Quran

Central religious text of Islam

This article is about the central religious text of Islam. For other uses, see Quran (disambiguation).

Quran

Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, romanized: al-Qurʾān

Two folios of the Birmingham Quran manuscript, an early manuscript written in Hijazi script on parchment carbon-dated to c. 568–645, overlapping Muhammad's lifetime

Information
Religion| Islam
Language| Classical Arabic
Period| 610–632 CE
Chapters| 114 (list)
See Surah
Verses| 6,348 (including the basmala)
6,236 (excluding the basmala)
See Āyah
Full text
Quran at Arabic Wikisource
Quran at  English Wikisource

The Quran,[a] vocalized Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, Quranic Arabic: ٱلۡقُرۡءَان, al-Qurʾān [alqurˈʔaːn],[b] lit. 'the recitation' or 'the lecture' also romanized Qur'an or Koran,[c] is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God (Allāh). It is organized in 114 chapters (surah, pl. suwer) which consist of individual verses (āyah). Besides its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[11][12][13] and has significantly influenced the Arabic language. It is the object of a modern field of academic research known as Quranic studies.

Muslims believe the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final Islamic prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on the Laylat al-Qadr, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to the first Islamic prophet Adam, including the holy books of the Torah, Psalms, and Gospel in Islam.

The Quran is believed by Muslims to be God's own divine speech providing a complete code of conduct across all facets of life. This has led Muslim theologians to fiercely debate whether the Quran was "created or uncreated." According to tradition, several of Muhammad's companions served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled on the order of the first caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656) established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with some differences in meaning.

The Quran assumes the reader's familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal texts. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind (2:185). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence.

Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are hadiths—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis, or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text.

Quran

History

* Waḥy
* First revelation
* Asbab al-Nuzul

* Historicity

Manuscripts

* Samarkand Kufic Quran
* Sanaa manuscript
* Topkapi manuscript
* Birmingham manuscript
* Codex Mashhad

Divisions

* Surah
* List
* Meccan
* Medinan

* Āyah
* Juz'
* Muqatta'at
* Al-Fatiha
* Al-Musabbihat
* Al-Mu'awwidhatayn

Content

* Quranic counter-discourse
* Self-referential discourse of the Quran
* Quranic cosmology
* Punishment narratives in the Quran
* Prophets
* No compulsion
* Women
* Animals

* Legends
* Miracles
* Parables

* Science
* Eschatology
* God

Reading

* Qāriʾ
* Hifz

* Tajwid
* Tarteel

* Ahruf
* Qira'at

Translations

* List
* Ahmadiyya
* Bengali
* English
* Hebrew

Exegesis

* List
* Hermeneutics
* Esotericism
* Abrogation

* Biblical parallels

* Related persons

* Mentioned by name

Characteristics

* I'jaz
* Inerrancy

Related

* Criticism
* Attempted imitations
* Quran and Sunnah
* Quranism
* Shi’a view

* Category
* Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

## Etymology and meaning

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The word qur'ān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself,[14] assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qara'a (قرأ) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā (ܩܪܝܢܐ), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'.[15] While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara'a itself.[16] Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[16] An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qur'ānahu)."[17]

In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when al-qur'ān is recited, listen to it and keep silent."[18] The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.[19]

The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qur'ān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb ('book'), āyah ('sign'), and sūrah ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the waḥy ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" (tanzīl) at intervals.[20][21] Other related words include: dhikr ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ḥikmah ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[16][d]

The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (al-furqān), 'the mother book' (umm al-kitāb), 'the guide' (huda), 'the wisdom' (hikmah), 'the remembrance' (dhikr), and 'the revelation' (tanzīl; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).[22] Another term is al-kitāb ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.[16]

## History

[edit]

Main articles: History of the Quran and Historiography of early Islam

### Prophetic era

[edit]

Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in 610 CE in the Cave of Hira on the Night of Power[23] during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith (traditions ascribed to Muhammad)[24][e] and Muslim history, after Muhammad and his followers immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras (also usually transliterated as Surah) were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 at age 61–62.[16][25][26][27][28][29] There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.[30]

Traditionally believed to be Muhammad's first revelation, Sura Al-Alaq, later placed 96th in the Quranic regulations, in current writing style

Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and A'isha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."[f] Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power,"[32] the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer."[28][33] The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer, or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.[34]

The Quran describes Muhammad as "ummi",[35] which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as al-Tabari (d. 923) maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as W. Montgomery Watt prefer the second meaning of ummi—they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.[28][36]

The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the year 10 A.H., a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm.

According to Islamic tradition, the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven different ahruf (meaning letters; however, it could mean dialects, forms, styles or modes).[37] Most Islamic scholars agree that these different ahruf are the same Quran revealed in seven different Arabic dialects and that they do not change the meaning of the Quran, the purpose of which was to make the Quran easy for recitation and memorization among the different Arab tribes.[38][39][40][41] While Sunni Muslims believe in the seven ahruf, some Shia reject the idea of seven Quranic variants.[42] A common misconception is that the seven ahruf and the qira'at are the same.

### Compilation and preservation

[edit]

A page from the Nurse's Quran, written in Kairouani calligraphy. (1020 AD)

Main articles: Canonization of Islamic scripture, Ahruf, and Qira'at

Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who memorized the Quran were killed in the Battle of al-Yamama by Musaylima. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved.[43] Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle".[44] Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as suhuf, any written work containing divine teachings)[45] and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow Hafsa bint Umar was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, Uthman (r. 644–656),[44] requested the standard copy from her.[46] According to historian Michael Cook, early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves: "Most ... make Uthman little more than an editor, but there are some in which he appears very much a collector, appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess." Some accounts also "suggest that in fact the material" Abu Bakr worked with "had already been assembled", which since he was the first caliph, would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive.[47]

Around the 650s, the Islamic expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula and into Persia, the Levant and North Africa, as well as the use of the seven ahruf, had caused some confusion and differences in the pronunciation of the Quran, and conflict was arising between different Arab tribes due to some claiming to be more superior to other Arab tribes and non-Arabs based on dialect, which Uthman noticed.[38][40][39][41] In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran.[48][49] Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death in 632,[50] the complete Quran was committed to written form as the Uthmanic codex. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.[48][51][52][53] and the six other ahruf of the Quran fell out of use.[38][40][39][41] The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.[28][29][g]

Quran − in Mashhad, Iran − said to be written by Ali

Qira'at which is a way and method of reciting the Quran was developed sometime afterwards. There are ten canonical recitations and they are not to be confused with ahruf. Shias recite the Quran according to the qira'at of Hafs on authority of ‘Asim, which is the prevalent qira'at in the Islamic world[56] and believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime.[57][58] It is claimed that the Shia had more than 1,000 hadiths ascribed to the Shia Imams which indicate the distortion of the Quran[59] and according to Etan Kohlberg, this belief about Quran was common among Shiites in the early centuries of Islam.[60] In his view, Ibn Babawayh was the first major Twelver author "to adopt a position identical to that of the Sunnis" and the change was a result of the "rise to power of the Sunni 'Abbasid caliphate," whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis-a-vis the position of Sunni "orthodoxy".[61] Alleged distortions have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali, the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies, such as Umayyads and Abbasids.[62]

Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex, none of which exist today.[16][48][63]

## Academic research

[edit]

Main articles: Quranic studies and Early Quranic manuscripts

Studies on the Quran rarely went beyond textual criticism.[when?][64][65] Until the early 1970s,[66] non-Muslim scholars of Islam —while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention— accepted the above-mentioned traditional origin story in most details.[43]

The basmala as written on the Birmingham mus'haf manuscript, one of the oldest surviving copies of the Quran
Rasm: "ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم"

University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that:[67]

> [T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established.

Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are.[68][69] There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.[h]

A page from the Sanaa manuscript. Possibly the oldest, best preserved and most comprehensive Islamic archaeological document to date. The double layer reveals additions to the original text and multiple differences with today's Quran.

In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts "consisting of 12,000 pieces" were discovered that were later proven to be the oldest Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, manuscript pages from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible.[71] Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability.[72][73] The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography, and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.[74] It is also possible that the content of the Quran itself may provides data regarding the date of writing of the text. For example, sources based on some archaeological data give the construction date of Masjid al-Haram, an architectural work mentioned 16 times in the Quran, as 78 AH[75] an additional finding that sheds light on the evolutionary history of the Quran mentioned,[74] which is known to continue even during the time of Hajjaj,[76][77] in a similar situation that can be seen with al-Aksa, though different suggestions have been put forward to explain.[i]

In 2015, a single folio of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years earlier, was discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic.[86] This possibly was one of the earliest extant exemplars of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest.[86] Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later.[87] The Birmingham manuscript caused excitement amongst believers because of its potential overlapping with the dominant tradition over the lifetime of Muhammad c. 570 to 632 CE[88] and used as evidence to support conventional wisdom and to refute the revisionists' views[89] that expresses findings and views different from the traditional approach to the early history of the Quran and Islam.

