Proto-Iroquoian language

Reconstructed ancestor of the Iroquoian languages

Proto-Iroquoian

Reconstruction of| Iroquoian languages
Era| ca. 1500 BCE

Proto-Iroquoian is the theoretical proto-language of the Iroquoian languages. Lounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of North and South Iroquoian.

At the time of early European contact, French explorers in the 16th century encountered villages along the St. Lawrence River, now associated with the St. Lawrence Iroquoian. Other better known northern tribes took over their territory and displaced them, and were later encountered by more French, European and English colonists. These tribes included the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario, first encountered by French explorers and traders; the Five Nations of the Iroquois League in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, and the Erie Nation and Susquehannock peoples in Pennsylvania.

Southern speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway in the interior near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border.

## Subdivisions

[edit]

The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology.[citation needed] Northern Iroquoian is further divided by Lounsbury and Mithun into Proto-Tuscarora-Nottoway and Lake Iroquoian.[citation needed] Julian (2010) does not believe Lake Iroquoian to be a valid subgrouping.[citation needed]

## History of studies

[edit]

Isolated studies were done by Chafe (1977a), Michelson (1988), and Rudes (1995). There have also been several works of internal reconstruction for daughter languages, in particular Seneca and Mohawk. A preliminary full reconstruction of Proto-Iroquoian was not provided until Charles Julian's (2010) work.[citation needed]

## Phonology

[edit]

Proto-Iroquoian as reconstructed shares the Iroquoian languages' notable typological traits of small consonant inventories, complex consonant clusters, and a lack of labial consonants.

### Vowels

[edit]

The reconstructed vowel inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is:[1]

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | i iː |  | u uː
Mid | e eː ẽ ẽː |  | o oː õ õː
Open |  | a aː |

Like later Iroquoian languages, Proto-Iroquoian is distinguished in having nasal vowels /õ/ and /ẽ/, although it has more than in its daughter languages.

### Consonants

[edit]

The reconstructed consonant inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).

| Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal

|
|
|
|

Plosive | t |  | k kʷ | ʔ
Affricate | ts |  |  |
Fricative | s |  |  | h
Nasal | n |  |  |
Approximant | ɹ | j | w |

## Morphology

[edit]

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010):

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010)

| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern
Iroquoian

|
|
|

1 | 'negative' |  | *teʔ
2 | 'coincident' (perhaps also relativizer) | *ts |
3 | 'contrastive' |  | *thi
4 | 'partitive' | *ijiː |
5 | 'translocative' | *wi |
6 | 'factual' |  | *waʔ
7 | 'duplicative' | *teː |
8 | 'future' | *ẽː |
9 | 'optative' |  | *aɹa
10 | 'cislocative' | *t |
11 | 'repetitive' | *ts |
12 | 'non-singular animate' | *ka |
13 | '1:2.SG' | *kõː |
14 | '1:2.DU' |  | *kni
15 | '1:2.PL' |  | *kwa
16 | '2:1.SG' | *hskʷi |
17 | '2:1.DU' | *hskniː |
18 | '2:1.PL' | *hskʷ… |
19 | '1SG:3' | *ki |
20 | 1SG:3A' (> PNI '1SG:3I') | *kiji |
21 | '1SG:3M' |  | *he or *hɹi
22 | '2SG:3' | *hsi |
23 | 2SG:3A' (> PNI '2SG:3I') | *hsiji |
24 | '2SG:3M' |  | *hehse
25 | '3:1SG' | *wakʷi |
26 | 3A:1SG' (> PNI '3I:1SG') | *jõːkʷi |
27 | '3M:1SG' |  | *hɹake
28 | '3:2SG' | *tsa |
29 | 3A:2SG' (> PNI 3I:2SG') | *jeːtsa |
30 | '3M:2SG' |  | *hja
31 | '2DU&3' | *tsniː |
32 | '2DU&3M' |  | *hshetsni
33 | '2PL&3' | *ts… |
34 | '2PL&3M' |  | *hshetswa
35 | '2NS&3I' |  | *jetshi
36 | '1+2DU:3' | *tniː |
37 | '1+2DU:3M' |  | *hshetni
38 | '1+2PL:3' | *t… |
39 | '1+2PL:3M' |  | *hshetwa
40 | '1+3DU:3' |  | *jakni
41 | '1+3DU:3M' |  | *hshakni
42 | '1+3PL:3' |  | *jakwa
43 | '1+3PL:3M' |  | *hshakwa
44 | '3:1DU' | *kniː |
45 | '3M:1DU' |  | *hshõkni
46 | '3:1PL' | *kʷ… |
47 | '3M:1PL' |  | *hshõkwa
48 | '1+2NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *jethi
49 | 1+3NS:3I' (> Hu. 1NS:3I) |  | *jakhi
50 | 3I:1NS' (> Tu. '1NS&3I') |  | *jõkhi
51 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 1) | *ka |
52 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 2) | *wa |
53 | '3SGM:3' |  | *hɹa
54 | '3:3SG' | *juː |
55 | '3:3SGM' |  | *hɹo
56 | '3DU:3' |  | *kni
57 | '3DUM:3' |  | *hni
58 | 3NS:3' (> PNI '3PL:3') | *wantiː |
59 | '3PL:3' (second variant, in competition with *wati, #58) |  | *kõti
60 | '3PLM:3' |  | *hɹati
61 | '3:3NS' | *juːntiː |
62 | '3:3NSM' |  | *hɹoti
63 | '3I:3' |  | *je
64 | '3:3I' |  | *jako
65 | '3SGM:3I' |  | *hshako
66 | 3A:3SGA' (> Ch. '3NS:3SG', PNI '3I:3SG') | *kõːwa |
67 | '3I:3SGM' |  | *hɹõwa
68 | 3A:3NSA' (> Ch. '3NS:3NS', PNI '3I:3NS') | *kõːwantiː |
69 | '3I:3NSM' |  | *hɹõwati
70 | '3NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *jakoti
71 | '3NSM:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *hshakoti
72 | '2:1.SG.IMP' |  | *take
73 | '2:1.DU.IMP' |  | *takni
74 | '1:2.PL.IMP' |  | *takwa
75 | '2SG:3.IMP' |  | *tse
76 | 'reflexive' | *ataːt |
77 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 1) | *at |
78 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *aɹ |
79 | 'joiner vowel' | *a |
80 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *hsɹ
81 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *ʔtshɹ
82 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 1) | *t |
83 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 2) | *hst |
84 | 'instrumental' |  | *hkw
85 | 'reversive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *kʷ |
86 | 'reversive' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *hsj
87 | 'inchoative' |  | *ʔ
88 | 'dative-benefactive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *ts |
89 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *ẽ
90 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *ni
91 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *n
92 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *h
93 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *ts
94 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 4) |  | *tsɹ
95 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 5, limited to Iroquoia) |  | *ɹ
96 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *njõː
97 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *nõː
98 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *hõː
99 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 4) |  | *õː
100 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 5) |  | *ɹõː
101 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 6) |  | *ɹjõː
102 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 7) |  | *tsõː
103 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 8) |  | *tsɹõː
104 | 'progressive' |  | *tjeʔ
105 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *hs
106 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *ts
107 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *haʔ
108 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) |  | *h
109 | 'imperfective suffix' (cf. Cherokee imperfective verbs inhsk) |  | *hsk
110 | 'past habitual suffix' |  | *kʷ
111 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *ʔ
112 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *ẽʔ
113 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *Ø
114 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) |  | *n
115 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *õh
116 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *ẽh
117 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) |  | *Ø
118 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) |  | *eʔ
119 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 5) |  | *ih
120 | 'past perfect suffix' |  | *n
121 | 'facilitative suffix' |  | *nskõːh
122 | 'modalizer suffix' |  | *k
123 | 'noun suffix' |  | *aʔ
124 | 'authenticative suffix' |  | *õweh
125 | 'characterizer suffix' |  | *haːʔ
126 | 'decessive suffix' |  | *kẽh
127 | 'intensifier suffix' |  | *tsih
128 | 'locative suffix' |  | *keh
129 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) |  | *ɹonõʔ
130 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) |  | *kaːʔ

## Lexicon

[edit]

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010):

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010)

| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern
Iroquoian | Proto-Mohawk-
Oneida | Huron
(Common Huron-Petun)

