Protectorate of the Western Regions

Region of Han dynasty suzerainty over previously independent states

For the Tang dynasty protectorate, see Protectorate General to Pacify the West.

Expansion of the Han dynasty into the Western Regions

Part of a series on the

History of Xinjiang

Prehistoric and ancient period

* Afanasievo culture
* Tarim mummies (Xiaohe Cemetery)
* Yanbulaq culture
* Subeshi culture
* Tocharians
* Shirenzigou culture
* Kingdom of Khotan
* Yuezhi
* Wusun
* Xiongnu
* Shule Kingdom
* Loulan Kingdom
* Kucha
* Karasahr
* Jushi Kingdom
* Shanshan
* Western Regions
* (Han Protectorate; Chief Officials)
* Former Liang
* Former Qin
* Later Liang
* Western Liang
* Gaochang
* Rouran
* First Turkic Khaganate
* Western Turkic Khaganate
* Eastern Turkic Khaganate
* Second Turkic Khaganate

Medieval and early modern period

* Tang Protectorates (West; Beiting)
* Tibetan Empire
* Uyghur Khaganate
* Kara-Khanid Khanate
* Kingdom of Qocho
* Qara Khitai
* Mongol Empire (Yuan; Chagatai Khanate)
* Moghulistan (Turpan; Yarkent)
* Ming ruled Kara Del
* Dzungar Khanate
* Kumul Khanate
* Yettishar
* Qing rule
* (Dzungar genocide
* Dungan Revolt
* Qing reconquest)

Modern period

* Xinjiang Province, Republic of China
* (Xinjiang clique
* 1st East Turkestan Republic
* 2nd East Turkestan Republic)
* Xinjiang Province, People's Republic of China
* Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
* (Production and Construction Corps
* Xinjiang conflict
* Xinjiang internment camps / Persecution of Uyghurs in China)

* v
* t
* e

The Protectorate of the Western Regions (simplified Chinese: 西域都护府; traditional Chinese: 西域都護府; pinyin: Xīyù Dūhù Fǔ; Wade–Giles: Hsi1-yü4 Tu1-hu4 Fu3) was an imperial administration (a protectorate) situated in the Western Regions administered by Han dynasty China and its successors on and off from 59 or 60 BCE until the end of the Sixteen Kingdoms period in 439 AD.[1] The "Western Regions" refers to areas west of Yumen Pass, especially the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang. These areas would later be termed Altishahr (southern Xinjiang, excluding Dzungaria) by Turkic-speaking peoples.[2] The term "western regions" was also used by the Chinese more generally to refer to Central Asia.

The protectorate was the first direct rule by a Chinese government of the area.[2][3] It consisted of various vassal states and Han garrisons placed under the authority of a protector-general of the Western Regions, who was appointed by the Han court.

## History

[edit]

Garrisons of the Han dynasty

### Background

[edit]

Prior to the establishment of the protectorate, there was a preceding post known as the "Colonel [for the Assistance of Imperial] Envoys" that was established a year after the War of the Heavenly Horses ended in 101 BC. After the war, Han posts were erected between Dunhuang and the Salt Marsh with several hundred farmer soldiers stationed at Lúntái and Qúlí. The post was established to guard their farmland and to take care of grain storage for Han envoys traveling to other states.[4] Lúntái 輪臺 (Minimal Old Chinese *run-də̂, Later Han luin-də), formerly transcribed Lúntóu 侖頭 (Minimal Old Chinese *run-dô, Later Han *luin-do), had been earlier destroyed by the Chinese general Lǐ Guǎnglì 李廣利 in 102 BCE.[5] [6]

During the Han–Xiongnu War, the Chinese empire established a military garrison at this place.,[7] in present Luntai County.[8] The Chinese sought to control the Western Regions to keep the Xiongnu away from Inner China, and to control the valuable Silk Road trade that passed through the area. The local inhabitants of the Western Regions were diverse, and the area contained several groups who originated in Western Eurasia and/or spoke Indo-European languages. These groups included Tocharian-speaking city-states like Ārśi (Arshi; later Agni/Karasahr), Kuča (Kucha), Gumo (later Aksu), Turfan (Turpan), and Loulan (Krorän/Korla). Additionally, residents of the oasis city-states of Khotan and Kashgar spoke Saka, one of the Eastern Iranian languages.[9]

### Establishment

[edit]

