Pyramid

Structure shaped as a geometric pyramid

This article is about pyramid-shaped structures. For the geometric shape, see Pyramid (geometry). For other uses, see Pyramid (disambiguation).

Pyramid of Khafre, Egypt, built c. 2600 BC

A pyramid (from Ancient Greek πυραμίς (puramís) 'pyramid')[1][2] is a structure whose visible surfaces are triangular in broad outline and converge toward the top, making the appearance roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be of any polygon shape, such as triangular or quadrilateral, and its surface-lines either filled or stepped.

A pyramid has the majority of its mass closer to the ground[3] with less mass towards the pyramidion at the apex. This is due to the gradual decrease in the cross-sectional area along the vertical axis with increasing elevation. This offers a weight distribution that allowed early civilizations to create monumental structures.

Prasat Thom temple at Koh Ker, Cambodia

Ancient civilizations in many parts of the world pioneered the building of pyramids. The largest pyramid by volume is the Mesoamerican Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. For millennia, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both in Egypt—the latter is the only extant example of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

## Ancient monuments

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See also: Ancient pyramid

### West Asia

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#### Mesopotamia

[edit]

Main article: Ziggurat

Anu ziggurat and White Temple at Uruk

Chogha Zanbil is an ancient Elamite complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran.

The Mesopotamians built the earliest pyramidal structures, called ziggurats. In ancient times, these were brightly painted in gold/bronze. They were constructed of sun-dried mud-brick, and little remains of them. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex that included other buildings. The ziggurat's precursors were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period[4] of the fourth millennium BC.

The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.[5] The original pyramidal structure, the anu ziggurat, dates to around 4000 BC. The White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BC.[6] Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on them. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven. It is assumed that they had shrines at the top, but no archaeological evidence supports this and the only textual evidence is from Herodotus.[7] Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit.

### Africa

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#### Egypt

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Main article: Egyptian pyramids

The pyramids of the Giza necropolis, as seen from the air

The most famous African pyramids are in Egypt—huge structures built of bricks or stones, primarily limestone, some of which are among the world's largest constructions. They are shaped in reference to the sun's rays. Most had a smoothed white limestone surface. Many of the facing stones have fallen or were removed and used for construction in Cairo.[8] The capstone was usually made of limestone, granite or basalt and some were plated with electrum.[9]

Ancient Egyptians built pyramids from 2700 BC until around 1700 BC. The first pyramid was erected during the Third Dynasty by the Pharaoh Djoser and his architect Imhotep. This step pyramid consisted of six stacked mastabas.[10][11] Early kings such as Snefru built pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number until the end of the Middle Kingdom. The age of the pyramids reached its zenith at Giza in 2575–2150 BC.[12] The last king to build royal pyramids was Ahmose,[13] with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, such as those in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's West Bank.[14] In Medinat Habu and Deir el-Medina, smaller pyramids were built by individuals. Smaller pyramids with steeper sides were built by the Nubians who ruled Egypt in the Late Period.[15]

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. At 146.6 metres (481 ft) it was the tallest structure in the world until the Lincoln Cathedral was finished in 1311 AD. Its base covers an area of around 53,000 square metres (570,000 sq ft). The Great Pyramid is the only extant one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Ancient Egyptian pyramids were, in most cases, placed west of the river Nile because the divine pharaoh's soul was meant to join with the sun during its descent before continuing with the sun in its eternal round.[9] As of 2008, some 135 pyramids had been discovered in Egypt,[16][17] most located near Cairo.[18]

#### Sudan

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Main article: Nubian pyramids

Pyramids at Meroe with pylon-like entrances Nubian pyramids at archaeological sites of the Island of Meroe

While African pyramids are commonly associated with Egypt, Sudan has 220 extant pyramids, the most in the world.[19] Nubian pyramids were constructed (roughly 240 of them) at three sites in Sudan to serve as tombs for the kings and queens of Napata and Meroë. The pyramids of Kush, also known as Nubian Pyramids, have different characteristics than those of Egypt. The Nubian pyramids had steeper sides than the Egyptian ones. Pyramids were built in Sudan as late as 200 AD.

