Punjabi Muslims

Ethnic Punjabis who are adherents of Islam

Ethnic group

Punjabi Muslims

پن٘جابی مُسلمان

Regions with significant populations
Pakistan| 112,807,000 (see below)
India| 535,489[1]
United Kingdom| 500,000[2]
United States| 263,699[3]
Languages
Punjabi (Shahmukhi script), Urdu
Religion
Islam
(Sunni majority, Shia & Ahmadiyya minority)
Related ethnic groups

* Punjabis and other Pakistani Muslims

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Punjabi Muslims (Punjabi: پن٘جابی مُسلمان) are Punjabis who are adherents of Islam.[4][5] With a population of more than 112 million, they are the third-largest predominantly Islam-adhering Muslim ethnicity in the world,[6] after Arabs[7] and Bengalis.[8]

The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents of Sunni Islam, while a minority adhere to Shia Islam. Most of them are primarily geographically native to the Pakistani province of Punjab, but a large group of them have ancestry across the Punjab region as a whole.[4] Punjabi Muslims speak or identify with the Punjabi language (under a Perso-Arabic script known as Shahmukhi) as their mother tongue.

## Identity

[edit]

The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab region into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 16th century CE.[9][10][11][12] However, Punjab as a linguistic, geographical and cultural entity had existed for centuries prior.[13] Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections.[14] Islam spread in the region via missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region thereby becoming the faith of many by the 16th century. This contributed to the formation of a Punjabi Muslim identity.[15][9][16][17]

## History

[edit]

Main articles: History of Punjab, Religion in the Punjab, and List of Punjabi Muslims

### Early period

[edit]

At the advent of Islam in the seventh century, Punjab was part of Takka kingdom. By then, Buddhism had declined in Punjab after the fall of the Kushans, and had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[18] Several scholars have identified Takka kingdom with the kingdom of al-Usaifan, whose king is reported by al-Biladhuri to have converted to Islam during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842).[19] However, Islam as a political power got introduced via southern Punjab only after the 8th century Umayyad conquest of Sindh. The first Muslim state in Punjab was the Emirate of Multan, established in 855 after the disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the 11th century, Muslim conquered northern Punjab after the defeat of the native Hindu Shahis by the Ghaznavids. The city of Lahore emerged as a thriving city, rivalling Ghazni and effectively acted as a second capital of the empire.[20][21]

In Punjab, conversion to Islam occurred mostly amongst pastoralist or agricultural groups that were not integrated into the Hindu Varna social class hierarchy,[15] such as Jats, who were known to Muslims as Zutt.[22] The tribes of the Bar region would be contacted by Sufi mystics like Fariduddin Ganjshakar over the centuries and converted to Islam, albeit a syncretic form. Gakhars of the Pothohar Plateau were noted for their martial capabilities and gradually converted to Islam.[15]

The Shrine of Baba Farid, one of the most notable Punjabi Sufi saints

### Medieval period

[edit]

In 1161, the Ghurids conquered the city of Ghazni, forcing the Ghaznavids to shift their capital to Lahore. Soon, however, Muhammad Ghori invaded Punjab as well, and conquered Lahore and Multan in 1186, marking end of the Ghaznavids. In 1206, he was assassinated at Damiak by Isma'ilis or Punjabi Khokhars.[23] One of his Mamluk slaves, Qutb ud-Din Aibak, established the Delhi Sultanate, with Lahore being the first capital of the sultanate. The early period of the Delhi Sultanate saw several Mongol invasions of Punjab. Ultimately, Mongols were defeated during the rule of the Khalji dynasty.[24]

Islam became firmly established in Punjab during the era of Delhi Sultanate, and tribes like Khokhars played an important role in the inter-dynastic struggle. In 1320, Ghazi Malik, the former governor of Multan, rebelled against the Khalji rule. With the support of various factions including Khokhars, he established the Tughlaq dynasty.[25][26] Some of the earliest mentions of Punjabi language date to this period.[27]

Territories of the Delhi Sultanate under Khizr Khan.[28]

By the late 14th century, the Tughlaq dynasty had declined, and the sultanate was divided among various warlords. The city of Lahore was intermittently captured by Khokhars. Taking advantage of the prevailing anarchy, Timur led a brutal invasion of Delhi sultanate in 1398. Lahore had been under control of Shaikha Khokhar since 1394, who resisted Timur but was defeated and killed. Afterwards, Timur plundered Delhi and massacred its inhabitants.[29] Tughlaq power crumbled and resulted in nobles asserting formal independence. In 1414 the Tughlaq dynasty was itself replaced by Sayyid dynasty of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain.[30] Much of the time of Sayyid Sultans was spent in fighting against Jasrat, who was the most formidable opponent of Delhi sultans in Punjab. South Punjab became independent from Delhi when Langah Sultanate broke away in 1445.[31] The rulers of medieval Gujarat Sultanate in western India are also described as having Punjabi Khatri origins.[32]

### Early modern period

[edit]

#### Mughal Empire

[edit]