|
|
|
|
|

131 | 'path, road, trail' |  | *-ah-, *-(a)hah- |  |
132 | 'be bad, be ugly, be useless' |  | *-(a)hetkẽʔ |  |
133 | 'be salty, be sour' |  | *-ahjoʔtsihs, *-oʔtsihst- |  |
134 | 'bark, wood, wood chips' |  | *-ahkaɹ- |  |
135 | 'be ten' |  | *-ahnshẽːh |  |
136 | 'ear' |  | *-(a)hõht- |  |
137 | 'count' |  | *-(a)hɹaːt- |  |
138 | 'hear, speak a language, understand' |  | *-ahɹõk- |  |
139 | 'foot' | *-aːhs-, *-aːhsiʔt- |  |  |
140 | 'three' |  | *ahsẽh |  |
141 | 'string' |  |  | *ahsɹijeʔ |
142 | 'shoe' |  | *-ahtahkʷ-, *ahtaʔ |  |
143 | 'be forbidden, be prohibited, be strict, be taboo' |  | *-ahtjawẽɹeʔ |  |
144 | 'abandon, give up, leave behind, let go, quit, release' |  | *-ahtkaʔw- |  |
145 | 'disappear, vanish' |  | *-ahtõ-, *-ahtõʔ- |  |
146 | 'hide' |  | *-ahtseht- |  |
147 | 'argue for, compete for, contend for, fight for' |  | *-ahtskehnh- |  |
148 | 'not yet, still' |  | *ahtsõh, *atsõh |  |
149 | 'night' | *-ahtsõːh- |  |  |
150 | 'connect, fasten, join together' |  | *-ahtsõtɹ- |  |
151 | 'be durable, be hard, be strong' |  | *-akanst-, *-anst-, *-kanst- |  |
152 | 'be a number, be an amount, be that many' |  | *-akeːh, *-keːh |  |
153 | 'be bad' |  | *-aksẽːh |  |
154 | 'cry' |  | *-anstaɹ- |  |
155 | 'outdoors, outside' |  | *ansteh |  |
156 | 'shoe' | *-aɹaːhsu- |  |  |
157 | 'be cousins' |  | *-aɹaʔtseːʔ |  |
158 | 'about, almost, approximately' | *aɹeʔ |  |  |
159 | 'be inside, be one, be present, be within, exist' |  | *-aːt |  |
160 | 'speak, talk' |  | *-atati-, *-atatj- |  |
161 | 'bathe, swim' | *-atawẽ- |  |  |
162 | 'climb over, go over' | *-atawẽːhɹat- |  |  |
163 | 'be ashamed, be embarrassed' | *-ateːhẽːh- |  |  |
164 | 'be burning, burn' |  | *-atek- |  |
165 | 'burn, cause to burn, light a fire' |  | *-atekaʔt- |  |
166 | 'use to light a fire' |  | *-atekaʔtahkw- |  |
167 | 'be a doctor, cure, heal' |  | *-atetsjẽʔt- |  |
168 | 'food taken along, provisions' |  | *-atẽnaʔtshɹ- |  |
169 | 'be a member of the Wolf Clan' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-athahjõniːh |  |
170 | 'be cold, be cold out, cold' |  | *-athoɹ-, *athoʔ |  |
171 | 'hear' | *-athõː- |  |  |
172 | 'garter' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-athsinh-, *-athsinhatshɹ- |  |
173 | 'be burnt, be consumed, be used up, burn, use oneself up' |  | *-athsʔaht- |  |
174 | 'abandon, throw, throw out' |  | *-ati-, *-atj-, *-õti-, *-õtj- |  |
175 | 'draw, pull, stretch' |  | *-atiɹõːt- |  |
176 | 'get dressed, put on' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-atjaʔtawiʔt- |  |
177 | 'harbour, hold back, keep' |  |  | *-atjenawahst- |
178 | 'be cheap, be easy, be profligate, squander' |  | *-atjets- |  |
179 | 'look at' | *-atkahthw- |  |  |
180 | 'purulence, pus' |  | *-atkẽhtsɹ- |  |
181 | 'be a sorcerer, be a spirit, have inherent power' |  | *-atkõʔ |  |
182 | 'axe' |  | *atokẽʔ |  |
183 | 'spoon' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-atokw-, *-atokwaʔtshɹ- |  |
184 | 'hunt' |  | *-atoɹaːt- |  |
185 | 'breathe' | *-atõːɹ- |  |  |
186 | 'laugh, laugh out loud' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-atõtaɹikt- |  |
187 | 'meet, meet by chance' |  | *-atɹaʔ- |  |
188 | 'grandchild, have as grandchild' |  | *-atɹe- |  |
189 | 'be green, be new' | *-atseːʔ |  |  |