The position of protector-general was officially established in 59 or 60 BCE after the Southern Xiongnu ruler Bi, the Rizhu King of the Right, submitted to the Han dynasty. Rizhu was bestowed the title of Marquis of Allegiance to Imperial Authority while Zheng Ji, the envoy who received him, was commissioned to act as protector-general of both the Northern and Southern routes. Another account states that the post of protector-general had already been established by 64 BC and Zheng Ji was sent out to meet Rizhu, who led over 10,000 Xiongnu to submit to Han authority. Under the protector-general was a deputy colonel of the Western Regions. [4]

The protector-general established a general headquarters at Wūlěi 烏壘 (Minimal Old Chinese *ʔâ-ruiʔ, Later Han *ʔɑ-luiᴮ): 吉於是中西域而立莫府，治烏壘城 “Zheng Ji then established his headquarters in the central western regions, governing the city of Wūlěi”.[10] Wūlěi is situated is 350 lǐ east of Kucha and 330 lǐ north to Qúlí 渠犁 (Minimal Old Chinese *ga-rî/ri, Later Han * gɨɑ-lei/liᴮ), itself on the east of a river and 580 lǐ east of Kucha.[11]

It was the highest Han dynasty military position in the west during its existence. During the peak of the protectorate's power in 51 BCE, the Wusun nation was brought under Han submission.[3] The post was abandoned after the usurpation of Wang Mang (Xin dynasty) from 8 to 22 CE. By then, at least 18 different people had served as protector-general, though only 10 of them have known names. In 45 CE, the eighteen states of the Western Regions requested the re-establishment of the protectorate to restore peace to the region, but Emperor Guangwu of Han refused.[12]

During the second half of the first century CE, at the time of the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinese armies led by Ban Chao, Dou Gu, and Guo Xun brought the Western Regions back under Han control. The protectorate was thus re-established.[13] In 74 CE, Emperor Ming of Han and his successor awarded the position of protector-general (now with administrative obligations as well) to general Chen Mu. Chen Mu was killed by the rebellious troops of Yanqi and Qiuci.[12] In 83 CE, the office of Chief Official of the Western Regions was established and awarded to Ban Chao. The position of the chief official was beneath that of the protector-general. Ban Chao would later be made protector-general in 91 CE, after which he reconquered the Western Regions.[14] The seat of the protectorate was for a time shifted to Taqian (or Tagan; near modern Kucha).[4] Ban Chao was succeeded by Ren Shang and Duan Xi.[12]

On 29 July 107, a series of Qiang uprisings in the areas of Hexi Corridor and Guanzhong. Duan Xi was killed and the post was abandoned. The protectorate was later restored from 123 to 124 by the son of Ban Chao, Ban Yong. The protectorate was again revived in 335 by Former Liang and headquartered in Gaochang until the demise of Northern Liang.[4]

In the southern Tarim Basin, coins from the period of the protectorate's existence have been found with inscriptions in both Chinese and the Kharoshthi script, which was used for local Indo-European languages.[15]

In the 7th century, a successor administration, the Protectorate General to Pacify the West was established by the Tang dynasty at Xizhou (Turpan) and was later moved to Kucha.[12]

## Localisation

[edit]

Historians and archaeologists have debated the location of the archaeological site corresponding to the seat of the Protectorate of the Western Regions.[16] According to the current state of archaeology, one of the candidates is the Zorküt Ancient City, due to the size of the site.[17]

## Thirty-six city states

[edit]

Historical cities of the Tarim Basin City states of the Western Regions (from the Book of Han)  City | Households | Population | Soldiers

|
|
|

Beilu | 277 | 1,387 | 422
Further Beilu | 462 | 1,137 | 350
Danhuan | 27 | 194 | 45
Guhu | 55 | 264 | 45
Gumo | 3,500 | 24,500 | 4,500
Hanmi | 3,340 | 20,040 | 3,540
Jie | 99 | 500 | 115
Jingjue | 480 | 3,360 | 500
Eastern Jumi | 191 | 1,948 | 572
Western Jumi | 332 | 1,926 | 738
Jushi | 700 | 6,050 | 1,865
Further Jushi | 595 | 4,774 | 1,890
Loulan | 1,570 | 14,100 | 2,912
Moshan | 450 | 5,000 | 1,000
Pishan | 500 | 3,500 | 500
Pulei | 325 | 2,032 | 799
Further Pulei | 100 | 1,070 | 334
Qiangruo | 450, | 1,750 | 500
Qiemo | 230 | 1,610 | 320
Qiuci | 6,970 | 81,317 | 21,076
Qule | 310 | 2,170 | 300
Quli | 240 | 1,610 | 300
Shule | 1,510 | 18,647 | 2,000
Suoju | 2,339 | 16,373 | 3,049
Weili | 1,200 | 9,600 | 2,000
Weitou | 300 | 2,300 | 800
Weixu | 700 | 4,900 | 2,000
Wensu | 2,200 | 8,400 | 1,500
Wulei (Central Command) | 110 | 1,200 | 300
Wutanzili | 41 | 231 | 57
Xiaoyuan | 150 | 1,050 | 200
Xiye | 350 | 4,000 | 1,000
Yanqi (colony) | 4,000 | 32,100 | 6,000
Yulishi | 190 | 1,445 | 331
Yutian | 3,300 | 19,300 | 2,400