## Contents

[edit]

Main article: List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran

The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons.[90] The style of the Quran has been called "allusive", with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named."[91] While tafsir in Islamic sciences expresses the effort to understand the implied and implicit expressions of the Quran, fiqh refers to the efforts to expand the meaning of expressions, especially in the verses related to the provisions, as well as understanding it.[92]

Solomon, the son of David, king of Judah, had his temple built; which is still the subject of intercultural heritage fights today, under the name of Al-Aqsa,[93] and placed different idols there for his multinational wives according to the Bible.[94] Here he meets the legendary figure, Bilqis, by Edward Poynter, 1890.

Quranic studies state that, in the historical context, the content of the Quran is related to Rabbinic, Jewish-Christian, Syriac Christian and Hellenic literature, as well as pre-Islamic Arabia. Many places, subjects and mythological figures in the culture of Arabs and many nations in their historical neighbourhoods, especially Judeo-Christian stories,[95] are included in the Quran with small allusions, references or sometimes small narratives such as jannāt ʿadn, jahannam, Seven Sleepers, Queen of Sheba etc. However, some philosophers and scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun, who emphasize the mythological content of the Quran, are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles.[96]

The stories of Yusuf and Zulaikha, Moses, Family of Amram (parents of Mary according to the Quran) and mysterious hero[97][98][99][100] Dhul-Qarnayn ("the man with two horns") who built a barrier against Gog and Magog that will remain until the end of time are more detailed and longer stories. Apart from semi-historical events and characters such as King Solomon and David, about Jewish history as well as the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, tales of the hebrew prophets accepted in Islam, such as Creation, the Flood, struggle of Abraham with Nimrod, sacrifice of his son occupy a wide place in the Quran.

### Creation and God

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Main articles: God in Islam and Tawhid

The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20, 2:29, 2:255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16, 2:253, 50:38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.[28][90] The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"[101][102]

The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy. Most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the definitive article al- and ilāh "god" meaning "the God".[103]

Even though Muslims do not doubt about the existence and unity of God, they may have adopted different attitudes that have changed and developed throughout history regarding his nature (attributes), names and relationship with creation. Rabb is an Arabic word to refers to God meaning Lord[104] and the Quran cites in several places as in the Al-Fatiha; "All Praise and Gratitude is due to God, Lord of all the Universe". Mustafa Öztürk points out that the first Muslims believed that this god lived in the sky with the following words of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal: "Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic, an infidel. He should be invited to repent, but if he does not, be killed." This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that "God cannot be assigned a place and He is everywhere."[105] Also actions and attributes suh as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness etc. similar to humans used for this God in the Quran were considered mutashabihat—"no one knows its interpretation except God" (Quran 3:7)—by later scholars stating that God was free from resemblance to humans in any way.[j]

### Prophetic stories

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Main article: Prophets and messengers in Islam

In Islam, God speaks to people called prophets through a kind of revelation called wahy, or through angels. (42:51) nubuwwah (Arabic: نبوة 'prophethood') is seen as a duty imposed by God on individuals who have some characteristics such as intelligence, honesty, fortitude and justice: "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."[108][citation needed]

Islam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ishmael[109] and mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses.[110] Muslims regard him as a hanif,[111] an archetype of the perfect Muslim, and revered prophet and builder of the Kaaba in Mecca.[112] The Quran consistently refers to Islam as 'the religion of Abraham' (millat Ibrahim).[113] In Islam, Eid-al-Adha is celebrated to commemorate Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son by surrendering in line with his dream,(As-Saaffat; 100–107) which he accepted as the will of God.[114]

Asiya and her servants finding baby Moses in the Nile, Jami' al-tawarikh; a story that follows the footsteps of Sargon of Akkad's mythological accounts[115][116][k] possibly pious fiction.[118]

In Islam, Moses is a prominent prophet and messenger of God and the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran, with his name being mentioned 136 times and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet.[119][120] Unlike the hundreds of references in the Quran to the stories of prophets such as Moses and Jesus, it provides very little information about Muhammad himself,[121][122] his companions,[123] or his contemporaries. The individuals to whom the expressions used in Quranic polemics belong and the contexts in which they were used are merely notes made in commentaries written in later centuries. An exception is his slave/adopted son Zayd, whose name is mentioned in the verses (Al-Aḥzāb;37) in the context of his -divorced- wife being taken into Muhammad's marriages. Probably the clearest biographical account of Muhammad in the Quran is the brief mention of his followers' settlement in Yathrib after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and of military encounters such as the Muslim victory at Badr.[123] The early history of Mecca is still largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. The city lies in the hinterland of the middle part of western Arabia of which there are sparse textual or archaeological sources available.[124] This lack of knowledge is in contrast to both the northern and southern areas of western Arabia, specifically the Syro-Palestinian frontier and Yemen, where historians have various sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco-Roman authors, and information collected by church historians. The area of Hejaz that surrounds Mecca was characterized by its remote, rocky, and inhospitable nature, supporting only meagre settled populations in scattered oases and occasional stretches of fertile land. The Red Sea coast offered no easily accessible ports and the oasis dwellers and bedouins in the region were illiterate.[124]

There are a relatively small number of contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which attest to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both in themselves and for comparison with Muslim sources.[125] As in the case of Mecca, these sources cannot be said to support the traditional Islamic narrative; where there is a lack of pre-Islamic sources that mention it as a pilgrimage center in historical sources before 741 here the author Tom Holland who is part of the revisionist school of Islamic studies places the region in "midway between Ur and Harran" rather than the Hejaz- and lacks pre-Islamic archaeological data.[126][l]

Possible earlier mentions are not unambiguous. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus writes about Arabia in the 1st century BCE in his work Bibliotheca historica, describing a holy shrine: "And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".[128] Claims have been made this could be a reference to the Ka'bah in Mecca.[129] However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area of Leuke Kome, within the former Nabataean Kingdom and the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[130][131]

Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned.[132] Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that "Macoraba" is the word "Makkah" followed by the aggrandizing Aramaic adjective rabb (great). The Roman 4th-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as "Geapolis" or "Hierapolis", the latter one meaning "holy city" potentially referring to the sanctuary of the Kaaba.[133]

Procopius' 6th century statement that the Ma'add tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between the Ghassanids and the Himyarites of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associates Quraysh as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of Ma'add ibn Adnan.[134][135]

Stories of the prophets in the Quran often revolve around a certain pattern, according to which a prophet is sent to a group of people, who then reject or attack him, and ultimately suffer extinction as God's punishment. However, the Quran, given its paraenetic character, does not offer a full narrative; but rather offers a parabolic reference to the doom of previous generations, assuming the audience is familiar with the told stories.[136]

### Ethico-religious concepts

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While belief in God and obedience to the prophets are the main emphasis in the prophetic stories,[137] there are also non-prophetic stories in the Quran that emphasize the importance of humility and having profound-inner knowledge (hikmah) besides trusting in God. This is the main theme in the stories of Khidr, Luqman and Dhul Qarnayn. According to the later ascriptions to these stories, it is possible for those with this knowledge and divine support to teach the prophets (Khidr-Moses story Quran 18:65–82) and employ jinn (Dhul Qarnayn). Those who "spend their wealth" on people who are in need because they devoted their lives to the way of Allah and whose situation is unknown because they are ashamed to ask, will be rewarded by Allah. (Al Baqara; 272-274) In the story of Qārūn, the person who avoids searching for the afterlife with his wealth and becomes arrogant will be punished, arrogance befits only God. (Al Mutakabbir) Characters of the stories can be closed-mythical, (Khidr)[138][139] demi-mythologic or combined characters, and it can also be seen that they are Islamized. While some believe he was a prophet, some researchers equate Luqman with the Alcmaeon of Croton[140] or Aesop.[141]

Islamic Persian miniature of Jibril protecting Ibrahim from Nimrod's fire.

Sacrifice of Ibrahim's son. Quranic narratives affecting Islamic views: anti-idolatry, Qurban, and circumcision.