By the early 16th century, the Lodi dynasty which succeeded Sayyids had control over little more than the region around Lahore in Punjab. In 1525, the Mughal emperor Babur invaded Delhi Sultanate and conquered it by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat. The Gakhars of Potohar remained loyal to the house of Babur after Sher Shah Suri overthrew the Mughals under Humayun. This caused Sher Shah Suri to invade Pothohar and the local chief Sarang Khan died fighting against him.[33] However, Gakhars continued their resistance, even after Sher Shah Suri's minister Todar Mal constructed the Rohtas fort in the region.[34] Gakhar chiefs such as Kamal Khan were part of Mughal nobility when Humayun regained Delhi after defeating Sur dynasty in the Second Battle of Panipat.[35]

According to the Ain-i-Akbari written during the reign of Akbar, Punjab region was divided into Subah of Lahore and Multan.[36] Muslims had majority in southern Punjab by the 16th century,[9] and a definitive Punjabi identity had formed as the inhabitants of Punjab started to be addressed as Punjabis by the outsiders during 17th century.[37] Several Punjabi Muslims rose to high ranks during Mughal period, such as Grand Vizier (Prime Minister) Saadullah Khan (1645–1656). He belonged to the Thaheem clan of Chiniot.[38] Saadullah Khan oversaw construction of several Mughal monuments including Taj Mahal under the supervision of architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori, who was also from Punjab, and led the Mughal army to Balkh in 1646 during Shah Jahan's war against the Safavids in the region.[39] Wazir Khan of Chiniot was also a grand vizier in the early Shah Jahani era.[40]

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707, began the decline of Mughal power in the 18th century. Between 1712 and 1719, Barhas, a dynasty of kingmakers of peasant origins from Punjab, exercised de facto control over the Mughal Empire.[41] Mughal authority in Punjab remained in the hands of Nawabs who gave nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor in Delhi; however it collapsed in Punjab after Mir Mannu died in 1753. Last Nawab of Punjab, Adina Beg was a Punjabi Arain who attempted to make Punjab independent. After his untimely death in 1758, Ahmad Shah Durrani directly annexed the region. Punjab suffered from the eight invasions of the Durrani Afghans between 1748 and 1767, which ravaged the region.[42]

During these centuries of Mughal rule, Punjabi Muslims established great institutions of Islamic civilization in cities and towns such as Lahore and Sialkot. Punjabi Muslim scholars were "in high demand", teaching the Islamic sciences as far as Central Asia, in cities such as Bukhara, even being considered there as Awliya' within their lifetimes.[43] The Kamboh clan of Lahore also produced many notable scholars and administrators. Other influential Muslim scholars born in Punjab during Mughal era include Abdul Hakim Sialkoti and Ahmad Sirhindi.[44] Between 1761 and 1799, the south Indian kingdom of Mysore was ruled by Hyder Ali, stated to be a Punjabi adventurer in the army of Mysore, and his son Tipu Sultan.[45][46] Tipu Sultan, who is widely hailed as a freedom fighter in South Asia, led Mysore during Anglo-Mysore Wars and also pioneered modern rocketry.[47]

#### Sikh Empire

[edit]

See also: Sial kingdom

Map of Doabs in Punjab

Ahmad Shah Durrani and his successors failed to maintain control of Punjab except in Attock, Kasur and Multan where large Afghan colonies were based. Punjab was divided into petty Muslim and Sikh chieftancies. The situation remained as such till Ranjit Singh took Lahore in 1799.[48]

The two important Punjabi Muslim states that existed in 18th century Punjab were those of the Sials and the Gakhars. Gakhars under Sultan Muqarrab Khan (r.1738–1769) established rule over Potohar and the Chaj Doab whilst the Sials with their capital at Jhang conquered the Lower Rachna and Sindh Sagar Doabs under their chief Inayatullah Khan (r.1747–1787).[49] However, Sikhs, who originated in central Punjab, gradually expanded westwards. Owing to their superior European-style military training and discipline, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh not only gained control of most of Punjab but also conquered Kashmir (1818), Multan (1818) and Peshawar (1833) from Durrani Afghans. Only the Bahawalpur state, then under Daudpotra Nawabs, remained independent from Sikh regime. With Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, Sikh power declined. After suffering defeat in the Anglo-Sikh wars, their territory was annexed in 1849 by the British East India Company.[50][page needed]

Views of the Sikh Empire rule, are mixed amongst different Punjabi Muslim groups. Ranjit Singh is seen favourably by a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan but remains overall largely negative.[51] The mid 19th-century Punjabi Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's empire and governance.[52][53] According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals.[52] His account portrays Ranjit Singh as leading his Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury".[54] As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the conversion of the Bad shahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[55][56]

Historian Robina Yasmin, on the other hand, argues against the stereotypical narratives of claimed anti-Muslim oppression by the Sikh Empire.[57] After researching contemporary sources held in the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, she concluded that the Sikh rulers were secular and allowed their Muslim subjects to freely practice their religion.[57] She also points out the fact that during the reign of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, there was never a single case of rebellion against the Sikh authorities by Muslims.[57] She further claims any beliefs of maltreatment of Muslims is based upon misunderstandings of the condition of the Muslim community during the Sikh Empire.[57]