190 | 'be glad, be happy' |  | *-atshẽnõni- |  |
191 | 'dry out, dry up, evaporate, run dry' |  | *-atst-, *-atstathẽ- |  |
192 | 'abandon, lend, let go, spare' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-atwẽteht- |  |
193 | 'fence, palisade' |  | *-atʔẽhɹ- |  |
194 | 'belong to, own, possess' |  | *-awẽh |  |
195 | 'stir' |  | *-awẽɹi-, *-awẽɹj- |  |
196 | 'water' | *awẽʔ |  |  |
197 | 'be small' |  | *-aʔ-, *-aʔaːh |  |
198 | 'lace, net, netting, web' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-aʔaɹ- |  |
199 | 'dew' |  | *-aʔawj – |  |
200 | 'strike' |  | *-aʔe- |  |
201 | 'become dark, become night' |  | *-aʔkaɹaʔ-, *-aʔkɹaʔ- |  |
202 | 'snow, snowflake' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-aʔkɹ- |  |
203 | 'turtle' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-aʔnowaɹ-, *-ʔnowaɹ- |  |
204 | 'be hot, be warm' |  | *-aʔtaɹihẽːh |  |
205 | 'heat, sweat' |  | *-aʔtaɹihẽhsɹ- |  |
206 | 'axe' |  | *-aʔtsɹ- |  |
207 | 'be extinguished, fire to go out' |  | *-aʔtsw- |  |
208 | 'extinguish, put out a fire' |  | *-aʔtswaht- |  |
209 | 'come, go, go on foot, walk' | *-e- |  |  |
210 | 'remember' |  | *-ehjahɹ- |  |
211 | 'believe, think' | *-eːɹ- |  |  |
212 | 'heart' |  | *-eɹjahs- |  |
213 | 'a lot, much' |  | *etsoʔ, *itsoʔ, *itswaʔ |  |
214 | 'above, high, over' |  | *eʔnkẽh, *heʔnkẽh |  |
215 | 'flower' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-ẽh- |  |
216 | 'day' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-ẽhnitsɹ- |  |
217 | 'be uncle to, have as nephew or niece' |  | *-ẽhwatẽʔ, *-jẽhwatẽʔ |  |
218 | 'be born, establish oneself' |  | *-ẽnakɹaːt- |  |
219 | 'day' |  | *-ẽt- |  |
220 | 'be finished, be over, be prepared, be ready, come to an end' |  | *-ẽtaʔ- |  |
221 | 'drop, fall' | *-ẽʔ- |  |  |
222 | 'nine' |  | *ẽʔtɹõʔ, *waʔtɹõh, *waʔtɹõʔ |  |
223 | 'council fire, flame, torch' |  | *-hahsɹ- |  |
224 | 'cornstalk, grass' |  | *-heɹ- |  |
225 | 'shout, yell' |  | *-hẽɹeht- |  |
226 | 'clearing, field, meadow' |  | *-hẽt- |  |
227 | 'mark, write' |  | *-hjatõ- |  |
228 | 'book, something marked, something written' |  | *-hjatõhsɹ- |  |
229 | 'claw' | *-hkaɹ- |  |  |
230 | 'current, moving water, rapids' |  | *-hnaw- |  |
231 | 'arm, shoulder' | *-hnẽː- |  |  |
232 | 'command, employ, hire' |  | *-hnhaʔ- |  |
233 | 'door' |  | *-hnhoh-, *-hnhohw- |  |
234 | 'close a door, door to be closed' |  | *-hnhotõ- |  |
235 | 'have jowls protruding' (> cattle, cow) |  | *-hnh(o/õ)hskʷ(a/e)ɹõːt |  |
236 | 'feed, put in the mouth' |  | *-hnhõtho-, *-hnhõthw- |  |
237 | 'be durable, be hard, be solid, be strong' |  | *-hniɹ- |  |
238 | 'thigh' |  | *-hnitsh- |  |
239 | 'neck, throat' | *-hnj- |  |  |
240 | 'tie' |  | *-hnɹ- |  |
241 | 'basswood' |  | *-hohsɹ-, *-hotsɹ- |  |
242 | 'bread' |  | *-hɹahkʷ- |  |
243 | 'feather' |  | *-hɹaʔt- |  |
244 | 'cut' |  | *-hɹen- |  |
245 | 'fall, fall over' |  | *-hɹjenẽʔ-, *-ʔɹhjenẽʔ- |  |
246 | 'tell' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-hɹoɹi-, *-hɹoɹj- |  |
247 | 'name, reputation' |  | *-hsẽn- |  |
248 | 'dough' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-hsheʔɹ-,-hsheʔɹh- |  |
249 | 'depression, depth, hole, hollow. |  | *-hshõw- |  |
250 | 'detest, dislike, hate' |  | *-hshwahẽ-, *-hshwẽ- |  |