Commanding ma’ruf and forbidding munkar (Ar. ٱلْأَمْرُ بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ وَٱلنَّهْيُ عَنِ ٱلْمُنْكَرِ) is repeated or referred to in nearly 30 verses in different contexts in the Quran and is an important part of Islamist / jihadist indoctrination today, as well as Shiite teachings.[142]

Although a common translation of the phrase is "Enjoining good and forbidding evil", the words used by Islamic philosophy determining good and evil in discourses are "husn" and "qubh". The word ma’ruf literally means "known" or what is approved because of its familiarity for a certain society and its antithesis munkar means what is disapproved because it is unknown and extraneous.[143]

The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (sharia). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the salat and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration.[43][144] The term chosen for charity, zakat, literally means purification implies that it is a self-purification.[145][146] In fiqh, the term fard is used for clear imperative provisions based on the Quran. However, it is not possible to say that the relevant verses are understood in the same way by all segments of Islamic commentators; For example, Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard. However, some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray two or three times,[147][148][149][150] not five times. About six verses address the way a woman should dress when in public;[151] Some Muslim scholars consider this verse referring to the Hijab[152] while others to clothings in general.[153][m]

Early costumes of (Free) Arab women; It can provide clues in understanding some of the Quranic Urf related emphases such as ma'ruf and munkar as well as sunnah and bid'a on female dressing.[n]

Research shows that the rituals in the Quran, along with laws such as qisas[160] and tax (zakat), developed as an evolution of pre-Islamic Arabian rituals. Arabic words meaning pilgrimage (hajj), prayer (salāt) and charity (zakāt) can be seen in pre-Islamic Safaitic-Arabic inscriptions,[161] and this continuity can be observed in many details, especially in hajj and umrah.[162]

### As a source of law and judgment

[edit]

See also: Ulu'l-amr and Political aspects of Islam

A small number of verses in the Quran are about general rules of governance, inheritance, marriage, crime and punishment. Although the Quran does not impose a specific legal-management system, it emphasizes custom in nearly 40 verses and commands justice. (An-Nahl; 90) The practices prescribed in the Quran are considered as reflections of contextual legal understandings, as can be clearly seen in some examples such as Qisas and Diya.[163][164] The following statement in the Quran is thought to be the general rule of testimony in Islamic jurisprudence, except for crime and punishment - for example, debt, shopping, etc.; O believers! When you contract a loan for a fixed period of time, commit it to writing....with justice. Call upon two of your men to witness. If two men cannot be found, then one man and two women of your choice will witness so if one of the women forgets the other may remind her.[165][Quran 4:11][166]

As a different example, in the necklace story of Aisha, called Asbab al-Nuzul for surah An-Nur :11-20 four witnesses were required for the accusation of adultery. In addition, those who made accusations that did not meet the specified conditions would be punished with 80 lashes. The jurisprudence of later periods stipulates that witnesses must be men, covering all hadd crimes and people who did not have credibility and honesty in society (slaves, non-adl; sinners, infidels) could not testify against believers.[167] In addition, the Islamic judiciary did not require proof of the issues defined as tazir.[164]: 45 The statement in the Quran that determines the status of slaves in community is; Ma malakat aymanuhum[168] meaning "those whom your right hands possess". The widespread use of slavery in the Islamic world continued until the last century,[o] and the unrestricted sexual use of female slaves, with a few exceptions such as they couldn't be loaned out[p] in traditional islamic jurisprudence while stated today often that sharia provides many rights to slaves and aims to eradicate slavery over time.

Sharia is a collection of laws and rules created by scholars' interpretations on the Quran and hadith collections, and has been developed over the centuries, changing according to different geographies and societies. Fiqh sects are schools of understanding that try to determine the actions that people should do or avoid based on the Quran and hadiths. The place of hadiths in legislation is controversial; for example, in the Hanafi sect, in order to claim that something is obligatory, that issue must be clearly expressed in the Quran. Some of these results may also indicate exaggeration of statements, generalizations taken out of context, and imperative broadening of scope.[m] Of the few criminal cases listed as crimes in the Quran, only a few of them are punished by the classical books of sharia as determined by the verses of the Quran and are called hudud laws. How the verse Al-Ma'idah 33, which describes the crime of hirabah, should be understood is a matter of debate even today.[173] The verse talks about the punishment of criminals by killing, hanging, having their hands and feet cut off on opposite sides, and being exiled from the earth, in response to an -abstract- crime such as "fighting against Allah and His Messenger". Expanding or narrowing the conditions and scope of this crime according to new situations and universal legal standards are issues that continue to be discussed today[173] such as punishing in addition to rebellion against the legitimate government on "concrete sequential criminal acts" ie massacre, robbery and rape as preconditions.

Although the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its rules are largely preserved only in family law and criminal law in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for the full implementation of sharia, including corporal punishment such as stoning for adultery,[174][175] through a variety of propaganda methods, from civic political activities to terrorism.

### Eschatology

[edit]

Main article: Islamic eschatology

The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran.[28] It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time.[176] The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.[144]

Map by Pierre Daniel Huet (1700), locating Garden of Eden as described in Genesis 2:10–14:[177] also mentioned with the same name (jannāt ʿadn) in the Quran, with the difference is that it was not the place where Adam and Eve were sent down on earth, but the garden promised to believers after death.(Al-Kahf;30-31)

In the Quran belief in the afterlife is often referred in conjunction with belief in God: "Believe in God and the last day"[178] emphasizing what is considered impossible is easy in the sight of God. A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and warn people to be prepared for the "imminent" day referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction', 'the Day of the Gathering' or 'the Day of the Meeting'.[28]

## Text and arrangement

[edit]

Main articles: List of chapters in the Quran and Āyah

The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as a sūrah. Each sūrah consists of verses, known as āyāt, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6,236;[q] however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately. According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.[180]

Belqeys, Queen of Sheba, one of the legendary figures[181] in the Bible whose story is told without naming in the Quran,[182] lying in a garden, facing a hoopoe, Solomon's messenger. Persian miniature (c. 1595).

Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina on traditional account. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah names are derived from a name or a character in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size.[183] Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بِسْمِ ٱللَّٰهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[184][185]

The Muqattaʿat (Arabic: حروف مقطعات ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt, 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters';[186] also 'mysterious letters')[187] are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala.[187] The letters are also known as fawātih (فواتح), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their muqatta'at: Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ, Yāʾ-Sīn, Ṣād, and Qāf. Various theories have been put forward; they were a secret communication language between Allah and Muhammad, abbreviations of various names or attributes of Allah,[188][189] symbols of the versions of the Quran belonging to different companions, elements of a secret coding system,[190] or expressions containing esoteric meanings.[191] Some researchers associate them with hymns used in Syrian Christianity.[192] The phrases must have been part of these hymns or abbreviations of frequently repeated introductory phrases.[193][194] Some of them, such as Nun, were used in symbolic meanings.[195]

In addition of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz' (plural ajzāʼ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.[16] A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten āyāt each. Such a section is called a ruku.

### Literary style

[edit]

Main articles: Quranic counter-discourse, Self-referential discourse of the Quran, and Punishment narratives in the Quran

Boys studying the Quran in Touba, Senegal

The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.[196]

The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.[197][198]

The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[16] The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness.[r] Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.[201][202] Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device. Another group of researchers explores the irregularities and repetitions mentioned in the Quranic text in a way that refutes the traditional claim that it was preserved by memorization alongside writing. According to them, an oral period shaped the Quran as a text and order, and the repetitions and irregularities mentioned were remnants of this period.[203]

A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba'), criterion (furqan) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"),[204] or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.[205]

#### Inimitability

[edit]

Main articles: I'jaz, Quran imitations, and Islamic view of miracles

In Islam, ’i‘jāz (Arabic: اَلْإِعْجَازُ), "inimitability challenge" of the Quran in sense of feṣāḥa and belagha (both eloquence and rhetoric) is the doctrine which holds that the Quran has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match.[206] According to this, the Quran is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status.[207] The literary quality of the Quran has been praised by Muslim scholars and by many non-Muslim scholars.[208] The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.[209]

Splitting of the Moon, Muhammad with hidden face. 16th-century falnama. A possible idiom, Surah Al-Qamar 54:1–2 also mentioned in Imru' al-Qais poems,[210] was understood as the physical disintegration and supported by hadiths[211] despite the Quran itself denies[212][213] miracles, in the traditional sense.[s]

The Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature.[215][12][13] The emergence of the Quran was an oral and aural poetic[216] experience; the aesthetic experience of reciting and hearing the Quran is often regarded as one of the main reasons behind conversion to Islam in the early days.[217] Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry was an element of challenge, propaganda and warfare,[218] and those who incapacitated their opponents from doing the same in feṣāḥa and Belagha socially honored, as could be seen on Mu'allaqat poets. The etymology of the word "shā'ir; (poet)" connotes the meaning of a man of inspirational knowledge, of unseen powers. `To the early Arabs poetry was ṣihr ḥalāl and the poet was a genius who had supernatural communications with the jinn or spirits, the muses who inspired him.’[217] Although pre-Islamic Arabs gave poets status associated with suprahuman beings, soothsayers and prophecies were seen as persons of lower status. Contrary to later hurufic and recent scientific prophecy claims, traditional miracle statements about the Quran hadn't focused on prophecies, with a few exceptions like the Byzantine victory over the Persians[219] in wars that continued for hundreds of years with mutual victories and defeats.