### Colonial period

[edit]

#### Religious syncretism

[edit]

During the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

> "In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of Tazias, in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of Sabils (shelters where water and sharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the Chiraghan fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus." [58]: 174

> — Excerpt from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911

#### War of Independence (1857)

[edit]

The news of the Rebellion of 1857 reached Punjab quite late. Jhelum in Punjab saw a rebellion in which 35 British soldiers were killed on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring.[59] On 9 July, most of the brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi.[60] They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island, they were defeated by Nicholson in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.[50]: 290–293  However, the main opponent of British rule in Punjab was Rai Ahmad Khan from Kharral clan who waged war against it for three months in central Punjab. He was killed on 21 September 1857 in a skirmish with British colonial forces while inflicting heavy losses to the British.[61]

#### From Punjabi to Punjabi Muslim identity

[edit]

Before British annexation of Punjab, the consciousness of a Punjabi identity was at its zenith.[37] Writing in 1840s, the Punjabi Muslim poet Shah Mohammad viewed Anglo-Sikh wars as war between the Punjab and Hind (India).[37] During colonial period, communal identity superseded regional one, and Punjabi Muslims increasingly disowned Punjabi language in the favour of Urdu in Persian script.[37] As a sign of a growing sense of Muslim self-identity, it has been estimated that out of the 70,000 to 80,000 books and pamphlets printed in Punjab from 1867 to 1914 some 25,000 to 30,000 "were written by a Muslim or published to meet the needs of the community."[62]

#### In the British Indian Army

[edit]

Punjabi Muslims, classified as a "martial race" by the British colonialists,[63] made a substantial part of the British Indian Army.[64] British academic David Omissi called them the single largest group in both World Wars,[65] at the eve of World War II accounting for around 29% of its total numbers.[66] Due to these reasons, another British academic, Kate Imy, writes that "Punjabi Muslims were the true backbone of the Indian Army."[67]

However, there was also a history of popular resistance from Punjabi Muslims against British colonialism, including during the 1857 Indian Rebellion with the likes of Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal, facts which historian Turab-ul-Hassan Sargana says have been undermined because the elites of Punjab who collaborated with the British are those who still rule Pakistan today.[68]

Due to their heavy involvement with the British Indian Army, the Punjabi Muslims would know a form of social mobility and economic empowerement that would differentiate them from non-Punjabi Muslims of the region, Indian defence analyst Colonel RSN Singh writing that "the economic and social hiatus between Punjabi Muslims and the Muslims of the Indian heartland widened to the extent that the latter had ceased to be a force of any consequence."[69]

Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was the first Premier of the Punjab

#### Administrative reforms

[edit]

The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under a Punjabi Muslim, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[70]

#### Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam

[edit]

During the 1930s and the 1940s, the Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam, an anti-colonial Islamist political party founded in 1929 as an offshoot of the Khilafat Movement and a close collaborator of the Indian National Congress, became the dominant political force among Punjabi Muslims, especially among the lower middle echelons and the artisan classes, the Ahrar's having a diversity of Islamic schools but generally subscribed to a Deobandi interpretation with an Islamic socialist approach as well.[71]

### After independence

[edit]

During the Partition of 1947, millions also migrated from East Punjab to West Punjab to escape violence from Hindu and Sikh militias.[72] After independence, Bengalis formed the majority ethnicity of Pakistan, followed by Punjabis. After 1971, Punjabis became the majority ethnicity.

A 2009 Pew Research Center report found that 96% of Punjabis in Pakistan identified primarily as Pakistani when choosing between national and ethnic identities, the highest proportion among all surveyed groups, surpassing both Pashtuns and Muhajirs, who each stood at 92%.[73]

## Culture

[edit]

### Sufism

[edit]

Further information: Sufism in Punjab

Sufism has also played a major role in the history of Punjab.[74] Many prominent Sufi saints were born in Punjab, including Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Waris Shah and Bulleh Shah.[75][76]

### Language

[edit]

Punjabi Muslims had a major contribution in the development of Punjabi language. Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179–1266) is recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language.[77] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent being Bulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1630–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Waris Shah (1722–1798), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901).

### Literature

[edit]

The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[78]

### Music

[edit]

See also: Music of Punjab

Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions. Sufi music and Qawali, commonly practiced in Punjab, Pakistan; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[79][80]

Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using traditional musical instruments like Tumba, Algoza, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. There is a wide range of folk songs for every occasion from birth to death including marriage, festivals, fairs and religious ceremonies.

## Demographics

[edit]

Punjabi Muslims are found almost exclusively in Pakistan with 98% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[81] Thus religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Sunni population with Shia, Ahmadiyya and Christian minorities.[82]

### Numbers

[edit]

While the total population of Punjab is 127 million as noted in the 2023 Pakistan census,[83][84] ethnic Punjabis comprise approximately 44.7% of the national population, estimated at 252,364,571 as of 2024.[85][86] Ethnic Punjabis, that is, discounting the local Kashmiris, Pashtuns and Baloch residents, thus number approximately 112,807,000 million in Pakistan; this makes Punjabis the largest ethnic group in Pakistan by population.[85][86]

### Tribes and clans

[edit]

Punjabi Muslim society is centered around the concept of biraderi (برادری), social brotherhood within the tribe and clan.