#### Sahel

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Main article: Tomb of Askia

The Tomb of Askia, in Gao, Mali, is believed to be the burial place of Askia Mohammad I, one of the Songhai Empire's most prolific emperors. It was built at the end of the fifteenth century and is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

UNESCO describes the tomb as an example of the monumental mud-building traditions of the West African Sahel. The complex includes the pyramidal tomb, two mosques, a cemetery and an assembly ground. At 17 metres (56 ft) in height it is the largest pre-colonial architectural monument in Gao. It is a notable example of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style that later spread throughout the region.

#### Nigeria

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Main article: Nsude pyramid shrines

One of the unique structures of Igbo culture was the Nsude pyramids, in the Nigerian town of Nsude, northern Igboland. Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay/mud. The first base section was 60 ft (18 m) in circumference and 3 ft (0.9 m) in height. The next stack was 45 ft (14 m) in circumference. Circular stacks continued to the top. The structures were temples for the god Ala, who was believed to reside there. A stick was placed at the top to represent the god's residence. The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other. Because it was built of clay/mud like the Deffufa of Nubia, over time periodic reconstruction has been required.[20]

### Europe

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#### Greece

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Main article: Greek pyramids

Pyramid of Hellinikon

Pausanias (2nd century AD) mentions two buildings resembling pyramids, one, 19 kilometres (12 mi) southwest of a still standing structure at Hellenikon,[21] a common tomb for soldiers who died in a legendary struggle for the throne of Argos and another that he was told was the tomb of Argives killed in a battle around 669/8 BC. Neither survives and no evidence indicates that they resembled Egyptian pyramids.

At least two surviving pyramid-like structures are available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings have inwardly sloping walls, but bear no other resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure is rectangular rather than square, 12.5 by 14 metres (41 by 46 ft) which means that the sides could not have met at a point.[22] The stone used to build these structures was limestone quarried locally and was cut to fit, not into freestanding blocks like the Great Pyramid of Giza.[23]

These structures were dated from pot shards excavated from the floor and grounds. The latest estimates are around the 5th and 4th centuries. Normally this technique is used for dating pottery, but researchers used it to try to date stone flakes from the structure walls. This launched debate about whether or not these structures are actually older than Egypt, part of the Black Athena controversy.[24]

Lefkowitz criticised this research, suggesting that some of the research was done not to determine the reliability of the dating method, as was suggested, but to back up a claim and to make points about pyramids and Greek civilization. She claimed that not only were the results imprecise, but that other structures mentioned in the research are not in fact pyramids, e.g. a tomb alleged to be the tomb of Amphion and Zethus near Thebes, a structure at Stylidha (Thessaly) which is a long wall, etc. She pushed the possibility that the stones that were dated might have been recycled from earlier constructions. She claimed that earlier research from the 1930s, confirmed in the 1980s by Fracchia, was ignored.[25]

Liritzis responded that Lefkowitz failed to understand and misinterpreted the methodology.[26]

#### Spain

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Pyramids of Güímar, Tenerife, Spain

The Pyramids of Güímar refer to six rectangular pyramid-shaped, terraced structures, built from lava without mortar. They are located in the district of Chacona, part of the town of Güímar on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The structures were dated to the 19th century and their function explained as a byproduct of contemporary agricultural techniques.

Autochthonous Guanche traditions as well as surviving images indicate that similar structures (also known as, "Morras", "Majanos", "Molleros", or "Paredones") were built in many locations on the island.[citation needed] However, over time they were dismantled and used as building material. Güímar hostred nine pyramids, only six of which survive.

#### Roman Empire

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Main article: Pyramid of Cestius

Pyramid of Cestius in Rome, Italy

The 27-metre-high Pyramid of Cestius was built by the end of the 1st century BC and survives close to the Porta San Paolo. Another, named Meta Romuli, stood in the Ager Vaticanus (today's Borgo), but was destroyed at the end of the 15th century.[27]

#### Medieval Europe

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Pyramids were occasionally used in Christian architecture during the feudal era, e.g. as the tower of Oviedo's Gothic Cathedral of San Salvador.

### Americas

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Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacan, built between 100 and 450 AD

#### Peru

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Andean cultures used pyramids in various architectural structures such as the ones in Caral, Túcume and Chavín de Huantar, constructed around the same time as early Egyptian pyramids.