251 | 'ankle, knee' |  | *-hsinkoʔt- |  |
252 | 'slow' | *-hskanẽ- |  |  |
253 | 'be good' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-hskaːths |  |
254 | 'deer' |  | *-hskẽnõtõʔ |  |
255 | 'bone' |  | *-hskẽʔɹ-; *-hskẽʔɹakeht- 'be a warrior', lit. 'carry the bone' |  |
256 | 'head' | *-hskʷ- |  |  |
257 | 'finger, hand' |  | *-hsnõhs-, *-hsnõʔ |  |
258 | 'be fast, be quick' | *-hsnuːɹiʔ |  |  |
259 | 'be ancestor to, be grandparent to' |  | *-hsoːt |  |
260 | 'build, make, prepare' | *-hsɹõːn- |  |  |
261 | 'use' |  | *-hst- |  |
262 | 'marrow' |  | *-hstahɹõw- |  |
263 | 'be little, be small' | *-hsthwih, *-hstwih |  |  |
264 | 'back' |  | *-hsw- |  |
265 | 'board, wood' |  | *-hswẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkhaɹ- |  |
266 | 'complete, exhaust, finish' |  | *-hsʔ-, *-ihsʔ- |  |
267 | 'have as older sibling, have as older maternal female cousin' |  | *-htsiʔ |  |
268 | 'colour, dye, paint' | *-htsuːhw- |  |  |
269 | 'family' |  | *-hwatsiɹ- |  |
270 | 'be round' |  | *-hweʔnõniːh |  |
271 | 'foam' |  | *-hwẽʔnst- |  |
272 | 'force, strength' |  | *-hwihsh- |  |
273 | 'five' | *hwihsk |  |  |
274 | 'metal, money' |  | *-hwihst- |  |
275 | 'be, be the one, exist' | *-iː- |  |  |
276 | 'be dead, die' |  | *-ihej- |  |
277 | 'cross over' |  | *-ihjaʔk-, *-jahjaʔk- |  |
278 | 'creek, river' |  | *-ijhõh-, *-ijhõhw-, *-wjhõh- |  |
279 | 'be beautiful, be good, be great' |  | *-ijoːh |  |
280 | 'emerge, go out, put out' |  | *-inkẽʔ- |  |
281 | 'far' | *iːnõh |  |  |
282 | 'mattress, sheet, spread' |  | *-inskaɹ- |  |
283 | 'be sitting, sit' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-inskoːt |  |
284 | 'saliva, spit, spittle' |  | *-inskɹ- |  |
285 | 'fish scale' |  | *-inst- |  |
286 | 'cliff, rock, rock bank' |  | *-instẽhɹ-, *-nstẽhɹ- |  |
287 | 'sleep' |  | *-itaʔw-, *-itʔo- |  |
288 | 'crowd, group' |  | *-itjohkʷ- |  |
289 | 'you' |  | *iːts |  |
290 | 'shoot' |  | *-iʔaːk-, *-iʔjaːk-, *-ʔjaːk- |  |
291 | 'clan, clay, hearth' |  | *-iʔtaɹ-, *-ʔtaɹ- |  |
292 | 'abide, dwell, reside, sit' |  | *-iʔtɹõ- |  |
293 | 'exit, go out, leave' |  | *-jakẽʔ- |  |
294 | 'footprint, gait, track' |  | *-jan- |  |
295 | 'be a chief, be good, be lawful, be proper' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-janɹ- |  |
296 | 'law' |  | *-janɹehsɹ-, *-janrẽhsɹ- |  |
297 | 'break, cut' |  | *-jaʔk- |  |
298 | 'being, body, carcass, corpse, person' |  | *-jaʔt- |  |
299 | 'wake up' | *-je- |  |  |
300 | 'add, contribute, mix' |  | *-jehst- |  |
301 | 'capture, catch, grab' |  | *-jena-, *-jenaw- |  |
302 | 'act, do, happen to' |  | *-jeɹ- |  |
303 | 'be complete, be just, be perfect, be right' |  | *-jeɹi- |  |
304 | 'body' | *-jeːɹõʔ- |  |  |
305 | 'smile' | *-jeːts- |  |  |
306 | 'be situated, exist, have, put down, set down, sit down' |  | *-jẽ- |  |
307 | 'hit, strike' |  | *-jẽht- |  |
308 | 'firewood, wood' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-jẽt- |  |
309 | 'accumulate, beget, get, obtain' |  | *-jẽtaʔ- |  |
310 | 'know' |  | *-jẽteɹ- |  |
311 | 'plant, sow' |  | *-jẽtho-, *-jẽthw- |  |
312 | 'flay, skin' |  | *-jẽtsɹ- |  |
313 | 'have as child' |  | *-jẽʔ- |  |
314 | 'smoke, tobacco' |  | *-jẽʔkʷ- |  |
315 | 'enter' | *-jõ- |  |  |
316 | 'eat' | *-k- |  |  |