The major tribes and clans among Punjabi Muslims are the Jats, Rajputs, Arains, Ansari, Sheikh, Gujjars and Awans.[87]

In his 1911-book The Armies of India, British major Sir George Fletcher MacMunn would write that Muslims of Punjab "are of many mixed races, but who largely consist of Rajput tribes converted to Islam at various times in the past."[88]

## See also

[edit]

* History of Punjab
* List of Punjabi Muslims
* List of Punjabi Muslim tribes
* Jat Muslim
* Punjabi people
* List of Rulers of Pothohar Plateau
* Islam in Pakistan
* Punjabi Christians
* Punjabi Sikhs
* Punjabi Hindus
* Shahmukhi alphabet, the script used by Punjabi Muslims to read and write Punjabi
* Muslim Khatris
* Qanungoh Shaikh

## Notes

[edit]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Indian Census 2011". Census Department, Government of India. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
2. ^ Nadia Mushtaq Abbasi. "The Pakistani Diaspora in Europe and Its Impact on Democracy Building in Pakistan" (PDF). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. p. 5\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
3. ^ "American Pakistan Foundation Ready To Engage Pakistani Diaspora". Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2020. (US Embassy, Islamabad Report)
4. ^ a b Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India; Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1\. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
5. ^ "Pakistan Census 2017" (PDF). PBS.
6. ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India; Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 2\. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
7. ^ Margaret Kleffner Nydell Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times, Intercultural Press, 2005, ISBN 1-931930-25-2, page xxiii, 14
8. ^ roughly 152 million Bengali Muslims in Bangladesh and 36.4 million Bengali Muslims in the Republic of India (CIA Factbook 2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 10 million Bangladeshis in the Middle East, 1 million Bengalis in Pakistan, 5 million British Bangladeshi.
9. ^ a b c Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491\. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. "First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana)."
10. ^ Malhotra, Anshu; Mir, Farina (2012). Punjab reconsidered : history, culture, and practice. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-807801-2. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
11. ^ Ayers, Alyssa (2008). "Language, the Nation, and Symbolic Capital: The Case of Punjab" (PDF). Journal of Asian Studies. 67 (3): 917–46\. doi:10.1017/s0021911808001204. S2CID 56127067.
12. ^ Singh, Pritam; Thandi, Shinder S. (1996). Globalisation and the region : explorations in Punjabi identity. Coventry, United Kingdom: Association for Punjab Studies (UK). ISBN 978-1-874699-05-7.
13. ^ Singh, Pritam; Thandi, Shinder S. (1999). Punjabi identity in a global context. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-564864-5.
14. ^ Singh, Prtiam (2012). "Globalisation and Punjabi Identity: Resistance, Relocation and Reinvention (Yet Again!)" (PDF). Journal of Punjab Studies. 19 (2): 153–72\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
15. ^ a b c Eaton, R. M. (2009). "Shrines, Cultivators, and Muslim 'Conversion' in Punjab and Bengal, 1300–1700". The Medieval History Journal. 12 (2): 191–220\. doi:10.1177/097194580901200202.
16. ^ Chhabra, G. S. (1968). Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh. New Academic Publishing Company. p. 37.
17. ^ Nicholls, Ruth J.; Riddell, Peter G. (31 July 2020). Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-5748-2. "With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers."
18. ^ Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. p. 490\. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. "While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century."
19. ^ Ḍār, Saifurraḥmān (1984). Taxila and the Western World. al-Waqar Publishers. p. 20.
20. ^ James L. Wescoat; Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn (1 January 1996). Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 149\. ISBN 978-0-88402-235-0.
21. ^ Ikram, S. M (1964). Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press.
22. ^ Asher, Catherine Ella Blanshard; Talbot, Cynthia (2006). India before Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–270\. ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7.
23. ^ Mohammad Habib (1981). K. A. Nizami (ed.). Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib. People's Publishing House.
24. ^ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One. Har-Anand Publications. p. 267\. ISBN 978-81-241-1064-5.
25. ^ Rānā Muḥammad Sarvar K̲h̲ān̲ (2005). The Rajputs: History, Clans, Culture, and Nobility · Volume 1. the University of Michigan. p. 490.
26. ^ Z̲ākir Ḥusain (1996). "Islam and the Modern Age". Islam and the Modern Age Society. 27: 19.
27. ^ Tariq Rahman. Punjabi Language During British Rule (PDF). Quaid-i Azam University, Islamabad. p. 1\. "'Amir Khusro ba Zuban-e-Punjabi ba ibarat-e-marghub muqaddama jang ghazi ul mulk Tughlaq Shah o Nasir uddin Khusro Khan gufta ke aan ra ba Zuban-e-Hind var guvaend' (Amir Khusro in the language of the Punjab wrote an introduction of the battle between Tughlaq [1324-1320] and Khusro which in the language of India is called a var)"
28. ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 39, 148. ISBN 0-226-74221-0.
29. ^ "Tamerlane: sword of Islam, conqueror of the world". Choice Reviews Online. 44 (6): 44–3450-44-3450. 1 February 2007. doi:10.5860/choice.44-3450 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISSN 0009-4978.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
30. ^ Eaton; Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 105\. ISBN 978-0-520-32512-8. "The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India."`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