#### Mesoamerica

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Main article: Mesoamerican pyramids

El Castillo at Chichen Itza

Several Mesoamerican cultures built pyramid-shaped structures. Mesoamerican pyramids were usually stepped, with temples on top, more similar to the Mesopotamian ziggurat than the Egyptian pyramid.

The largest by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the Mexican state of Puebla. Constructed from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD, this pyramid is the world's largest monument, and is still not fully excavated. The third largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramid of the Sun, at Teotihuacan, is also located in Mexico. An unusual pyramid with a circular plan survives at the site of Cuicuilco, now inside Mexico City and mostly covered with lava from an eruption of the Xitle Volcano in the 1st century BC. Several circular stepped pyramids called Guachimontones survive in Teuchitlán, Jalisco.

Pyramids in Mexico were often used for human sacrifice. Harner stated that for the dedication of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, "one source states 20,000, another 72,344, and several give 80,400" as the number of humans sacrificed.[28]

#### United States

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A diagram showing the various components of Eastern North American platform mounds Monks Mound, Cahokia

Many pre-Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large pyramidal earth structures known as platform mounds. Among the largest and best-known of these structures is Monks Mound at the site of Cahokia in what became Illinois, completed around 1100 AD. It has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid. Many mounds underwent repeated episodes of expansion. They are believed to have played a central role in the mound-building peoples' religious life. Documented uses include semi-public chief's house platforms, public temple platforms, mortuary platforms, charnel house platforms, earth lodge/town house platforms, residence platforms, square ground and rotunda platforms, and dance platforms.[29][30][31] Cultures that built substructure mounds include the Troyville culture, Coles Creek culture, Plaquemine culture and Mississippian cultures.

### Asia

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Main article: Chinese pyramids

Ancient Korean tomb in Ji'an, Northeastern China Shaohao Tomb, Qufu, China

Many square flat-topped mound tombs in China. The first emperor Qin Shi Huang (c. 221 BC, who unified the seven pre-imperial kingdoms) was buried under a large mound outside modern-day Xi'an. In the following centuries about a dozen more Han dynasty royal persons were also buried under flat-topped pyramidal earthworks.[citation needed]

#### India

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Numerous giant, granite, temple pyramids were built in South India during the Chola Empire, many of which remain in use. Examples include Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. However, the largest temple (area) is the Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu. The Thanjavur temple was built by Raja Raja Chola in the 11th century. The Brihadisvara Temple was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987; the Temple of Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were added in 2004.[32]

* The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010 AD.

* The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple.

* Pyramid-structure inside Airavatesvara Temple.

* Ranganathaswamy Temple gopurams at Srirangam dedicated to Ranganatha, a reclining form of the Hindu deity Maha Vishnu.

#### Indonesia

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Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia Candi Sukuh in Java, Indonesia

Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia featured earth and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak. These were discovered in Pangguyangan near Cisolok[33] and in Cipari near Kuningan.[34] The stone pyramids were based on beliefs that mountains and high places were the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.[35]

The step pyramid is the basic design of the 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central Java.[36] However later Java temples were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as exemplified by the spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century, during late Majapahit period, Java saw the revival of indigenous Austronesian elements as displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resemble Mesoamerican pyramids, and also stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.[37]

#### East Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia

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Dotō, Stupa of Ōno-dera Temple, Sakai, Osaka Prefecture, Japan

In east Asia, Buddhist stupas were usually represented as tall pagodas. However, some pyramidal stupas survive. One theory is that these pyramids were inspired by the Borobudur monument through Sumatran and Javanese monks.[38] A similar Buddhist monument survives in Vrang, Tajikistan.[39][40] At least nine Buddhist step pyramids survive, 4 from former Gyeongsang Province of Korea, 3 from Japan, 1 from Indonesia (Borobudur) and 1 from Tajikistan.[38][40]

### Oceania

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Several pyramids were erected throughout the Pacific islands, such as Puʻukoholā Heiau in Hawaii, the Pulemelei Mound in Samoa, and Nan Madol in Pohnpei.[citation needed]

Puʻukoholā Heiau National Historic Site, Hawaii, United States.