## List of protectors-general

[edit]

### Western Han and Xin

[edit]

* Zheng Ji 60－48 BCE
* Han Xuan (韓宣) 48－45 BCE
* Unknown (3rd) 45－42 BCE
* Unknown (4th) 42－39 BCE
* Unknown (5th) 39－36 BCE
* Gan Yanshou (甘延壽) 36－33 BCE
* Duan Huizong (段會宗) 33－30, 21－18 BCE
* Lian Bao (廉褒) 30－27 BCE
* Unknown (9th) 27－24 BCE
* Han Li (韓立) 24－21 BCE
* Unknown (11th) 18－15 BCE
* Guo Shun (郭舜) 15－12 BCE
* Sun Jian (孫建) 12－9 BCE
* Unknown (14th) 9－6 BCE
* Unknown (15th) 6－3 BCE
* Unknown (16th) 3 BCE－1 CE
* Dan Qin (但欽) 1－13 CE
* Li Chong 13－23 CE

### Eastern Han

[edit]

* Chen Mu 74－75
* Ban Chao 91－102
* Ren Shang 102－106
* Duan Xi 106－107

## Maps

[edit]

* Asia in 1 AD. The Western Regions were at the centre of the map (south-west of the Xiongnu)

* The Han dynasty (yellow) in 1 AD.

* Modern Xinjiang, showing

the Tarim Basin

Dzungaria

* 1st century BC

## See also

[edit]

* China portal
* History portal

* Chief Official of the Western Regions
* Sogdia
* Han dynasty in Inner Asia
* Han–Xiongnu War
* War of the Heavenly Horses
* Tang dynasty in Inner Asia
* Protectorate General to Pacify the West
* Beiting Protectorate
* Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
* Xinjiang under Qing rule

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Tikhvinskiĭ, Sergeĭ Leonidovich; Perelomov, Leonard Sergeevich (1981). China and her neighbours, from ancient times to the Middle Ages: a collection of essays. Progress Publishers. p. 124\. OCLC 8669104.
2. ^ a b "Xiyu Duhu" Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ a b Yu, Taishan (2003). A Comprehensive History of Western Regions (2nd ed.). Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Press. pp. 57–59\. ISBN 7-5348-1266-6.
4. ^ a b c d Yu, Taishan (Oct 2006) [June 1995]. "A Study of the History of the Relationship Between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. pp. 56, 68–71.
5. ^ 司馬遷. 史記/卷123 大宛列傳第六十三  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
6. ^ 班固. 漢書/卷061 張騫李廣利傳第三十一  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
7. ^ Thought and Law in Qin and Han China: Studies Dedicated to Anthony Hulsewâe on the Occasion of His Eightieth Birthday. Brill Archive. 1990. ISBN 978-90-04-09269-3.
8. ^ The General Theory of Dunhuang Studies. Springer. 25 March 2022. ISBN 978-981-16-9073-0.
9. ^ Tremblay, Xavier (2007). "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century". In Heirman, Ann; Bumbacker, Stephan Peter (eds.). The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-04-15830-6.
10. ^ 漢書/卷070 傅常鄭甘陳段傳第四十  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
11. ^ 漢書/卷096下（西域傳下）  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
12. ^ a b c d Theobald, Urlich (23 Oct 2011). "The Western Territories (西域)". ChinaKnowledge.de.
13. ^ Cosmo 2009, p. 98.
14. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 421.
15. ^ James A. Millward (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. p. 23\. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
16. ^ Yeerhalike, Dawulijiang. 2022. “Archaeological Investigations and Studies on the Protector-General of Western Regions in the Han Dynasty.” In Archaeological Cultures of Siberia in the Context of Cross-Cultural Contacts in Eurasia, edited by V. I. Molodin, 242–56. Novosibirsk: IAET SB RAS.
17. ^ Chén Líng (陈凌), Wāsīmǎ Tǎlátì (娃斯玛·塔拉提), Wáng Lóng (王龙), "Xīnjiāng Lúntái Zhuó'ěrkǔtè Gǔchéng Kǎogǔ Shōuhuò" 新疆轮台卓尔库特古城考古收获 [Archaeological Findings at the Zhuó'ěrkǔtè Ancient City in Luntai, Xinjiang], Xīyù Yánjiū (西域研究) [Research on the Western Regions], 2021(02): 105–112, 171–172. DOI:10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2021.02.011.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Cosmo, Nicola Di (2002), Ancient China and Its Enemies, Cambridge University Press
* Cosmo, Nicola di (2009), Military Culture in Imperial China, Harvard University Press
* Twitchett, Denis (2008), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, Cambridge University Press