31. ^ Qanungo, Kalika Ranjan; Kānūnago, Kālikā Rañjana (1965). Sher Shah and His Times. Orient Longmans. p. 286.
32. ^ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2024). Across the Green Sea: Histories from the Western Indian Ocean, 1440-1640. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773-2879-8. "The latter sultanate was founded by a former Tughluq governor, perhaps from a family of Punjabi Khatri converts, who took the title Muzaffar Shah in the early fifteenth century but reigned for only a short time."
33. ^ The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period by Henry Miers Elliot, John Dowson, Volume IV, p. 493
34. ^ "Rohtas Fort". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
35. ^ Sharma, Parvati (15 May 2023). A Lamp for the Dark World: Akbar, India's Greatest Mughal. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 100–101\. ISBN 978-1-5381-7790-7.
36. ^ Gajrani, S. (2004). History, Religion and Culture of India. Isha Books. p. 205\. ISBN 978-81-8205-059-4.
37. ^ a b c d Bharati Ray, ed. (2009). Different Types of History. History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. XIV Part 4. Pearson Education India. p. 204\. ISBN 978-81-317-1818-6.
38. ^ Quddus, S.A. (1992). Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism. Royal Book Company. p. 402\. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
39. ^ Foltz, Richard (1996). "The Mughal Occupation of Balkh 1646–1647". Journal of Islamic Studies. 7 (1): 49–61\. doi:10.1093/jis/7.1.49. ISSN 0955-2340. JSTOR 26195477.
40. ^ Khan, Mohammad Afzal (1 January 2016). The Ruling Elite - Iranian Nobility under Shahjahan and Aurangzeb (1st ed.). New Delhi Mumbai Chennai: Viva Books. p. 130\. ISBN 978-81-309-1370-4.
41. ^ Kolff, Dirk H. A. (8 August 2002). Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850. Cambridge University Press. p. 18\. ISBN 978-0-521-52305-9. "As another example of such soldiers of marginal peasant origin, the Barha Sayyids, a celebrated troop of soldiers under the Mughals deserve attention. They were said to be the descendants of the families who had, at an uncertain date, moved from their homes in Panjab to a sandy and infertile tract of what is now the eastern part of the Muzaffarnagar district"
42. ^ Tom Lansford, ed. (2017). Afghanistan at war : from the 18th-century Durrani dynasty to the 21st century. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 21\. ISBN 978-1-59884-759-8. OCLC 952980822.
43. ^ Ziad, Waleed (2021). Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints beyond the Oxus and Indus. Harvard University Press. p. 132\. ISBN 978-0-674-24881-6. "A shared Persian language, and its corresponding religio-cultural modalities and symbols, ensured that the credentials of deputies from Hindustan and Khurasan would be recognized across Transoxiana. Fazl Ahmad appointed several Punjabi and Peshawari deputies at Balkh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Aqcha, Khiva, and Khoqand. Some of the Punjabi migrants were even acknowledged as native saints of Transoxiana within their lifetimes."
44. ^ Schimmel, Annemarie (1980). Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. BRILL. p. 90\. ISBN 90-04-06117-7. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
45. ^ Olson, James Stuart; Shadle, Robert (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 273\. ISBN 978-0-313-27917-1. "Hyder Ali was originally a Punjabi adventurer in the army of the Hindu king of Mysore."
46. ^ Dalrymple, William (10 September 2019). The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire. Bloomsbury USA. p. 264\. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4. "The second power was a new force, which in the 1770s was just emerging and beginning to flex its military muscles: the Mysore Sultanate of Haidar Ali and his formidable warrior son, Tipu Sultan. Haidar, who was of Punjabi origin, had risen in the ranks of the Mysore army, where he introduced many of the innovations he had learned from observing French troops at work in the Carnatic Wars."
47. ^ Dalrymple, William (10 September 2019). The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire. Bloomsbury USA. p. 370\. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4.
48. ^ Wikeley, J. M. (21 July 2020). Punjabi Musalmans. Alpha Editions. p. 23\. ISBN 978-93-5404-023-8.
49. ^ Griffin, Lepel Henry; Massy, Charles Francis (11 August 2015). The Panjab Chiefs: Historical and Biographical Notices of the Principal Families in the Lahore and Rawalpindi Divisions of the Panjab, Volume 2. Creative Media Partners, LLC. p. 505\. ISBN 978-1-297-73366-6.
50. ^ a b Allen, Charles (2001). Soldier Sahibs: The Men Who Made the North-West Frontier. London: Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11456-0.
51. ^ "Dawn". Is Ranjit Singh’s statue in Lahore worth celebrating?. "For a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan and most Sikhs, Ranjit Singh is a local hero — 'son of the soil' — who successfully thwarted aggressors from the north and established a strong centralised government that provided relief to the people of Punjab after decades of chaos and violence."
52. ^ a b Christopher Alan Bayly (1996). Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 233\. ISBN 978-0-521-66360-1.
53. ^ Chitralekha Zutshi (2004). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41\. ISBN 978-0-19-521939-5.
54. ^ Clive Dewey (1991). D. A. Low (ed.). Political Inheritance of Pakistan. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 263–265\. ISBN 978-1-349-11556-3.
55. ^ Ziad, Waleed (16 November 2021). Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus. Harvard University Press. p. 45\. ISBN 978-0-674-24881-6.