The first works about the ’i‘jāz of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the Mu'tazila circles, which emphasized only its literary aspect, and were adopted by other religious groups.[220] According to grammarian Al-Rummani the eloquence contained in the Quran consisted of tashbīh, istiʿāra, taǧānus, mubālaġa, concision, clarity of speech (bayān), and talāʾum. He also added other features developed by himself; the free variation of themes (taṣrīf al-maʿānī), the implication content (taḍmīn) of the expressions and the rhyming closures (fawāṣil).[221] The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian Al Jurjani (d. 1078 CE), Dala’il al-i'jaz ('the Arguments of Inimitability') and Asraral-balagha ('the Secrets of Eloquence').[222] Al Jurjani believed that Quran's eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words.[209] Angelika Neuwirth lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of ’i‘jāz: The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran;[223] In the context of the emergence of the theory of "proofs of prophecy" (dâ'il an-nubuwwa) in Islamic theology, proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets, thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians; Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian Shu'ubiyya movement, etc.[224] Orientalist scholars Theodor Nöldeke, Friedrich Schwally and John Wansbrough, pointing out linguistic defects, held similar opinions on the Quranic text as careless and imperfect.[225]

## Significance in Islam

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Talismanic tunic, North India-Deccan, Metropolitan Museum

Quran says, "We have sent down the Quran in truth, and with the truth it has come down"[226] and frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained.[227] The Quran speaks of a written pre-text that records God's speech before it is sent down, the "preserved tablet" that is the basis of the belief in fate also, and Muslims believe that the Quran was sent down or started to be sent down on the Laylat al-Qadr.[145][228]

Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies",[229] whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy",[230] it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Traditionally, before starting to read the Quran, ablution is performed, one seeks refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan, and the reading begins by mentioning the names of Allah, Rahman and Rahim together known as basmala. Consequently,

> It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.[229][231]

According to Islam, the Quran is the word of God (Kalām Allāh). Its nature and whether it was created became a matter of fierce debate among religious scholars;[232][233] and with the involvement of the political authority in the discussions, some Muslim religious scholars who stood against the political stance faced religious persecution during the caliph al-Ma'mun period and the following years.

Muslims believe that the present Quranic text corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15:9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardians").[234] Muslims consider the Quran to be a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. For this reason, in traditional Islamic societies, great importance was given to children memorizing the Quran, and those who memorized the entire Quran were honored with the title of hafiz. Even today, millions of Muslims frequently refer to the Quran to justify their actions and desires",[t] and see it as the source of scientific knowledge,[236] though some refer to it as weird or pseudoscience.[237]

Muslims believe the Quran to be God's literal words,[16] a complete code of life,[238] the final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel.[25][239][240][241] On the other hand it is believed in Muslim community that full understanding of it can only be possible with the depths obtained in the basic and religious sciences that the ulema (imams in shia[242]) might access, as "heirs of the prophets".[243] For this reason, direct reading of the Quran or applications based on its literal translations are considered problematic except for some groups such as Quranists thinking that the Quran is a complete and clear book;[244] and tafsir / fiqh are brought fore to correct understandings in it. With a classical approach, scholars will discuss verses of the Quran in context called asbab al-nuzul in islamic literature, as well as language and linguistics; will pass it through filters such as muhkam and mutashabih, nasıkh and abrogated; will open the closed expressions and try to guide the believers. There is no standardization in Quran translations,[245] and interpretations range from traditional scholastic, to literalist-salafist understandings to Esoteric-Sufist, to modern and secular exegesis according to the personal scientific depth and tendencies of scholars.[246]

### In worship

[edit]

See also: Salah

Surah Al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the Quran, is recited in full in every rakat of salah and on other occasions. This sura, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:[16]

While standing in prayers, worshipers recite the first chapter of the Quran, al-Fatiha, followed by any other section

Al-Fatiha

Recitation of Al-Fatiha in mujawwad.

* * *

Problems playing this file? See media help.

بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ
ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ
ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ
مَٰلِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ
إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ
ٱهْدِنَا ٱلصِّرَٰطَ ٱلْمُسْتَقِيمَ
صِرَٰطَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ غَيْرِ ٱلْمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا ٱلضَّآلِّينَ

In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.
[All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds —
The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful,
Sovereign of the Day of Recompense.
It is You we worship and You we ask for help
Guide us to the straight path—
The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have evoked [Your] anger or of those who are astray.

|

—Quran 1:1-7 | —Sahih International English translation

Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers. Sura Al-Ikhlāṣ is second in frequency of Quran recitation, for according to many early authorities, Muhammad said that Ikhlāṣ is equivalent to one-third of the whole Quran.[247]

قُلۡ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ
ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ
لَمۡ یَلِدۡ وَلَمۡ یُولَدۡ
وَلَمۡ یَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدُۢ

Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ "He is God—One ˹and Indivisible˺;
God—the Sustainer ˹needed by all˺.
He has never had offspring, nor was He born.
And there is none comparable to Him."

|

—Surah Al-Ikhlāṣ 112:1-4 | —The Clear Quran English translation

Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56:79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu or ghusl) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal.[16]

Worn-out and old copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.[248] While praying, the Quran is only recited in Arabic.[249]

In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings.[16] Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr, thawab, or hasanat.[250]

### In Islamic art

[edit]

The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination.[16] The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.

* Calligraphy, 18th century, Brooklyn Museum.

* Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India.

* Typical mosque lamp, of enamelled glass, with the Ayat an-Nur or "Verse of Light" (24:35).

* Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period.

* Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan.

* The leaves from Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink with a horizontal format suited to classical Kufic calligraphy, which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs.

* 9th-century Quran in the Reza Abbasi Museum

* Shikasta nastaliq script, 18th–19th centuries

## Interpretation

[edit]

Main articles: Quranic hermeneutics and Muhkam and Mutashabih

Tafsir (Arabic: تفسير, romanized: tafsīr [tafˈsiːr]; English: explanation) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a tafsir is a mufassir (Arabic: مُفسّر; plural: Arabic: مفسّرون, romanized: mufassirūn). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will in Islam.[251]

Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics, jurisprudence, and theology. In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking.[251]

There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the tafsirs representing respective schools and doctrines, such as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, and Sufism. There are also general distinctions between classic tafsirs compiled by authoritative figures of Muslim scholarship during the formative ages of Islam, and modern tafsir which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people.[251]

### Exoteric and Esoteric interpretations (ta'wil)

[edit]

Main articles: Esoteric interpretation of the Quran and Quranic hermeneutics

A cedar in Lebanon (Lebanon's sacred tree); Translations made through modern Arabic, unaware of the cultural background and etymological development of the words and symbols that make up the language, can turn Quranic Sidrat al-Muntaha into the Lote tree.[252]

Commentaries dealing with the zahir ('outward aspects') of the text are called tafsir, (explanation) and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ('interpretation'). Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God.[16] Esoteric or Sufi interpretation relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of existence and consciousness.[253] According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, and are allusions (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of writers.[254]

Shias and Sunnis as well as some Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.[255]: 7 In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.[256][257] Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:

> The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning. So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings.[255]: 7

According to esoteric interpreters, the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.[258] Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because Gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[255]: 13

#### Notable Sufi commentaries

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One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is al-Sulami's (d. 1021) book named Haqaiq al-Tafsir ('Truths of Exegesis') is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Al-Daylami (d. 1193), Al-Shirazi (d. 1209) and Al-Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Al-Maybudi (d. 1135) kashf al-asrar ('the unveiling of the secrets').[253] Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran.[259] Simnani (d. 1336) tried reconciliation of God's manifestation through and in the physical world notions with the sentiments of Sunni Islam.[260] Ismail Hakki Bursevi's (d. 1725) work ruh al-Bayan ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis written in Arabic, combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali).[260]

## Translations

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Main article: Quran translations

See also: List of translations of the Quran

Shia Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in the city of Qom, Iran

Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.[261] An Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation difficult.[262] Moreover, one of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not know its language in the face of shifts in linguistic usage over the centuries is semantic translations (meanings) that include the translator's contributions to the relevant text instead of literal ones. Although the author's contributions are often bracketed and shown separately, the author's individual tendencies may also come to the fore in making sense of the main text. These studies contain reflections and even distortions[263][264] caused by the region, sect,[265] education, ideology and knowledge of the people who made them, and efforts to reach the real content are drowned in the details of volumes of commentaries. These distortions can manifest themselves in many areas of belief and practices.[u]

Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran.[262] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.[citation needed] The Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages.[63] The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century.[267] Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.[268]

The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian.[269] The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.[262] In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.[270]

Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).[271] Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. While all these translators were non-Muslims, there have been numerous translations by Muslims: popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classics translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem, The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, Sahih International's translation, among various others. As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you.[272]

The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Indian Punjab which was printed in 1911.[273]

* 1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script[274]

* Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era

* The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647

* Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran

* Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran

## Recitation

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Men reading the Quran at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria

### Rules of recitation

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See also: Tajwid

The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.[275]

In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for tajwid rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari[276] and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.