317 | 'butterfly' | *kahnaːwẽːh |  |  |
318 | 'look at' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-kahnɹ- |  |
319 | 'eye' |  | *-kahɹ- |  |
320 | 'four' |  | *kajeɹih |  |
321 | 'be old' | *-kajõ- |  |  |
322 | 'anywhere, somewhere' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *kankaʔ |  |
323 | 'pipe' | *kanõːnowẽʔ |  |  |
324 | 'bite' | *-kaɹ- |  |  |
325 | 'account, price, story' |  | *-kaɹ- |  |
326 | 'roll, turn around' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-kaɹhateni-, *-kaɹhatenj- |  |
327 | 'invert, roll over, turn over' |  | *-kaɹhatho-, *-kaɹhathw- |  |
328 | 'tree' |  | *kaɹhit, *keɹhit, *keɹhiʔ, *kɹaheːt, *kɹahit |  |
329 | 'come here!' |  | *katsih |  |
330 | 'paddle, row' | *-kaweː- |  |  |
331 | 'lift, raise' |  | *-kensko-, *-kenskʷ- |  |
332 | 'see' | *-kẽ-, *-kẽːh |  |  |
333 | 'be old' |  | *-kẽhtsi- |  |
334 | 'summer' |  | *-kẽnh- |  |
335 | 'be white' |  | *-kẽɹat |  |
336 | 'peel, scrape' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-kẽtsɹ- |  |
337 | 'divide, separate' |  | *-kh-, *-khahsi-, *-khahsj-, *-khahsk- |  |
338 | 'elbow' | *-khjuːhs- |  |  |
339 | 'food, meal' |  | *-khw- |  |
340 | 'chipmunk' | *kihɹjuʔkẽh |  |  |
341 | 'dog' | *kiːɹ |  |  |
342 | 'hair' | *-kiʔɹh- |  |  |
343 | 'crow' | *koːhkaːʔ |  |  |
344 | 'be a lot, be many, be much' | *-koʔtiʔ |  |  |
345 | 'face' | *-kõːhs- |  |  |
346 | 'eel' |  | *kõteh |  |
347 | 'bowl, dish, plate' |  | *-kts- |  |
348 | 'acorn, oak' | *kuːɹeh |  |  |
349 | 'be big, be large' | *-kuwa-, *-kʷa- |  |  |
350 | 'pick up' | *-kʷ- |  |  |
351 | 'be able' |  | *-kʷeni-, *-kʷenj- |  |
352 | 'that, the, this' | *nV(H) |  |  |
353 | 'domestic animal, prisoner, slave' |  | *-nahskʷ- |  |
354 | 'be autochthonous, dwell, reside' | *-nakɹ- |  |  |
355 | 'bed, place, room, space' |  | *-nakt-, *-nakʷt- |  |
356 | 'camp, city, settlement, town, village' |  | *-nat- |  |
357 | 'grain, wheat' |  | *-natsj- |  |
358 | 'be melted, be warm, be wet' | *-nawẽːh |  |  |
359 | 'antler, horn' |  | *-naʔkaɹ- |  |
360 | 'imitate' |  | *-naʔkeɹ- |  |
361 | 'bread' |  | *-naʔtaɹ- |  |
362 | 'call' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-naʔtõhkʷ- |  |
363 | 'cauldron, kettle, pail, pot' |  | *-naʔtsj- |  |
364 | 'liquid' | *-neː- |  |  |
365 | 'ice' | *-neːhst-, *-neːhstwaɹ |  |  |
366 | 'corn, grain, kernel' | *-nẽh- |  |  |
367 | 'now' | *nẽh |  |  |
368 | 'steal' | *-nẽːhskʷ- |  |  |
369 | 'sand; stone' | *-nẽːj- |  |  |
370 | 'arm' |  | *-nẽtsh- |  |
371 | 'be stingy' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-niʔ- |  |
372 | 'marry' |  | *-njaːk- |  |
373 | 'neck' |  | *-njaɹ- |  |
374 | 'lake' |  | *-njataɹ- |  |
375 | 'wampum' |  | *-nkoʔɹ-, *-nkoʔɹh- |  |
376 | 'blood' |  | *-nkõ-, *-nkʷẽhs- |  |
377 | 'red' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-nkʷẽhtaɹ- |  |
378 | 'begin to snow' |  | *-nkʷẽʔ- |  |
379 | 'be cold' |  | *-noːh |  |
380 | 'tooth' |  | *-noʔts-, *-noʔtsj- |  |
381 | 'medicine' |  | *-nõhkʷ-, *-nõhkʷaʔt-, *-nõhkʷaʔtshɹ- |  |
382 | 'house' | *-nõhs- |  |  |
383 | 'be painful, be sore, hurt' |  | *-nõhwakt- |  |
384 | 'admire, like' |  | *-nõhweʔ- |  |
385 | 'hill, mountain' |  | *-nõt- |  |
386 | 'corn soup, hominy' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-nõtaɹ- |  |