56. ^ Chida-Razvi, Mehreen (20 September 2020). The Friday Mosque in the City: Liminality, Ritual, and Politics. Intellect Books. pp. 91–94\. ISBN 978-1-78938-304-1. "In addition to the masjid's use as a site for military storage, stables for the cavalry horses, and barracks for soldiers, parts of it were also used as storage for powder magazines."
57. ^ a b c d Yasmin, Robina (2022). "Conclusion". Muslims Under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 127–132\. ISBN 978-0-7556-4034-8. "This study was undertaken with a new paradigm to understand the condition of the Muslims under Sikh rule in the Punjab. It challenges the stereotypical approaches, which highlight contradictions between Muslims and Sikhs. Some historians have pointed out that the Sikh rulers mistreated the Muslims, harmed their religion and damaged their religious places. In support of this, they claim that not only did the Muslims of India show resentment, but also that some of them started Tehrik-e-Mujahidin against Ranjit Singh's state. The author, with new evidence from the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, has developed the hypothesis that the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh and his successors adopted a secular approach towards minorities, including the Muslims - that is, there was not a single movement within the Punjab started by Muslims against the Sikh rulers. Instead, the Tehrik-e-Mujahidin that was launched against the alleged maltreatment of the Muslims was actually the result of a misperception of the Muslims' condition in the Punjab, and a number of studies have already shown that Tehrik-e-Mujahidin had many other motives as well."
58. ^ "Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report". 1912. JSTOR saoa.crl.25393787. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
59. ^ "The River that played god". Dawn News. 13 August 2012.
60. ^ Wagner, Kim A. (2018). The Skull of Alum Beg. The Life and Death of a Rebel of 1857. Oxford University Press. p. 133\. ISBN 978-0-19-087023-2.
61. ^ Saeed Ahmed Butt (2015). "Rai Ahmad Khan Kharral (Myth or Reality)" (PDF). Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society. 28 (2): 173–191. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
62. ^ Gustafson, Eric; Jones, Kenneth, eds. (1975). Sources on Punjab History: A Study Sponsored by the Research Committee on the Punjab. Manohar Book Service. p. 257.
63. ^ Balachandran, P. K. (21 July 2020). "Ethnicity and Military Recruitment in South Asia". "Based on the fighting abilities of the ethnic groups and their loyalty to the British, the army designated some groups as martial (such as Sikhs, Punjabi Muslims, the Baloch, Rajputs from Rajasthan, Jats, Dogras, Gurkhas and the Marathas) and restricted recruitment to them."
64. ^ Shaikh, Muhammad Ali (5 March 2023). "History: How Punjab Came to Dominate the Army". Dawn. ISSN 1563-9444. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
65. ^ Omissi, David (8 April 2001). "Military Planning and Wartime Recruitment (India)". "The single most numerous "class" of Indian recruits in both world wars, however, was the Punjabi Muslims"
66. ^ Khatlani, Sameer Arshad (7 December 2016). "In fact: Punjabis dominate the Pakistan Army — but only just". The Indian Express. "In 1939, as many as 29% of soldiers in the British Indian Army, which was split between India and Pakistan after Partition, were Punjabi Muslims, mostly from Pakistani Punjab."
67. ^ Imy, Kate (2023). Faithful Fighters: Identity and Power in the British Army. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 58.
68. ^ Abdul Rehman, Ibrahim (1 November 2020). "NON-FICTION: WHEN PUNJAB ROSE UP". Dawn News.
69. ^ Singh, R. S. N. (2008). The Military Factor in Pakistan. New Delhi; Frankfort, IL: Lancer Publishers. p. 178\. ISBN 978-0-9815378-9-4.
70. ^ "Punjab Legislative Assembly 1937". Provincial Assembly of the Punjab.
71. ^ Tahir Kamran (2013) "Majlis-i-Ahrar-i-Islam: religion, socialism and agitation in action", South Asian History and Culture, 4:4, 465-482, doi:10.1080/19472498.2013.824678
72. ^ "The Punjab partition: when protectors become perpetrators". South Asia@LSE. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
73. ^ Pew Research Center. (2009, August 13). Chapter 2. Religion, Law, and Society. Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. Archived May 12, 2025.
74. ^ Singh, Surinder; Gaur, Ishwar Dayal (2009). Sufism in Punjab: Mystics, Literature, and Shrines. Delhi: Aakar Books. ISBN 978-81-89833-93-0.
75. ^ Quddus, Syed Abdul (1992). Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism. Royal Book Company. p. 131\. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5.
76. ^ Long, Roger D.; Singh, Gurharpal; Samad, Yunas; Talbot, Ian (8 October 2015). State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security. Routledge. p. 156\. ISBN 978-1-317-44820-4.
77. ^ Shiv Kumar Batalvi Archived 10 April 2003 at the Wayback Machine sikh-heritage.co.uk.
78. ^ "Articles on Bulleh Shah's Poetry".
79. ^ Pande, Alka (1999). Folk music & musical instruments of Punjab : from mustard fields to disco lights. Ahmedabad [India]: Mapin Pub. ISBN 978-1-890206-15-4.
80. ^ Thinda, Karanaila Siṅgha (1996). Pañjāba dā loka wirasā (New rev. ed.). Paṭiālā: Pabalikeshana Biūro, Pañjābī Yūniwarasiṭī. ISBN 978-81-7380-223-2.
81. ^ Davis, Wade; Harrison, K. David; Howell, Catherine Herbert (2007). Book of Peoples of the World: A Guide to Cultures. National Geographic Books. pp. 132–133\. ISBN 978-1-4262-0238-4.
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83. ^ "Pakistan's first digital census records 249.5 million population". Pakistan Today. 22 May 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
84. ^ "Pakistan population increased by approx 25% in six years". Samaa. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
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88. ^ MacMunn, George Fletcher (1911). The Armies of India. London: A & C Black. pp. 131–132.