## Modern pyramids

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Comparison of approximate profiles of several notable pyramidal or near-pyramidal buildings. Dotted lines indicate original heights, where data is available. In its SVG file, hover over a pyramid to highlight and click for its article.

* Two pyramid-shaped tombs were erected in Maudlin's Cemetery, Ireland, c. 1840, belonging to the De Burgh family.
* Louvre Pyramid (Paris, France)The Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France, in the court of the Louvre Museum, is a 20.6 metre (about 70 foot) glass structure that acts as a museum entrance. It was designed by American architect I. M. Pei and completed in 1989. The Pyramide Inversée (Inverted Pyramid) is displayed in the underground Louvre shopping mall.
* The Tama-Re village was an Egyptian-themed set of buildings and monuments built near Eatonton, Georgia by Nuwaubians in 1993 that was mostly demolished after it was sold in 2005.
* The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, United States, is a 30-story pyramid.
* The 32-story Memphis Pyramid (Memphis was named after the Egyptian capital whose name was derived from the name of one of its pyramids). Built in 1991, it was the home court for the University of Memphis men's basketball program, and the National Basketball Association's Memphis Grizzlies until 2004. It was not regularly used as a sports or entertainment venue after 2007, and in 2015 was re-purposed as a Bass Pro Shops megastore.
* The Walter Pyramid, home of the basketball and volleyball teams of the California State University, Long Beach, campus in California, United States, is an 18-story-tall blue true pyramid.

Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, California

* The 48-story Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, California, designed by William Pereira, is a city symbol.
* The 105-story Ryugyong Hotel is in Pyongyang, North Korea.
* A former museum/monument in Tirana, Albania is commonly known as the "Pyramid of Tirana". It differs from typical pyramids in having a radial rather than square or rectangular shape, and gently sloped sides that make it short in comparison to the size of its base.
* The Slovak Radio Building in Bratislava, Slovakia is an inverted pyramid.
* The Palace of Peace and Reconciliation is in Astana, Kazakhstan.
* The three pyramids of Moody Gardens are in Galveston, Texas.
* The Co-Op Bank Pyramid or Stockport Pyramid in Stockport, England is a large pyramid-shaped office block. (The surrounding part of the valley of the upper Mersey has sometimes been called the "Kings Valley" after the Egypt's Valley of the Kings.)
* The Ames Monument in southeastern Wyoming honors the brothers who financed the Union Pacific Railroad.
* The Trylon, a triangular pyramid was erected for the 1939 World's Fair in Flushing, Queens and demolished after the Fair closed.
* The Ballandean Pyramid, at Ballandean in rural Queensland is a 15-metre folly pyramid made from blocks of local granite.
* The Karlsruhe Pyramid is a pyramid made of red sandstone, located in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It was erected in 1823–1825 over the vault of the city's founder, Margrave Charles III William (1679–1738).
* Muttart Conservatory greenhouses are in Edmonton, Alberta.

The Sunway Pyramid in Subang Jaya has an Egyptian-inspired pyramid with a lion-like sphinx.

* Sunway Pyramid shopping mall is in Selangor, Malaysia.
* Hanoi Museum has an overall design of a reversed pyramid.
* The Ha! Ha! Pyramid by artist Jean-Jules Soucy [fr] in La Baie, Quebec is made out of 3,000 give way signs.[41]
* The Pyramid [ru] culture-entertainment complex and Monument of the Kazan siege [ru] is in Kazan, Russia.
* The Time pyramid in Wemding, Germany is a pyramid begun in 1993 and scheduled for completion in the year 3183.[42]
* Triangle is a proposed skyscraper in Paris.
* The Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid is a proposed project for construction of a massive pyramid over Tokyo Bay in Japan.
* The Donkin Memorial was erected on a Xhosa reserve in 1820 by Cape Governor Sir Rufane Shaw Donkin in memory of his late wife Elizabeth, in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The pyramid is used in many different coats-of-arms associated with Port Elizabeth.

Oscar Niemeyer's design for a museum in Caracas

* Stockport Pyramid in Stockport, United Kingdom

* Karlsruhe Pyramid, Germany

* Hanoi Museum in Vietnam features an inverted pyramid shape.

* Slovak Radio Building, Bratislava, Slovakia.

* "Pyramid" culture-entertainment complex in Kazan, Russia.

* Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada

* Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee

* Walter Pyramid in Long Beach, California

### Modern mausoleums

[edit]

Metairie Cemetery, New Orleans

With the Egyptian Revival movement in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, pyramids became more common in funerary architecture. The tomb of Quintino Sella, outside the monumental cemetery of Oropa, is pyramid-shaped.[43] This style was popular with tycoons in the US. The Schoenhofen Pyramid Mausoleum (1889) in Chicago and Hunt's Tomb (1930) in Phoenix, Arizona are notable examples. Some people build pyramid tombs for themselves. Nicolas Cage bought a pyramid tomb for himself in a famed New Orleans graveyard.[44]

## See also

[edit]

* List of largest monoliths
* Lists of pyramids
* List of pyramid mausoleums in North America
* Mound
* Pyramid power
* Stupa
* Triadic pyramid
* Tumulus (burial mound)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ πυραμίς Archived 2021-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
2. ^ The word meant "a kind of cake of roasted wheat-grains preserved in honey"; the Egyptian pyramids were named after its form (R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1261).
3. ^ Centre of volume is one quarter of the way up—see Centre of mass.
4. ^ Crawford, page 73[citation not found]
5. ^ Crawford, page 73-74[citation not found]
6. ^ Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019). Uruk: First City of the Ancient World. Getty Publications. p. 325\. ISBN 978-1-60606-444-3.
7. ^ Crawford, page 85[citation not found]
8. ^ Viegas, Jennifer (28 April 2008). "Pyramids packed with fossil shells". ABC Science. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
9. ^ a b Redford, Donald B.; McCauley, Marissa (15 April 2014). "How were the Egyptian pyramids built?". Research. The Pennsylvania State University. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
10. ^ Lehner, Mark (25 March 2008). Mark Lehner (2008). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. pp. 14–15, 84. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3.
11. ^ Davidovits, Joseph (20 May 2008). They Built the Pyramids. Geopolymer Institute. p. 206\. ISBN 978-2-9514820-2-9.
12. ^ "Egypt Pyramids-Time Line". National Geographic. 17 October 2002. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
13. ^ Filer, Joyce (16 January 2006). Pyramids. Oxford University Press. p. 99\. ISBN 978-0-19-530521-0.
14. ^ Fodor's (15 March 2011). Fodor's Egypt, 4th Edition. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 249–250\. ISBN 978-1-4000-0519-2.
15. ^ Harpur, James (1997). Pyramid. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 24\. ISBN 978-0-7607-0215-4.
16. ^ Slackman, Michael (17 November 2008). "In the Shadow of a Long Past, Patiently Awaiting the Future". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
17. ^ Lehner, Mark (25 March 2008). Mark Lehner (2008). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. p. 34. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3.
18. ^ Filer, Joyce (16 January 2006). Pyramids. Oxford University Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-19-530521-0.
19. ^ Pollard, Lawrence (9 September 2004). "Sudan's past uncovered". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
20. ^ Basden, G. S(1966). Among the Ibos of Nigeria, 1912. Psychology Press: p. 109, ISBN 0-7146-1633-8
21. ^ Mary Lefkowitz (2006). "Archaeology and the politics of origins". In Garrett G. Fagan (ed.). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. Routledge. p. 188\. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8.
22. ^ Mary Lefkowitz (2006). "Archaeology and the politics of origins". In Garrett G. Fagan (ed.). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. Routledge. pp. 189–190\. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8.
23. ^ Bartos, Nick (16 December 2016). "Travel: Pyramids of the Peloponnese, Greece". World Archaeology. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
24. ^ Mary Lefkowitz (2006). "Archaeology and the politics of origins". In Garrett G. Fagan (ed.). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. Routledge. pp. 185–186\. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8.
25. ^ Mary Lefkowitz (2006). "Archaeology and the politics of origins". In Garrett G. Fagan (ed.). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. Routledge. p. 195\. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8.
26. ^ Liritzis, Ioannis (1 September 2011). "Surface dating by luminescence: An overview". Geochronometria. 38 (3): 292–302\. Bibcode:2011Gchrm..38..292L. doi:10.2478/s13386-011-0032-7. ISSN 1733-8387.
27. ^ Lacovara, Peter (2018). "Pyramids and Obelisks Beyond Egypt". Aegyptiaca (2): 124–129\. doi:10.11588/aegyp.2018.2.48018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
28. ^ "The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice Archived 2017-05-19 at the Wayback Machine". Natural History, April 1977. Vol. 86, No. 4, pages 46–51.
29. ^ Lindauer, Owen; Blitz, John H. (1997). "Higher Ground: The Archaeology of North American Platform Mounds" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Research. 5 (2): 169–207\. doi:10.1007/BF02229110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
30. ^ Raymond Fogelson (20 September 2004). Handbook of North American Indians : Southeast. Smithsonian Institution. p. 741\. ISBN 978-0-16-072300-1. Archived from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
31. ^ Henry van der Schalie; Paul W. Parmalee (September 1960). "The Etowah Site, Mound C :Barlow County, Georgia". Florida Anthropologist. 8: 37–39\. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
32. ^ "EVALUATIONS OF CULTURAL PROPERTIES" (PDF). Whc.unesco.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
33. ^ "Pangguyangan". Dinas Pariwisata dan Budaya Provinsi Jawa Barat (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
34. ^ I.G.N. Anom; Sri Sugiyanti; Hadniwati Hasibuan (1996). Maulana Ibrahim; Samidi (eds.). Hasil Pemugaran dan Temuan Benda Cagar Budaya PJP I (in Indonesian). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan. p. 87.
35. ^ Timbul Haryono (2011). Sendratari mahakarya Borobudur (in Indonesian). Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. p. 14\. ISBN 9789799103338.
36. ^ R. Soekmono (2002). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 (in Indonesian). Kanisius. p. 87\. ISBN 9789794132906.[permanent dead link]
37. ^ Edi Sedyawati; Hariani Santiko; Hasan Djafar; Ratnaesih Maulana; Wiwin Djuwita Sudjana Ramelan; Chaidir Ashari (2013). Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa: Indonesian-English, Volume 1 dari Candi Indonesia, Indonesia. Direktorat Pelestarian Cagar Budaya dan Permuseuman, Seri Jawa. Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan. ISBN 9786021766934.
38. ^ a b "古代における塔型建築物の伝播 ボロブドゥールと奈良頭塔の関係について" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
39. ^ Salopek, Paul (2 October 2017). "The Ruby Sellers of Vrang". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
40. ^ a b Salopek, Paul (14 July 2015). "ブァン仏教遺跡と熊山遺跡の比較検討" (PDF). National Geographic Magazine. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
41. ^ "La pyramide de la baies des HaHa: capteurs d'ondes telluriques". conspiration.ca. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
42. ^ Conception Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine Official Zeitpyramide website, accessed: 14 December 2010
43. ^ Luisa Bocchietto, Mario Coda and Carlo Gavazzi. "THE OTHER OROPA: A Guide to the Monumental Cemetery of the Sanctuary" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
44. ^ "Nicolas Cage's Pyramid Tomb". Atlasobscura.com. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.