387 | 'brain, head' | *-nõːtsiː- |  |  |
388 | 'breast, milk' | *-nõʔt- |  |  |
389 | 'fungus, mushroom' |  | *-nɹahs- |  |
390 | 'leaf' |  | *-nɹaht- |  |
391 | 'get involved, help' | *-nsteːɹ- |  |  |
392 | 'corn husk' | *-nuːɹ- |  |  |
393 | 'be difficult, be unable to, fail to do' | *-nuːɹõ- |  |  |
394 | 'winter, year' |  | *-ohsɹ- |  |
395 | 'throw' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-ojʔaːk- |  |
396 | 'split' |  | *-oɹẽ- |  |
397 | 'be, be standing, exist, stand upright' |  | *-oːt |  |
398 | 'be at the end, end' |  | *-oʔkt- |  |
399 | 'dig' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-oʔkʷaːt- |  |
400 | 'hand' | *-oʔnj- |  |  |
401 | 'be of a kind, be of a sort' |  | *-oʔtẽːh |  |
402 | 'earth, land, world' |  | *-õhwẽtsj- |  |
403 | 'go beyond, go through, leak, pass through, penetrate, reach' | *-õːkuːh- |  |  |
404 | 'sift' | *-õːkuːhst- |  |  |
405 | 'be a person, human being' |  | *-õkʷeh, *-õkʷehsɹ-, *-õkʷeʔt- |  |
406 | 'be alive, life, live' | *-õːnh- |  |  |
407 | 'rain' |  | *-õnoːt- |  |
408 | 'pot' | *-õːt- |  |  |
409 | 'put into the fire' | *-õːt- |  |  |
410 | 'be attached, have as a body part' |  | *-õːt |  |
411 | 'remove from the fire' | *-õːtakʷ- |  |  |
412 | 'be a lake, lake' | *-õːtaɹiʔ |  |  |
413 | 'be in, be on' |  | *-ɹ- |  |
414 | 'moon to be present, planet to be present, sun to be present' |  | *-ɹ- |  |
415 | 'moon, planet, sun' |  | *-ɹahkʷ- |  |
416 | 'erase, rub out, wipe out' |  | *-ɹakew- |  |
417 | 'choose, pick out, select' |  | *-ɹako-, *-ɹakw- |  |
418 | 'sap, syrup' |  | *-ɹan- |  |
419 | 'heel' |  | *-ɹat- |  |
420 | 'climb' |  | *-ɹathẽ-, *-ɹaʔthẽ- |  |
421 | 'adhere, stick, stick on' |  | *-ɹaʔnẽtaːk- |  |
422 | 'incantation, song, spell, witchcraft' |  | *-ɹẽn- |  |
423 | 'bush, forest, woods' |  | *-ɹhat- |  |
424 | 'coat with, put on' |  |  | *-ɹho- |
425 | 'be paternal aunt to' | *-ɹhok |  |  |
426 | 'socks, leggings' | *-ɹiː- |  |  |
427 | 'affair, business, thing, matter' |  | *-ɹihw- |  |
428 | 'fight, kill' |  | *-ɹijo-, *-ɹjo- |  |
429 | 'animal' |  | *-ɹjoːʔ |  |
430 | 'blue, sky' |  | *-ɹõhj- |  |
431 | 'log, tree' |  | *-ɹõt- |  |
432 | 'chop' |  | *-ɹʔo-, *-ɹʔok- |  |
433 | 'be present, exist' |  | *-t- |  |
434 | 'and, besides' |  |  | *tahnũʔ |
435 | 'run' |  | *-takh- |  |
436 | 'woodpecker' | *taɹaːɹ |  |  |
437 | 'flint' | *tawiːhskaɹaʔ |  |  |
438 | 'two' |  | *tekniːh |  |
439 | 'eight' |  | *tekɹõʔ |  |
440 | 'change' |  | *-teni-, *-tenj- |  |
441 | 'mosquito' | *-tẽːhs- |  |  |
442 | 'alternate, differ' |  | *-tih- |  |
443 | 'skunk' | *tiʔɹ |  |  |
444 | 'nearby' |  |  |  | tjohskẽẽʔ
445 | 'snake' |  |  |  | tjoʔxjẽtsihk
446 | 'decay, rot, spoil' | *-tkẽː- |  |  |
447 | 'how, how many, how much' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *toːh |  |
448 | 'be certain, be exact, be true' |  | *-tokẽːh |  |
449 | 'stand' | *-toʔn- |  |  |
450 | 'bluejay' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *tɹiʔtɹiːʔ |  |
451 | 'beans' |  | *tsaheʔ, *-tsaheʔt- |  |
452 | 'bottle, gourd, jar' |  | *-tsheʔ, *-tsheʔt-, *-tsheʔw- |  |
453 | 'club, fist, knot' |  | *-tsihkʷ- |  |
454 | 'robin' | *tsiːhskʷoːʔkʷoːʔ |  |  |
455 | 'otter, seal' | *tsiːjẽh |  |  |
456 | 'salt' |  | *-tsikheʔt- |  |
457 | 'be male' |  | *-tsin |  |
458 | 'fire' | *-tsiːɹ |  |  |