The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like El Minshawy, Al-Hussary, Abdul Basit, Mustafa Ismail, were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation.[277][278][279]: 83 Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta.[275] Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions.[280][13]

There are generally two types of recitation (based on pace of recitation):

1. Murattal is a recitation at moderate pace, used for study and practice.
2. Mujawwad refers to a slower recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.[281]

### Variant readings

[edit]

See also: Qira'at, Ahruf, Seven readers, and Ten recitations

Page of the Quran with vocalization marks

The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant.[282][283] According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.[284] Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.[285]

It is generally stated that there are small differences between readings. However, these small changes may also include differences that may lead to serious differences in Islam, ranging from the definition of God[v] to practices such as the formal conditions of ablution.[286]

The first Quranic manuscripts lacked marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf. Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafiʽ al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.[51][68] Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi.[287] Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.[288]

According to Ibn Taymiyyah vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds (tashkeel) were introduced into the text of the Quran during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah.[289]

## Writing and printing

[edit]

### Writing

[edit]

Main article: Islamic calligraphy

Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-typescript. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.[290][291]

In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah.[289] Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.[292][293]

Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif.[294]

* Folio from the "Blue" Quran at the Brooklyn Museum

* Kufic script, eighth or ninth century

* Maghribi script, 13th–14th centuries

* Muhaqqaq script, 14th–15th centuries

### Printing

[edit]

Quran divided into six books, published by Dar Ibn Kathir, Damascus-Beirut

Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.[295]

Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians.[296] The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537–1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini.[297][298] But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors.[299] Two more editions include the Hinckelmann edition published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694,[300] and the edition by the Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.[301]

Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death.[302][293][303] The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.[w]

In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan.[x] The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the First Constitutional Era.[306][307]

Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's Al-Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.[290]

## Criticism

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Main article: Criticism of the Quran

Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics[who?] refer to pre-existing sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from heretic, Apocryphic and talmudic sources, such as the Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James.[citation needed] The Quran acknowledges that accusations of borrowing popular ancient fables were being made against Muhammad.[308]

## Relationship with other literature

[edit]

Some non-Muslim groups such as the Baháʼí Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being viewed as a stage within the divine process of progressive revelation. Bahá'u'lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, wrote about the Quran.[309] Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel.[310][311] One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.[312]

### Relationship with The Bible

[edit]

See also: Biblical and Quranic narratives

Jonah and the giant fish in the Jami' al-tawarikh, Metropolitan Museum. A common folktale[313] finds its place in the Surah As-Saaffat 37:139 as well as in other sacred texts and can be traced in Oannes, Indian yogi Matsyendranatha, and the Greek hero Jason.

The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the God,[314][non-primary source needed] through it asserts that Jews and Christians have corrupted it through falsification and alteration (Taḥrīf).[315][316]

According to Christoph Luxenberg (in The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language.[317] The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.[120] Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament.[318]

### Relationship with Arab writing

[edit]

After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.[63] The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.[319]

## See also

[edit]

* Islam portal
* Book portal
* Middle Ages portal

* List of chapters in the Quran
* List of translations of the Quran
* Quran translations
* Historical reliability of the Quran
* Quran and miracles
* Quran code
* Criticism of the Quran
* Violence in the Quran
* Women in the Quran
* Digital Quran
* The True Furqan
* Qira'at
* Hadith
* Hadith al-Thaqalayn
* Islamic schools and branches
* Schools of Islamic theology
* Attempted imitations of the Quran

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ /kʊˈrɑːn/, kuurr-AHN; the English pronunciation varies: /kəˈrɑːn/, /-ˈræn/, /kɔː-/, /koʊ-/;[1] especially with the spelling quran /kʊˈrɑːn/, /-ˈræn/;[2] including British English /kɒˈrɑːn/.[3][4]
2. ^ The Arabic pronunciation can be transcribed phonemically as /al.qurˈʔaːn/. The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [o] to [ʊ], while the second vowel varies from [æ] to [a] to [ɑ]. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn].
3. ^ (English spelling) The form Alcoran (and its variants) was usual before the 19th century when it became obsolete.[5][6] The form Koran was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century till the 1980s, when it has been superseded by either Qur'an or Quran.[6][7][8][9] Other transliterations include al-Coran, Coran, Kuran and al-Qur'an. The adjectives vary as well and include Koranic, Quranic and Qur'anic (sometimes in lowercase).[10]
4. ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."
5. ^ Hadith are primarily from Muhammad but some are from those closest to him. Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them; see Hadith studies#Evaluating authenticity.
6. ^ "God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."[31]
7. ^ "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."[54] There is some disagreement among early Muslim sources disagree over who was the first to collect the narrations. At least one source credits Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah with collecting the Quran into a mushaf: "It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:

> The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf (codex) was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah.[55]

8. ^ For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text"[70]
9. ^ Arabic and Persian writers such as 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi,[78] 11th-century scholar Nasir Khusraw,[78] 12th-century geographer al-Idrisi[79] and 15th-century Islamic scholar Mujir al-Din,[80][81] as well as 19th-century American and British Orientalists Edward Robinson,[82] Guy Le Strange and Edward Henry Palmer explained that the term Masjid al-Aqsa refers to the entire esplanade plaza also known as the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif ('Noble Sanctuary') – i.e. the entire area including the Dome of the Rock, the fountains, the gates, and the four minarets – because none of these buildings existed at the time the Quran was written.[83][84][85]
10. ^ Human qualities which are attributed to Allah in the Quran such as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness; "Allah has equipped them with words to bring them closer to our minds; in this respect, they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind and thus help the listener to clearly understand the idea he wants to express."[106][107]
11. ^ My mother, the high priestess, conceived; in secret she bore me She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid She cast me into the river which rose over me.[117]
12. ^ The first references to Mecca do not use locative expressions except for the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle or Chronicle of 741, though here the author places the region in Mesopotamia ("midway between Ur and Harran") rather than the Hejaz.[127]
13. ^ a b Beyza Bilgin states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse of Al-Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows:[154]

> "In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law."

She said the following about covering herself in prayer :

> "They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman."[154]