## External links

[edit]

* Media related to Pyramids at Wikimedia Commons
* Pyramids travel guide from Wikivoyage

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* Computer art
* Fiber arts
* 4D art
* Fractal art
* Islamic geometric patterns
* Girih
* Jali
* Muqarnas
* Zellij
* Knotting
* Celtic knot
* Croatian interlace
* Interlace
* Music
* Origami
* Mathematics
* Sculpture
* String art
* String figure
* Tiling

Artworks|

* List of works designed with the golden ratio
* Continuum
* Mathemalchemy
* Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond
* Octacube
* Pi
* Pi in the Sky

Buildings|

* Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption
* Hagia Sophia
* Kresge Auditorium
* Pantheon
* Parthenon
* Pyramid of Khufu
* Sagrada Família
* Sydney Opera House
* Taj Mahal

Artists|

| Renaissance|

* Paolo Uccello
* Piero della Francesca
* Leonardo da Vinci
* Vitruvian Man
* Albrecht Dürer
* Parmigianino
* Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror

|

19th–20th
Century|

* William Blake
* The Ancient of Days
* Newton
* Jean Metzinger
* Danseuse au café
* L'Oiseau bleu
* Giorgio de Chirico
* Man Ray
* M. C. Escher
* Circle Limit III
* Print Gallery
* Relativity
* Reptiles
* Waterfall
* René Magritte
* La condition humaine
* Salvador Dalí
* Crucifixion
* The Swallow's Tail
* Crockett Johnson