## External links

[edit]

* Ma, Yong. "Xiyu Duhu" ("Protector General of the Western Regions"). Encyclopedia of China (Chinese History Edition), 1st ed.
* The Grand Game in Afghanistan
* Maps of Xinjiang

* v
* t
* e

Han dynasty topics

History|

* Chu–Han Contention (Feast at Swan Goose Gate)
* Lü Clan disturbance
* Rebellion of the Seven States
* Han dynasty in Inner Asia
* Han–Xiongnu War
* War of the Heavenly Horses
* Han conquest of Gojoseon
* Four Commanderies
* Southward expansion (Han–Minyue War
* Han conquest of Nanyue
* Han conquest of Dian
* First Chinese domination of Vietnam
* Trung sisters' rebellion
* Second Chinese domination of Vietnam)
* Xin dynasty
* Red Eyebrows and Lulin
* Chengjia
* Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions
* Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
* Yellow Turban Rebellion
* End of the Han dynasty
* Battle of Red Cliffs

Society and culture|

* Ban Gu
* Sima Qian
* Records of the Grand Historian
* Book of Han
* Book of the Later Han
* Records of the Three Kingdoms
* Flying Horse of Gansu
* Huainanzi
* Eight Immortals of Huainan
* Mawangdui Silk Texts
* Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals
* Yiwu Zhi
* Old Texts
* Han poetry
* Fu
* Eastern Han Chinese

Government and military|

* Ban Chao
* Ma Yuan
* Emperor
* list
* Family tree
* Three Lords and Nine Ministers
* Nine Ministers
* Three Ducal Ministers
* Kings
* Provinces and commanderies
* Protectorate of the Western Regions (Chief Official)
* Translation of government titles

Economy|

* Coinage
* Ancient Chinese coinage
* Silk Road
* Sino-Roman relations

Science and technology|

* Cai Lun
* Cai Yong
* Ding Huan
* Du Shi
* Hua Tuo
* Liu An
* Liu Xiang
* Liu Xin
* Luoxia Hong
* Sima Tan
* Wang Chong
* Zhang Heng
* Zhang Zhongjing

Texts|

* Balanced Discourse
* Book of Origins
* Book on Numbers and Computation
* Fangyan
* Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet
* The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
* Huangdi Neijing
* Shuowen Jiezi
* Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders
* Zhoubi Suanjing

* v
* t
* e

Historical polities in Xinjiang

Pre-Mongol Empire|

* Wusun (5th century BC–5th century AD)
* Shule Kingdom (200 BC-709 AD)
* Loulan Kingdom (?–77 BC)
* Protectorate of the Western Regions (60 BC–107)
* Jushi Kingdom (?-460)
* Shanshan (77 BC–630)
* Gaochang (460-640)
* Kucha (?–789)
* Yanqi (?–9th century)
* Kingdom of Khotan (?–1006)
* Protectorate General to Pacify the West (640-790)
* Kara-Khanid Khanate (840–1212)
* Qocho (843–1209)
* Qara Khitai (1124–1218)

Mongol|

* Chagatai Khanate (1225–1370)
* Moghulistan (1347–1680s)
* Kara Del (1389–1513)
* Turpan Khanate (1487-1660?)
* Yarkent Khanate (1514–1705)
* Dzungar Khanate (1634–1758)
* Kumul Khanate (1696–1930)

Modern|

* Xinjiang under Qing rule (1757-1912)
* Xinjiang (ROC) (1912-1992)
* Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (1949-)

* v
* t
* e

Xinjiang topics

Ürümqi (capital)

History|

| Pre-Han dynasty|

* Tocharians
* Western Regions
* Loulan
* Shule
* Yuezhi
* Kucha
* Karasahr
* Xiongnu
* Gaochang
* Khotan

|

Han dynasty|

* Protectorate of the Western Regions
* Chief Official of the Western Regions
* Kingdom of Khotan
* Sixteen Kingdoms
* Gaochang
* Göktürks
* First
* Western
* Eastern
* Second