14. ^ Sunnah originally meant a tradition that did not contain the definition of good and bad. Later, "good traditions" began to be referred to as sunnah and the concept of "Muhammad's sunnah" was established.[155] It is reported that Umar prohibited female slaves from resembling free women by covering their hair,[156] no different from earlier social practices in which noble women who could wear ornate female headdresses were easily distinguished from slaves as in Mesopotamia, Assyria and ancient Greece.[157][158][159]
15. ^ "The Caliphate in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace."[169] The Arab slave trade typically dealt in the sale of castrated male slaves. Black boys at the age of eight to twelve had their penises and scrota completely amputated. Reportedly, about two out of three boys died, but those who survived drew high prices.[170]
16. ^ In Shiite jurisprudence, it is unlawful for a master of a female slave to grant a third party the use of her for sexual relations. The Shiite scholar Shaykh al-Tusi stated: ولا يجوز إعارتها للاستمتاع بها لأن البضع لا يستباح بالإعارة "It is not permissible to loan (the slave girl) for enjoyment purpose, because sexual intercourse cannot be legitimate through loaning"[171] and the Shiite scholars al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki, Allamah Al-Hilli and Ali Asghar Merwarid made the following ruling: ولا تجوز استعارة الجواري للاستمتاع "It is not permissible to loan the slave girl for the purpose of sexual intercourse"[172]
17. ^ Scholars disagree on the exact number but this is a disagreement over "the placing of the divisions between the verese, not on the text itself."[179]
18. ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read."[199] Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!"[200]
19. ^ Mehmet Özdemir (prof.dr.) regarding sirah draws attention to the almost non-existent number of miracles (dalāʾil al-nubuwwa) in the first records and the hundreds of additions made in later periods.[214]
20. ^ Algerian Mohammed Arkoun, Professor Emeritus of Islamic Thought at the University of Paris .[235]
21. ^ In Luxenberg's Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran, the verse instead commands women to "snap their belts around their waists." The belt was a sign of chastity in the Christian world.[266] According to him, the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows:خِمار Khimar; cummerbund, جيب jyb; sinus, sac, وَلْيَضْرِبْنَ;"let them hit"
22. ^ Qira’at: All except for ʻAsem, Al-Kesa’i, Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read [māliki yawmi-d-dīn(i)] as 4 King of the Day of Judgement.
23. ^ "the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838. When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed, this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century"[304]
24. ^ "at imperial expense, a 'Tatar and Turkish Typography' was established in St. Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur'ān. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann (d. 1795), who was befriended by Catherine II, a copy of the publication arrived in the Göttingen University library. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne (d. 1812), presented the work immediately in the Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen (28 July 1788); therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types. To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St. Petersburg (cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. 384); later, after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan, editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentation[305]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ dictionary.reference.com: koran
2. ^ dictionary.reference.com: quran
3. ^ Cambridge dictionary: koran
4. ^ Cambridge dictionary: quran
5. ^ "Alcoran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1888. p. 210.
6. ^ a b "Google Books Ngram Viewer". Google Books. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
7. ^ "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1901. p. 753.
8. ^ "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
9. ^ "Quran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
10. ^ "Koran". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
11. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1954). Islam. Edinburgh: Penguin books. p. 74\. "It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it."
12. ^ a b Toropov, Brandon; Buckles, Luke (2004). Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions. Alpha. p. 126\. ISBN 978-1-59257-222-9. "Muslims believe that Muhammad's many divine encounters during his years in Mecca and Medina inspired the remainder of the Qur'an, which, nearly fourteen centuries later, remains the Arabic language's preeminent masterpiece."
13. ^ a b c Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 21\. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3. "Throughout history, many Arab Christians as well have regarded it as the perfection of the Arabic language and literature."
14. ^ Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002). Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. A&C Black. p. 2\. ISBN 978-0-8264-4957-3.
15. ^ "The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon". Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Nasr 2007
17. ^ Quran 75:17
18. ^ Quran 7:204
19. ^ See "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online and 9:111
20. ^ Quran 20:2 cf.
21. ^ Quran 25:32 cf.
22. ^ Jaffer, Abbas; Jaffer, Masuma (2009). Quranic Sciences. ICAS press. pp. 11–15\. ISBN 978-1-904063-30-8.
23. ^ Surah Al-Qadr 97
24. ^ Sandıkcı, Özlem; Rice, Gillian (2011). Handbook of Islamic Marketing. Edward Elgar. p. 38\. ISBN 978-1-84980-013-6.
25. ^ a b Fisher, Mary Pat (1997). Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths (Rev. ed.). London: I. B. Tauris Publishers. p. 338.
26. ^ Quran 17:106
27. ^ Tabatabae 1988, p. 98
28. ^ a b c d e f g Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt) (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qur'an. Univ. Press. pp. 31–51\. ISBN 978-0-85224-171-4.
29. ^ a b P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis (1970). The Cambridge history of Islam (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 32\. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
30. ^ Denffer, Ahmad von (1985). Ulum al-Qur'an: an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an (Repr. ed.). Islamic Foundation. p. 37\. ISBN 978-0-86037-132-8.
31. ^ "Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1". Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012.
32. ^ Quran 53:5
33. ^ Quran 53:6-9
34. ^ Buhl, Fr. (2012) [1913–1936]. "Muhammad". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T. W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islam (1 ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4746. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
35. ^ Quran 7:157
36. ^ Günther, Sebastian (2002). "Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis". Journal of Quranic Studies. 4 (1): 1–26\. doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.1.1. ISSN 1465-3591.
37. ^ "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
38. ^ a b c Philips, Abu Ameenah Bilal (2006). Tafseer Soorah Al -Hujurat (New Revised Edition 2 ed.). International Islamic Publishing House. pp. 50–54\. ISBN 9960-9677-0-0.
39. ^ a b c "Qira't and the 7 Ahruf: All You Need To Know". Arabian Tongue. 15 February 2023. Archived from the original on 15 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
40. ^ a b c Academy, Ulum Al-Azhar (13 August 2024). "What Is Ahruf And Qirat? | A Full Guide - Ulum Al Azhar". Retrieved 15 August 2024.
41. ^ a b c "Background of 7 Ahruf (Dialects) of the Quran". Rizqan Kareem - Most Excellent Sustenance. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
42. ^ "معهد الفتح الإسلامي يرحب بكم". www.alfatihonline.com. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
43. ^ a b c Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts On File. pp. 570–574\. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
44. ^ a b Donner, Fred (2006). "The historical context". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–33.
45. ^ Roslan Abdul-Rahim (December 2017). "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an". Global Journal Al-Thaqafah. 7 (2): 62. doi:10.7187/GJAT122017-2. ISSN 2232-0474.
46. ^ "Wat is de Koran?". Koran.nl (in Dutch). 18 February 2016.
47. ^ Cook 2000, p. 121.
48. ^ a b c Tabatabae 1988, p. 99:

> Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration, the [third] caliph ordered that five of the qurrā' from amongst the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thābit who had compiled the first volume), produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph.

> The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.

> It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."