Contemporary|

* Max Bill
* Martin and Erik Demaine
* Scott Draves
* Jan Dibbets
* John Ernest
* Helaman Ferguson
* Peter Forakis
* Susan Goldstine
* Bathsheba Grossman
* George W. Hart
* Desmond Paul Henry
* Anthony Hill
* Charles Jencks
* Garden of Cosmic Speculation
* Andy Lomas
* Robert Longhurst
* Jeanette McLeod
* Hamid Naderi Yeganeh
* István Orosz
* Hinke Osinga
* Antoine Pevsner
* Tony Robbin
* Alba Rojo Cama
* Reza Sarhangi
* Oliver Sin
* Hiroshi Sugimoto
* Daina Taimiņa
* Roman Verostko
* Margaret Wertheim

Theorists|

| Ancient|

* Polykleitos
* Canon
* Vitruvius
* De architectura

|

Renaissance|

* Filippo Brunelleschi
* Leon Battista Alberti
* De pictura
* De re aedificatoria
* Piero della Francesca
* De prospectiva pingendi
* Luca Pacioli
* De divina proportione
* Leonardo da Vinci
* A Treatise on Painting
* Albrecht Dürer
* Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion
* Sebastiano Serlio
* Regole generali d'architettura
* Andrea Palladio
* I quattro libri dell'architettura

Romantic|

* Samuel Colman
* Nature's Harmonic Unity
* Frederik Macody Lund
* Ad Quadratum
* Jay Hambidge
* The Greek Vase

Modern|

* Owen Jones
* The Grammar of Ornament
* Ernest Hanbury Hankin
* The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art
* G. H. Hardy
* A Mathematician's Apology
* George David Birkhoff
* Aesthetic Measure
* Douglas Hofstadter
* Gödel, Escher, Bach
* Nikos Salingaros
* The 'Life' of a Carpet

Publications|

* Journal of Mathematics and the Arts
* Lumen Naturae
* Making Mathematics with Needlework
* Rhythm of Structure
* Viewpoints: Mathematical Perspective and Fractal Geometry in Art

Organizations|

* Ars Mathematica
* The Bridges Organization
* European Society for Mathematics and the Arts
* Goudreau Museum of Mathematics in Art and Science
* Institute For Figuring
* Mathemalchemy
* National Museum of Mathematics

Related|

* Droste effect
* Mathematical beauty
* Patterns in nature
* Sacred geometry

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Prehistoric technology

* Prehistory
* Timeline
* Outline
* Stone Age
* Subdivisions
* New Stone Age
* Technology
* history
* Glossary

Tools

| Farming|

* Neolithic Revolution
* Founder crops
* New World crops
* Ard / plough
* Celt
* Digging stick
* Domestication
* Goad
* Irrigation
* Secondary products
* Sickle
* Terracing

|

Food processing
(Paleolithic diet)|

* Fire
* Basket
* Cooking
* Earth oven
* Granaries
* Grinding slab
* Ground stone
* Hearth
* Aşıklı Höyük
* Qesem cave
* Manos
* Metate
* Mortar and pestle
* Pottery
* Quern-stone
* Storage pits

Hunting|

* Arrow
* Boomerang
* throwing stick
* Bow and arrow
* history
* Nets
* Spear
* spear-thrower
* baton
* harpoon
* Schöningen
* woomera

Projectile points|

* Arrowhead
* Transverse
* Bare Island
* Cascade
* Clovis
* Cresswell
* Cumberland
* Eden
* Folsom
* Lamoka
* Manis Mastodon
* Plano

Systems|

* Game drive system
* Buffalo jump

Toolmaking|

* Earliest toolmaking
* Oldowan
* Acheulean
* Mousterian
* Aurignacian
* Clovis culture
* Cupstone
* Fire hardening
* Gravettian culture
* Hafting
* Hand axe
* Grooves
* Langdale axe industry
* Levallois technique
* Lithic core
* Lithic reduction
* analysis
* debitage
* flake
* Lithic technology
* Magdalenian culture
* Metallurgy
* Microblade technology
* Mining
* Prepared-core technique
* Solutrean industry
* Striking platform
* Tool stone
* Uniface
* Yubetsu technique