Tang dynasty|

* Protectorate General to Pacify the West
* Four Garrisons of Anxi
* Beiting Protectorate
* Tibetan Empire
* Uyghur Khaganate
* Qocho
* Kara-Khanid Khanate
* Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin
* Qara Khitai

Yuan dynasty|

* Mongol Empire
* * Chagatai Khanate
* Moghulistan
* Kara Del
* Turpan Khanate
* Yarkent Khanate
* Dzungar Khanate
* Dzungar conquest of Altishahr
* Dzungar–Qing Wars
* Dzungar genocide
* Kumul Khanate

Qing dynasty|

* Qing rule
* Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
* Afaqi Khoja revolts
* Holy War of the Seven Khojas
* General of Ili
* Reconquest of Xinjiang

Republic of China|

* Xinjiang Wars
* First East Turkestan Republic
* Second East Turkestan Republic
* Ili Rebellion

PR China|

* PRC incorporation

Geography|

| "Three Mountains and Two Basins"|

* Altai Mountains
* Junggar Basin
* Dzungaria
* Tian Shan
* Tarim Basin
* Taklamakan Desert
* Kunlun Mountains

|

Other Landscapes|

* Cities
* Gurbantünggüt Desert
* Kumtag Desert
* Turpan Depression
* Karakoram Mountains
* Pamir Mountains

Transportation|

* Hexi Corridor
* Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway
* Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway
* Southern Xinjiang railway
* Northern Xinjiang railway
* Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos railway
* Kuytun–Beitun railway
* Ürümqi–Dzungaria railway
* Hami–Lop Nur railway
* Kashgar–Hotan railway
* China Railway Ürümqi Group

Education
Research|

* Xinjiang University
* Xinjiang Agricultural University
* Xinjiang Medical University
* Xinjiang University of Finance and Economics
* Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory

Culture|

* Doppa Day
* Music
* Meshrep gathering
* Muqam
* Tocharian clothing

Cuisine|

* Dapanji
* Nan
* Sangza
* Samsa
* Youtazi
* Pamirdin
* Xurpa
* Tunurkawab
* Chinese Islamic cuisine

Economy|

* Silk Road
* China Western Development
* Cotton industry
* National Cotton and Cotton Yarn Trading Center
* Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
* Xinjiang Free-Trade Zone

Visitor attractions|

* Apak Khoja and Xiang Fei Tomb
* Flaming Mountains
* Jiaohe ruins
* Gaochang
* Grand Bazaar, Ürümqi
* Id Kah Mosque
* Karakul Lake
* Kizil Caves
* Niya ruins

Related|

* Uyghur people
* Xinjiang conflict
* Migration to Xinjiang
* Altishahr
* Chinese Turkestan
* East Turkestan
* East Turkistan Government in Exile
* East Turkistan National Awakening Movement
* China–Afghanistan relations
* China–India relations
* China–Kazakhstan relations
* China–Kyrgyzstan relations
* China–Pakistan relations
* China–Tajikistan relations
* China–Turkey relations
* History of the Uyghur people
* Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Inner Asia history series

Nomadic empires|

* Xiongnu
* Xianbei
* Rouran
* Göktürks
* First Turkic Khaganate
* Eastern Turkic Khaganate
* Western Turkic Khaganate
* Second Turkic Khaganate
* Tibetan
* Zubu
* Uyghur
* Kyrgyz
* Mongol
* Tatar
* Khamag Mongol
* Mongol Empire
* Chagatai
* Timurid
* Dzungar

Chinese empires|

| Han|

* against Xiongnu
* Protectorate of the Western Regions
* Chief Official

|

Tang|

* against Western Turks / Eastern Turks
* against Tibet
* Mongolian Plateau
* Beiting
* Tarim Basin

Liao|

* Western Liao
* Northern Liao
* Eastern Liao
* Later Liao

Yuan|

* against Northwest khanates
* Manchuria
* Mongolia
* Tibet
* Northern Yuan

Ming|

* against Mongols
* against Turpan
* Manchuria
* Tibet

Qing|

* against Dzungar
* genocide
* Lifan Yuan
* Amban
* Manchuria
* Mongolia
* Tibet
* Xinjiang

Related topics|

* The Cambridge History of Inner Asia
* Greater Central Asia
* Central Asia
* Eurasian nomads
* Tartary
* Chinese Tartary
* Western Regions (Chinese Turkestan)
* China proper
* Sinosphere
* Greater China

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template