity
* Arousal
* Concealed ovulation
* Coolidge effect
* Desire
* Fantasy
* Hormonal motivation
* Incest taboo
* Westermarck effect
* Jealousy
* Mate guarding
* Mating preferences
* Mating strategies
* Orientation
* Ovulatory shift hypothesis
* Pair bond
* Physical/Sexual attraction
* Sexuality/male/female
* Sexy son hypothesis

Sex differences|

* Aggression
* Autism
* Cognition
* Crime
* Division of labour
* Emotional intelligence
* Empathising–systemising theory
* Gender role
* Intelligence
* Memory
* Mental health
* Narcissism
* Neuroscience
* Schizophrenia
* Substance abuse
* Suicide
* Variability hypothesis

Related subjects|

| Academic disciplines|

* Behavioral/evolutionary economics
* Behavioral epigenetics/genetics
* Affective/behavioral/cognitive/evolutionary neuroscience
* Biocultural anthropology
* Biolinguistics
* Biological psychiatry
* Cognitive ethology
* Cognitive psychology
* Cognitive science
* Comparative psychology
* Cross-cultural psychology
* Ethology
* Evolutionary biology
* Evolutionary medicine
* Functional psychology
* Neuropsychology
* Philosophy of mind
* Population genetics
* Primatology
* Sociobiology

|

Research topics|

* Animal/comparative cognition
* Animal communication
* Animal consciousness
* Animal culture
* Animal language
* Animal navigation
* Animal training
* Animal-made art
* Cognitive bias
* Emotion
* g factor in non-humans
* Great ape language
* Human–animal communication
* Number sense
* Primate cognition
* Theory of mind
* Tool use
* Cultural evolution
* Evolutionary epistemology
* Missing heritability problem
* Unit of selection
* Coevolution
* Cultural group selection
* Dual inheritance theory
* Fisher's principle
* Group selection
* Hologenome theory
* Lamarckism/acquired characteristics
* Population
* Punctuated equilibrium
* Recent human evolution
* Species
* Species complex
* Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
* Trivers–Willard hypothesis

Theoretical positions|

* Cultural selection theory
* Determinism/indeterminism
* Biological determinism
* Connectionism
* Cultural determinism
* Environmental determinism
* Nature versus nurture
* Psychological nativism
* Social constructionism
* Social determinism
* Standard social science model
* Functionalism
* Memetics
* Multilineal evolution
* Neo-Darwinism
* Neoevolutionism
* Sociocultural evolution
* Unilineal evolution

* Evolutionary psychologists
* Evolutionary psychology
* Psychology portal
* Evolutionary biology portal

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* Yale LUX

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