Other tools|

* Adze
* Awl
* bone
* Axe
* Bannerstone
* Blade
* prismatic
* Bone tool
* Bow drill
* Burin
* Canoe
* Oar
* Pesse canoe
* Chopper
* tool
* Cleaver
* Denticulate tool
* Fire plough
* Fire-saw
* Hammerstone
* Knife
* Microlith
* Quern-stone
* Racloir
* Rope
* Scraper
* side
* Stone tool
* Tally stick
* Weapons
* Wheel
* illustration

Architecture

| Ceremonial|

* Kiva
* Pyramid
* Standing stones
* megalith
* row
* Stonehenge

|

Dwellings|

* Neolithic architecture
* long house
* British megalith architecture
* Nordic megalith architecture
* Burdei
* Cave
* Cliff dwelling
* Dugout
* Hut
* Quiggly hole
* Jacal
* Longhouse
* Mudbrick
* Mehrgarh
* Pit-house
* Pueblitos
* Pueblo
* Rock shelter
* Blombos Cave
* Abri de la Madeleine
* Sibudu Cave
* Roundhouse
* Stilt house
* Alp pile dwellings
* Stone roof
* Wattle and daub

Water management|

* Check dam
* Cistern
* Flush toilet
* Reservoir
* Well

Other architecture|

* Archaeological features
* Broch
* Burnt mound
* fulacht fiadh
* Causewayed enclosure
* Tor enclosure
* Circular enclosure
* Goseck
* Cursus
* Henge
* Thornborough
* Megalithic architectural elements
* Midden
* Oldest extant buildings
* Timber circle
* Timber trackway
* Sweet Track

Arts and culture

| Material goods|

* Baskets
* Beadwork
* Beds
* Chalcolithic
* Clothing/textiles
* timeline
* Cosmetics
* Glue
* Hides
* shoes
* Ötzi
* Jewelry
* amber use
* Mirrors
* Pottery
* Cardium
* Cord-marked
* Grooved ware
* Jōmon
* Linear
* Unstan ware
* Sewing needle
* Weaving
* Wine
* winery
* wine press

|

Prehistoric art|

* Art of the Upper Paleolithic
* Art of the Middle Paleolithic
* Blombos Cave
* List of Stone Age art
* Bird stone
* Cairn
* Carved stone balls
* Cave paintings
* Cup and ring mark
* Geoglyph
* Hill figure
* Golden hats
* Guardian stones
* Gwion Gwion rock paintings
* painting
* pigment
* Megalithic art
* Petroform
* Petroglyph
* Petrosomatoglyph
* Pictogram
* Rock art
* Rock cupule
* Stone carving
* Sculpture
* Statue menhir
* Stone circle
* list
* British Isles and Brittany
* Venus figurine

Prehistoric music|

* Evolutionary musicology
* music archaeology
* Alligator drum
* Paleolithic flute
* Divje Babe flute
* Gudi

Prehistoric religion|

* Evolutionary origin of religion
* Paleolithic religion
* Spiritual drug use

Burial|

* Burial mounds
* Bowl barrow
* Round barrow
* Mound Builders culture
* U.S. sites
* Chamber tomb
* Cotswold-Severn
* Cist
* Dartmoor kistvaens
* Clava cairn
* Court cairn
* Cremation
* Dolmen
* Great dolmen
* Funeral pyre
* Gallery grave
* transepted
* wedge-shaped
* Grave goods
* Jar burial
* Long barrow
* unchambered
* Grønsalen
* Megalithic tomb
* Mummy
* Passage grave
* Rectangular dolmen
* Ring cairn
* Simple dolmen
* Stone box grave
* Tor cairn
* Unchambered long cairn

Other cultural|

* Archaeoastronomy
* sites
* lunar calendar
* Behavioral modernity
* Origin of language
* Prehistoric counting
* Prehistoric medicine
* trepanning
* Prehistoric warfare
* Symbols
* symbolism

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Poland
* Israel

|

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