459 | 'coal, ember, fire, spark' |  | *-tsist- |  |
460 | 'fox, lynx' |  | *tsitshoʔ |  |
461 | 'bile, green, yellow' |  | *-tsiʔnkʷaɹ- |  |
462 | 'bird' |  | *tsiʔtẽʔ |  |
463 | 'corn tassel' | *-tsiːʔtsiːʔ |  |  |
464 | 'seven' |  | *tsjatahk |  |
465 | 'tobacco' | *-tsjoːɹ- |  |  |
466 | 'six; seven' |  | *tsjotaɹeʔ |  |
467 | 'fish' | *-tsjõʔt- |  |  |
468 | 'be daughter-in-law' | *-tsoʔ |  |  |
469 | 'dream, sleep' |  | *-tsɹẽht- |  |
470 | 'put into the water' | *-uː- |  |  |
471 | 'remove from the water' | *-uːkʷ- |  |  |
472 | 'cover' | *-uːɹ- |  |  |
473 | 'splash water, sprinkle' | *-uːtsɹ- |  |  |
474 | 'whippoorwill' | *waʔkuhɹiːʔ |  |  |
475 | 'say, speak' | *-we- |  |  |
476 | 'language, voice, word' |  | *-wẽn- |  |
477 | 'thumb' (limited to Iroquoia) |  | *-whjõhkaɹ- |  |
478 | 'young person' | *-wiːnõːh |  |  |
479 | 'baby, child, infant, offspring' |  | *-wiɹ- |  |
480 | 'arm, fin, wing' |  | *-wj- |  |
481 | 'wing' |  |  | *-wjahũtsh- |
482 | 'learn, teach' |  | *-wjẽhst- |  |
483 | 'know how, learn how' |  | *-wjẽhw-, *-wjẽw-, *-wjẽʔ- |  |
484 | 'craft, manner, skill, way' |  | *-wjẽn- |  |
485 | 'become capable, learn how' |  |  | *-wjʌ̃tehtaʔ- |
486 | 'be good' | *-wohst |  |  |
487 | 'air, wind' |  | *-wɹ- |  |
488 | 'arrow' | *-ʔn- |  |  |
489 | 'bone' |  | *-ʔnẽj- |  |
490 | 'egg' |  | *-ʔnhõhs- |  |
491 | 'mind, spirit' |  | *-ʔnikõhɹ- |  |
492 | 'be late, delay' |  | *-ʔnitsko-, *-ʔnitskʷ- |  |
493 | 'escape, flee, run away' |  | *-ʔnjakẽʔ- |  |
494 | 'nose' | *-ʔnjõːhs- |  |  |
495 | 'be envious, be jealous, envy' |  | *-ʔnonsh- |  |
496 | 'be powerful, be strong' |  | *-ʔnshanst- |  |
497 | 'drown, fall into water' |  | *-ʔtskoʔ- |  |
498 | 'drag, drive, pull, ride' |  | *-ʔtsɹ- |  |

## References

[edit]

Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Iroquoian reconstructions

1. ^ Julian (2010), p. 21.

* Julian, Charles (2010). A History of the Iroquoian Languages (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Manitoba.
* Barbeau, Marius. (1960). Huron-Wyandot Traditional Narratives in Translations and Native Texts. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 165, Anthropological Series No. 47.
* Chafe, Wallace. (1977a). "Accent and Related Phenomena in the Five Nations Iroquois Languages". In Larry Hyman, ed. Studies in Stress and Accent, 169–181. Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 4.
* Michelson, Karin. (1988). A Comparative Study of Lake-Iroquoian Accent. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
* Rudes, Blair. (1995). "Iroquoian Vowels". Anthropological Linguistics 37: 16–69.
* Lounsbury, Floyd. (1961). Iroquois-Cherokee Linguistic Relations. In William Fenton and John Gulick, eds. Symposium on Cherokee and Iroquois Culture. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 180, 11–17.
* Lounsbury, Floyd G. (1978). "Iroquoian Languages". in Bruce G. Trigger (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 334–343. OCLC 12682465.
* Mooney, James. (1900). Myths of the Cherokee. 19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 1, 3–548. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

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Iroquoian languages

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