* v
* t
* e

Province of Punjab, Pakistan topics

History|

* History of Punjab
* Harappa
* History of Lahore

Government|

* Provincial Assembly
* Chief Minister
* Governor

Culture|

* Punjabis
* Punjabi tribes
* Punjabi language
* Saraiki people
* Saraiki language
* Folklore
* Saraiki Ajrak
* Pothwar
* Pothwari dialect
* Cuisine
* Diaspora
* Music
* Dress
* Salwar (Punjabi) Suit
* Archaeological sites and monuments
* Festivals

Geography|

* Cities
* Districts
* Region

Divisions|

* Bahawalpur
* Dera Ghazi Khan
* Faisalabad
* Gujranwala
* Gujrat
* Lahore
* Mianwali
* Multan
* Rawalpindi
* Sahiwal
* Sarghoda

Districts|

* Attock
* Bahawalnagar
* Bahawalpur
* Bhakkar
* Chakwal
* Chiniot
* Dera Ghazi Khan
* Fasialabad
* Gujranwala
* Gujrat
* Hafizabad
* Jampur
* Jhang
* Jhelum
* Khanewal
* Khushab
* Kot Addu
* Lahore
* Layyah
* Lodhran
* Mandi Bahauddin
* Mianwali
* Murree
* Multan
* Muzaffargarh
* Nankana
* Narowal
* Okara
* Pakpattan
* Kasur
* Rahim Yar Khan
* Rajanpur
* Rawalpindi
* Sahiwal
* Sargodha
* Sheikhupura
* Sialkot
* Talagang
* Taunsa
* Toba Tek
* Vehari
* Wazirabad

Education|

* University of the Punjab

Sport|

* Gaddafi Stadium
* Iqbal Stadium
* Faisalabad Hockey Stadium

Major cities|

* Lahore
* Faisalabad
* Rawalpindi
* Gujranwala
* Multan
* Sialkot

* v
* t
* e

Indian Muslim communities

Majority|

* Alvi
* Arab
* Arain
* Arghon
* Ansari
* Awan
* Baghban
* Balti
* Behna
* Beary
* Bhishti
* Bisati
* Chhipa
* Chaush
* Deccani Muslims (Hyderabadi)
* Dard
* Dhobi
* Ghosi
* Gurjar
* Iraqi Biradari
* Khanzada
* Kashmiri
* Kunjra
* Malkana
* Manihar
* Mappila
* Rowther
* Meo
* Mughal
* Pathan
* Purigpa
* Qassab
* Muslim Rajputs
* Garha
* Rangrez
* Shaikh
* Sayyid
* Salmani
* Hussaini Brahmin
* Siddi
* Teli
* Urdu-speaking

Minority|

* Assamese
* Bengali
* Bhili
* Dogra
* Gondi
* Gujarati
* Konkani
* Nawayath
* Marathi
* Marwari
* Meitei
* Odia
* Punjabi
* Tamil
* Telugu
* Labbay
* Goan Muslims
* Alavi Bohras

Bihari|

* Abdal
* Ansari
* Bisati
* Chamail
* Churihar
* Chik
* Gaddi
* Idrisi
* Khanzada
* Kulhaiya
* Lal Begi
* Malkana
* Malik of Bihar
* Mirasi
* Mirshikar
* Mughal
* Muker
* Muslim Chhipi
* Pasi
* Nat
* Pathans
* Rayeen
* Sai
* Sapera
* Sayyid
* Syed (Mallick)
* Shaikh of Bihar
* Shershahabadia
* Thakurai
* Teli

Gujarat|

* Abdal
* Alavi Bohras
* Ansari
* Arabs
* Attarwala
* Bafan
* Baloch
* Behlim
* Bhadala
* Bharbhunja
* Bhishti
* Chhipa
* Chunara
* Chundrigar
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Dhobi
* Dhuldhoya
* Doodwala
* Faqir
* Galiara
* Ghanchi
* Ghanchi-Pinjara
* Halaypotra
* Hingorja
* Hingora
* Juneja
* Kadia
* Kagzi
* Ker
* Khalifa
* Khaskheli
* Khoja
* Machiyar
* Makrani
* Maliks of Gujarat
* Mandali
* Makwana
* Manka
* Mansoori
* Memon
* Meta Qureshi
* Miyana
* Molesalam
* Momna
* Mughal
* Multani
* Multani Lohar
* Mutwa
* Nagori
* Node
* Panar
* Parmar
* Patani Bohra
* Patni Jamat
* Pathans
* Salaat
* Samma
* Sandhai Muslims
* Sanghar
* Shaikhs of Gujarat
* Shaikhda
* Sayyid of Gujarat
* Siddi
* Sipahi
* Soomra
* Sulaymani Bohra
* Sunni Bohra
* Tai
* Vora Patel
* Vyapari

Karnataka|

* Baghban
* Beary
* Chaush
* Chhaparband
* Kodava Maaple
* Konkani Muslims
* Nawayath
* Pinjara
* Siddi
* Assadi

Kerala|

* Mappilas
* Pusalans
* Ossans
* Tangals (the Sayyids)
* Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats
* Labbais
* Nahas
* Marakkars
* Keyis
* Koyas
* Nainars
* Dakhnis or Pathans
* Ravuthars
* Bohras (Daudi Bohras)

Madhya Pradesh|

* Chhipa
* Ansari
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Dhobi
* Mughal
* Muslim Chhipi
* Pathans
* Shaikh
* Sayyid

Maharashtra|

* Attar
* Baghban
* Bhishti
* Chaush
* Chhipa
* Chhaparband
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Dhawad
* Faqir
* Garodi
* Gavandi
* Kachar
* Kagzi
* Konkani Muslims
* Momin
* Muslim Raj Gond
* Qassab
* Saiqalgar
* Tadvi Bhil

Rajasthan|

* Ansari
* Anderkoti
* Chhipa
* Cheetah
* Chadwa
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Deshwali
* Gaddi
* Ghosi
* Hela Mehtar
* Hiranbaz
* Kandera
* Khadem
* Khanzada
* Langha
* Manganiar
* Merat
* Meo
* Mughal
* Pinjara
* Kayamkhani
* Rangrez
* Rath
* Shaikhs of Rajasthan
* Silawat
* Sindhi-Sipahi
* Singiwala
* Sorgar

Tamil Nadu|

* Rowther
* Kayalar
* Labbay
* Marakkar
* Deccani Muslims (Pathans)
* Nawayath
* Dawoodi Bohra

Uttar Pradesh|

* Alvi
* Ansari
* Atishbaz
* Bachal
* Bachgoti Khanzada
* Baghban
* Baluch
* Bandhmati
* Barhai
* Behlim
* Banu Israil
* Behna
* Bhand
* Bharbhunja
* Bhale Sultan Khanzada
* Bhatiara
* Bhishti
* Muslim Bhumihar
* Bisati
* Chik
* Dakhini
* Dafali
* Dhagi
* Dharhi
* Dhobi Musalmaan
* Dogar
* Fareedi
* Faqir
* Gaddi
* Gautam Khanzada
* Ghosi
* Goriya
* Gujjar Musalmaan
* Halalkhor
* Halwai
* Idrisi
* Iraqi Biradari
* Jhojha
* Kabaria
* Kakorvi Shaikh
* Kamangars
* Kamboh
* Kasgar
* Kayastha Musalman
* Khanzada
* Khokhar Khanzada
* Khumra
* Kingharia
* Kunjra
* Lal Begi
* Lalkhani Rajput
* Madari
* Mandarkia
* Malkana
* Manihar
* Meo
* Milki
* Mirasi
* Mughal
* Mujavir
* Muker
* Muslim Chhipi
* Muley Jats
* Nagar Muslims
* Nalband
* Nanbai
* Naqqal
* Panchpiria
* Pankhiya
* Pathans
* Putliwale
* Qalandar
* Qassab
* Qaum-e-Punjabian
* Qidwai
* Rai Bhatt
* Raj
* Garha
* Rajput Musalmaan
* Ramaiya
* Rangrez
* Rayeen
* Rohilla
* Sadaat Amroha
* Sadaat-e-Bara
* Sadaat-e-Bilgram
* Sai
* Salmani
* Sayyid of Uttar Pradesh
* Shaikh of Uttar Pradesh
* Shaikh Ja'fri
* Shaikhzada
* Siddiqui
* Teli Musalmaan
* Turk
* Tyagi Musalmaan

West Bengal|

* Abdal
* Dawoodi Bohra
* Bedia
* Faqir
* Ghosi
* Iraqi Biradari
* Kahar
* Kan
* Kela
* Khotta
* Lodha
* Malla
* Nashya
* Patua
* Sapuria
* Shershahabadia
* Shamsi

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