49. ^ al-Bukhari, Muhammad. "Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510". sahih-bukhari.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
50. ^ Cook 2000, p. 117.
51. ^ a b Rippin 2006:
* "Poetry and Language", by Navid Kermani, pp. 107–20.
* For the history of compilation see "Introduction," by Tamara Sonn, pp. 5–6
* For eschatology, see "Discovering (final destination)", by Christopher Buck, p. 30.
* For literary structure, see "Language," by Mustansir Mir, p. 93.
* For writing and printing, see "Written Transmission", by François Déroche, pp. 172–87.
* For recitation, see "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade pp. 481–93
52. ^ Yusuff, Mohamad K. "Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an".
53. ^ Cook 2000, pp. 117–124.
54. ^ Peters 1991, pp. 3–5
55. ^ John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts, [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", citing as-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an, p. 135).
56. ^ "Noorullah Website - Is the Qur'an Corrupted? Shi'ites View". 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009.
57. ^ Shirazi, Muhammad (2001). The Qur'an - When was it compiled?. London,UK: Fountain Books. pp. 5, 7.
58. ^ Shirazi, Muhammad (2008). The Shi'a and their Beliefs. London,UK: Fountain Books. p. 29.
59. ^ HADDADIAN ABDORREZA; MOADDAB SEYYED REZA. "A STUDY ON TRADITIONS OF DISTORTION IN AYYASHI EXEGESIS". Hadith Studies. 4 (8): 141–166.
60. ^ Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari (2009). Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). "Revelation and Falsification: The Kitab al-qira'at of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Sayyari: Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi". Texts and Studies on the Qurʼān. 4. BRILL: vii. ISSN 1567-2808.
61. ^ Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, p.24-26-27
62. ^ Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp.20, 24
63. ^ a b c Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
* For God in the Quran (Allah), see "Allah", by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 33–40.
* For eschatology, see "Eschatology," by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 194–99.
* For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see "Cyberspace and the Qur'an", by Andrew Rippin, pp. 159–63.
* For calligraphy, see by "Calligraphy and the Qur'an" by Oliver Leaman, pp. 130–35.
* For translation, see "Translation and the Qur'an," by Afnan Fatani, pp. 657–69.
* For recitation, see "Art and the Qur'an" by Tamara Sonn, pp. 71–81; and "Reading", by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.
64. ^ Religions of the world Lewis M. Hopfe – 1979 "Some Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles. No one has yet suggested the higher criticism of the Quran."
65. ^ Egypt's culture wars: politics and practice – Page 278 Samia Mehrez – 2008 Middle East report: Issues 218–222; Issues 224–225 Middle East Research & Information Project, JSTOR (Organization) – 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife, on the grounds that Abu Zayd's textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate, and hence unfit to marry a Muslim. Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands
66. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.30
67. ^ Donner, Fred M. (2014). "Review: Textual Criticism and Qurʾān Manuscripts, by Keith E. Small". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (1): 166–169\. doi:10.1086/674909.
68. ^ a b Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings". Studia Islamica (91): 5–22\. doi:10.2307/1596266. JSTOR 1596266.
69. ^ Ibn Warraq, Which Koran? Variants, Manuscript, Linguistics, p. 45. Prometheus Books, 2011. ISBN 1-59102-430-7
70. ^ Gilliot, C. (2006). "Creation of a fixed text". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
71. ^ "'The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation' Third Biannual SOAS Conference, 16–17 October 2003". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 6 (1): 143–145\. April 2004. doi:10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143.
72. ^ Bergmann, Uwe; Sadeghi, Behnam (September 2010). "The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet". Arabica. 57 (4): 343–436\. doi:10.1163/157005810X504518.
73. ^ Sadeghi, Behnam; Goudarzi, Mohsen (March 2012). "Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān". Der Islam. 87 (1–2): 1–129\. doi:10.1515/islam-2011-0025. S2CID 164120434.1–2&rft.pages=1-129&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=info:doi/10.1515/islam-2011-0025&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164120434#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Sadeghi&rft.aufirst=Behnam&rft.au=Goudarzi,+Mohsen&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Quran" class="Z3988">
74. ^ a b Lester, Toby (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". Atlantic. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
75. ^ "An Inscription Mentioning the Rebuilding of Al-Masjid Al-Haram, 78 AH / 697-698 CE".
76. ^ Jeffrey 1952, pp. 99–120.
77. ^ Robinson 1996, p. 56.
78. ^ a b Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 96\. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022. "Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid or Al Masjid al Akså, Jami' or Jami al Aksâ; and nothing but an intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a translator, ever and again, misunderstanding the text he has before him-since the native authorities use the technical terms in an extraordinarily inexact manner, often confounding the whole, and its part, under the single denomination of "Masjid." Further, the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points : Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al Masjid, or as Al Masjid al Aksî, "the Akså Mosque," or "the mosque," while the Main-building of the mosque, at the south end of the Haram Area, which we generally term the Aksa, he refers to as Al Mughattâ, "the Covered-part." Thus he writes "the mosque is entered by thirteen gates," meaning the gates of the Haram Area. So also "on the right of the court," means along the west wall of the Haram Area; "on the left side" means the east wall; and "at the back" denotes the northern boundary wall of the Haram Area. Nasir-i-Khusrau, who wrote in Persian, uses for the Main-building of the Aksâ Mosque the Persian word Pushish, that is, "Covered part," which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta. On some occasions, however, the Akså Mosque (as we call it) is spoken of by Näsir as the Maksurah, a term used especially to denote the railed-off oratory of the Sultan, facing the Mihrâb, and hence in an extended sense applied to the building which includes the same. The great Court of the Haram Area, Nâsir always speaks of as the Masjid, or the Masjid al Akså, or again as the Friday Mosque (Masjid-i-Jum'ah)."
79. ^ Idrīsī, Muhammad; Jaubert, Pierre Amédée (1836). Géographie d'Édrisi (in French). à l'Imprimerie royale. pp. 343–344\. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022. "Sous la domination musulmane il fut agrandi, et c'est (aujourd'hui) la grande mosquée connue par les Musulmans sous le nom de Mesdjid el-Acsa مسجد الأقصى. Il n'en existe pas au monde qui l'égale en grandeur, si l'on en excepte toutefois la grande mosquée de Cordoue en Andalousie; car, d'après ce qu'on rapporte, le toit de cette mosquée est plus grand que celui de la Mesdjid el-Acsa. Au surplus, l'aire de cette dernière forme un parallelogramme dont la hauteur est de deux cents brasses (ba'a), et le base de cents quatre-vingts. La moitié de cet espace, celle qui est voisin du Mihrab, est couverte d'un toit (ou plutôt d'un dôme) en pierres soutenu par plusieurs rangs de colonnes; l'autre est à ciel ouvert. Au centre de l'édifice est un grand dôme connu sous le nom de Dôme de la roche; il fut orné d'arabesques en or et d'autres beaux ouvrages, par les soins de divers califes musulmans. Le dôme est percé de quatre portes; en face de celle qui est à l'occident, on voit l'autel sur lequel les enfants d'Israël offraient leurs sacrifices; auprès de la porte orientale est l'église nommée le saint des saints, d'une construction élégante; au midi est une chapelle qui était à l'usage des Musulmans; mais les chrétiens s'en sont emparés de vive force et elle est restée en leur pouvoir jusqu'à l'époque de la composition du présent ouvrage. Ils ont converti cette chapelle en un couvent où résident des religieux de l'ordre des templiers, c'est-à-dire des serviteurs de la maison de Dieu." Also at Williams, G.; Willis, R. (1849). "Account of Jerusalem during the Frank Occupation, extracted from the Universal Geography of Edrisi. Climate III. sect. 5. Translated by P. Amédée Jaubert. Tome 1. pp. 341—345.". The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. J.W. Parker. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
80. ^ Williams, George (1849). The Holy City: Historical, Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. Parker. pp. 143–160\. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2022. "The following detailed account of the Haram es-Sherif, with some interesting notices of the City, is extracted from an Arabic work entitled " The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron, by Kadi Mejir-ed-din, Ebil-yemen Abd-er-Rahman, El-Alemi," who died A. H. 927, (A. d. 1521)… "I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa (i. e. the most distant), is the Mosk [Jamia] properly so called, at the southern extremity of the area, where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab. But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls, the dimensions of which I have just given, for the Mosk proper [Jamia], the Dome of the Rock, the Cloisters, and other buildings, are all of late construction, and Mesjid el-Aksa is the correct name of the whole area."" and also von Hammer-Purgstall, J.F. (1811). "Chapitre vingtième. Description de la mosquée Mesdjid-ol-aksa, telle qu'elle est de nos jours, (du temps de l'auteur, au dixième siècle de l'Hégire, au seizième après J. C.)". Fundgruben des Orients (in French). Vol. 2\. Gedruckt bey A. Schmid. p. 93\. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 22 June 2022. "Nous avons dès le commencement appelé l'attention sur que l'endroit, auquel les hommes donnent aujourd'hui le nom d'Aksa, c'est à-dire, la plus éloignée, est la mosquée proprement dite, bâtie à l'extrêmité méridionale de l'enceinte où se trouve la chaire et le grand autel. Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l'enceinte entière, en tant qu'elle est enfermée de murs, dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur, car la mosquée proprement dite, le dôme de la roche Sakhra, les portiques et les autres bâtimens, sont tous des constructions récentes, et Mesdjidol-aksa est le véritable nom de toute l'enceinte. (Le Mesdjid des arabes répond à l'ίερόν et le Djami au ναός des grecs.)"
81. ^ Mustafa Abu Sway (Fall 2000). "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Islamic Sources". Journal of the Central Conference of American Rabbis: 60–68\. Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2022. "Quoting Mujir al-Din: "Verily, 'Al-Aqsa' is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel""
82. ^ Robinson, E.; Smith, E. (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine. John Murray. "The Jámi'a el-Aksa is the mosk alone; the Mesjid el-Aksa is the mosk with all the sacred enclosure and precincts, including the Sükhrah. Thus the words Mesjid and Jāmi'a differ in usage somewhat like the Greek ίερόν and ναός."
83. ^ Palmer, E. H. (1871). "History of the Haram Es Sherif: Compiled from the Arabic Historians". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 3 (3): 122–132\. doi:10.1179/peq.1871.012. ISSN 0031-0328. "EXCURSUS ON THE NAME MASJID EL AKSA. In order to understand the native accounts of the sacred area at Jerusalem, it is essentially necessary to keep in mind the proper application of the various names by which it is spoken of. When the Masjid el Aksa is mentioned, that name is usually supposed to refer to the well-known mosque on the south side of the Haram, but such is not really the case. The latter building is called El Jámʻi el Aksa, or simply El Aksa, and the substructures are called El Aksa el Kadímeh (the ancient Aksa), while the title El Masjid el Aksa is applied to the whole sanctuary. The word Jámi is exactly equivalent in sense to the Greek συναγωγή, and is applied to the church or building in which the worshippers congregate. Masjid, on the other hand, is a much more general term; it is derived from the verb sejada "to adore," and is applied to any spot, the sacred character of which would especially incite the visitor to an act of devotion. Our word mosque is a corruption of masjid, but it is usually misapplied, as the building is never so designated, although the whole area on which it stands may be so spoken of. The Cubbet es Sakhrah, El Aksa, Jam'i el Magharibeh, &c., are each called a Jami, but the entire Haram is a masjid. This will explain how it is that 'Omar, after visiting the churches of the Anastasis, Sion, &c., was taken to the "Masjid" of Jerusalem, and will account for the statement of Ibn el 'Asa'kir and others, that the Masjid el Aksa measured over 600 cubits in length-that is, the length of the whole Haram area. The name Masjid el Aksa is borrowed from the passage in the Coran (xvii. 1), when allusion is made to the pretended ascent of Mohammed into heaven from ·the temple of Jerusalem; "Praise be unto Him who transported His servant by night from El Masjid el Haram (i.e., 'the Sacred place of Adoration' at Mecca) to El Masjid el Aksa (i.e., 'the Remote place of Adoration' at Jerusalem), the precincts of which we have blessed," &c. The title El Aksa, "the Remote," according to the Mohammedan doctors, is applied to the temple of Jerusalem "either because of its distance from Mecca, or because it is in the centre of the earth.""
84. ^ Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2022. "THE AKSÀ MOSQUE. The great mosque of Jerusalem, Al Masjid al Aksà, the "Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran (xvii. I)... the term "Mosque" being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of the Aksà only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist."
85. ^ Strange, Guy le (1887). "Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem in 1470 A.D., by Kamâl (or Shams) ad Dîn as Suyûtî". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 19 (2). Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 247–305\. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00019420. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25208864. S2CID 163050043. "…the term Masjid (whence, through the Spanish Mezquita, our word Mosque) denotes the whole of the sacred edifice, comprising the main building and the court, with its lateral arcades and minor chapels. The earliest specimen of the Arab mosque consisted of an open courtyard, within which, round its four walls, run colonades or cloisters to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Mekka), and facing which the worshipper must stand, the colonade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jami' or place of assembly… coming now to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we must remember that the term 'Masjid' belongs not only to the Aksa mosque (more properly the Jami' or place of assembly for prayer), but to the whole enclosure with the Dome of the Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes and chapels."
86. ^ a b Coughlan, Sean. "'Oldest' Koran fragments found in Birmingham University". BBC. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
87. ^ Dan Bilefsky (22 July 2015). "A Find in Britain: Quran Fragments Perhaps as Old as Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
88. ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (mainly non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker, The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam,[page needed] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
89. ^ "New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?". The Huffington Post. 24 July 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
90. ^ a b Saeed, Abdullah (2008). The Qurʼan: an introduction. London: Routledge. p. 62\. ISBN 978-0-415-42124-9.
91. ^ Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
92. ^ Vogel, Frank E. (2000). Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Brill. pp. 4–5\. ISBN 9004110623.
93. ^ "Surah Al-Isra – 7". Quran.com. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
94. ^ 1 Kings 11:1, 7–8
95. ^ Bietenholz, Peter G. (1994). Historia and fabula: myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age. Brill. ISBN 978-9004100633.
96. ^ Fazeli, Hamidreza; Tali Tabasi, Marziyeh; Fazeli, Alireza; Fararooei, Shokrolla. "A Critical Study of the Quran's Theory of Mythology (A Case Study on Mohammad Arkoun's Perspectives)". Iraqi Open Access Journals. p. 2\. Archived from the original on 17 February 2025. Retrieved 5 March 2024. "After examining the verses of the Quran to find where the word mythology has been used and seeking the accordance between the meaning and context with Quran's purpose of knowledge and guidance, including rules and educational issues, we found that the concept of myth is not acceptable in the Quran. The result of this study show that Quran is not a myth, rather the stories are factual and based on reality."
97. ^ Watt 1960–2007: "It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great." Cook 2013: "[...] Dhū al-Qarnayn (usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...]".
98. ^ Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (17 April 2018). Khwadāynāmag The Middle Persian Book of Kings. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-27764-9. "Many Mediaeval scholars argued against the identification, though. Cf., e.g., the discussion in al-Maqrizi, Khabar §§212-232."
99. ^ Maqrīzī, Aḥmad Ibn-ʿAlī al-; Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko (2018). Al-Maqrīzī's al-Ḫabar ʻan al-bašar: vol. V, section 4: Persia and its kings, part I. Bibliotheca Maqriziana Opera maiora. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 279–281\. ISBN 978-90-04-35599-6.
100. ^ Zadeh, Travis (28 February 2017). Mapping Frontiers Across Medieval Islam: Geography, Translation and the 'Abbasid Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 97–98\. ISBN 978-1-78673-131-9. "In the early history of Islam there was a lively debate over the true identity of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn. One prominent identification was with an ancient South Arabian Ḥimyarī king, generally referred to in the sources as al-Ṣaʿb b. Dhī Marāthid. [...] Indeed the association of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn with the South Arabian ruler can be traced in many early Arabic sources."
101. ^ Quran 67:3
102. ^ Saritoprak, Zeki (2006). "Allah". In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. pp. 33–40\. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
103. ^ D.B. Macdonald. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Ilah", Vol. 3, p. 1093.
104. ^ Yuskaev, Timur R. (18 October 2017). Speaking Qur'an: An American Scripture. Univ of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-61117-795-4. "Indeed, "Lord" is a direct translation of the Arabic word Rabb."
105. ^ "bir söyleşide yaptığı ilgili açıklama". YouTube. 15 August 2016. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
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108. ^ Quran 41:43
109. ^ Levenson 2012, p. 8.
110. ^ Peters 2003, p. 9.
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281. ^ Nelson, Kristina (2001). The art of reciting the Qur'an (New ed.). Cairo [u.a.]: American Univ. in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-594-7.
282. ^ Rippin 2006:

* "Written Transmission," by François Déroche, pp. 172–87.
* "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade, pp. 481–93

283. ^ Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur'an Manuscripts. Lexington Books. pp. 109–111\. ISBN 978-0-7391-4291-2.
284. ^ Melchert, Christopher (2008). "The Relation of the Ten Readings to One Another". Journal of Quranic Studies. 10 (2): 73–87\. doi:10.3366/e1465359109000424.
285. ^ Hekmat Nasser, Shady (2012). The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-90-04-24081-0.
286. ^ Al-Hurr al-Amili, Muhammad (2003). Combat with the Self. Saqi Books (November 8, 2003). ISBN 978-1904063148. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
287. ^ Dutton, Yasin (2001). "An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 3 (2): 71–89\. doi:10.3366/jqs.2001.3.1.71.
288. ^ Rabb, Intisar (2006). "Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 8 (2): 88–127\. doi:10.3366/jqs.2006.8.2.84.
289. ^ a b Ibn Taymiyyah, Ahmed (2004). Majmoo' al-Fatawa (in Arabic). Vol. 12\. Madinah, Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran. pp. 576–578.
290. ^ a b Déroche, François (2006). "Written Transmission". In Rippin, Andrew; et al. (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an (2a reimpr. ed.). Blackwell. pp. 172–87\. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4.
291. ^ Riddell, Peter G.; Street, Tony; Johns, Anthony Hearle (1997). Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society: a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns. Leiden: Brill. pp. 170–74\. ISBN 978-90-04-10692-5.
292. ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire. I.B. Tauris. pp. 134–136\. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
293. ^ a b Bosworth, Clifford Edmund, ed. (1989). "Matba'a". The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 803\. ISBN 90-04-09239-0.
294. ^ James, David (1 January 2011). "Amina bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif". In Akyeampong, Emmanuel K; Gates, Henry Louis (eds.). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
295. ^ "Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg". muslimheritage.com.
296. ^ Krek 1979, p. 203
297. ^ "Saudi Aramco World: East Meets West in Venice". archive.aramcoworld.com. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
298. ^ Nuovo, Angela (1990). "A Lost Arabic Koran Rediscovered". The Library. s6-12 (4): 273–292\. doi:10.1093/library/s6-12.4.273.
299. ^ "Paganini Quran". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
300. ^ "The Quran in East and West: Manuscripts and Printed Books". Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
301. ^ "Alcorani textus universus ex correctioribus Arabum exemplaribus summa fide, atque pulcherrimis characteribus descriptus, vol. 2, p. i". Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
302. ^ Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire. I.B. Tauris. pp. 134–36\. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
303. ^ Watson 1968, p. 435; Clogg 1979, p. 67
304. ^ Hanioğlu, Şükrü (2010). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press.
305. ^ Dorn (2002). "Chronologisches Verzeichnis, 371". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3\. Leiden: Brill. p. 251\. ISBN 90-04-12354-7.
306. ^ Iriye, A.; Saunier, P. (2009). The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History: From the mid-19th century to the present day. Springer. p. 627\. ISBN 978-1-349-74030-7.
307. ^ Kamusella, T. (2012). The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Springer. pp. 265–266\. ISBN 978-0-230-58347-4.
308. ^ Quran 25:5
309. ^ "The Kitáb-i-Íqán". Bahá'í Reference Library. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
310. ^ Griffith, Signey (2008). "Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an". In Reynolds, Gabriel S. (ed.). The Qurʼān in its Historical Context. Psychology Press. p. 112\. ISBN 978-0-203-93960-4.
311. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7\. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America. 1967. p. 677.
312. ^ Rawandi, Ibn (2002). "On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran". In Warraq, Ibn (ed.). What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text and Commentary. Prometheus. ISBN 978-1-57392-945-5.
313. ^ Ziolkowski 2007, p. 78.
314. ^ Quran 2:285
315. ^ Cuciniello, Antonio (2021). "The Prophetic Figure of Jesus in the Qur'ānic Text". Aevum. 95 (2): 284. doi:10.26350/000193_000101. ISSN 0001-9593. JSTOR 27119588. "the Qur'ān affirms that the Jews and the Christians corrupted their Scriptures through falsification (taḥrīf) and alteration (tabdīl)"
316. ^ Saleh, Walid A. (2016). "Narratives of Tampering in the Earliest Commentaries on the Qurʾān". Al-Masāq. 28 (1): 102. doi:10.1080/09503110.2016.1152821. "the scholarly consensus is that the Qurʾān does indeed make the charge that Jewish and Christian scriptures have been textually corrupted."
317. ^ Luxenberg, Christoph (2007). The Syro-Aramaic reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran. Berlin: H. Schiler. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8.
318. ^ Esposito, John L (2010). The Future of Islam. US: Oxford University Press. p. 40\. ISBN 978-0-19-516521-0. "Christians are often surprised to discover that Jesus is mentioned by name in the Quran more than Muhammad and that Mary is mentioned more times in the Quran than in the New Testament. Both Jesus and Mary play important roles not only in the Quran but also in Muslim piety and spirituality."
319. ^ Kadi, Wadad; Mir, Mustansir (2002). "Literature and the Quran". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3\. Leiden: Brill. pp. 213, 216. ISBN 90-04-12354-7.

### Sources

[edit]

* Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2022). The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction Based on the Safaitic Inscriptions. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-50427-1.
* Allen, Roger (2000). An Introduction to Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77657-8.
* Bentlage, Björn; Eggert, Marion; Krämer, Hans-Martin; Reichmuth, Stefan (2016). Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism: A Sourcebook. Brill. ISBN 9789004329003.
* Berlin, Adele (2011). "Cosmology and creation". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199730049.
* Clogg, Richard (1979). "An Attempt to Revive Turkish Printing in Istanbul in 1779". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 10 (1): 67–70\. doi:10.1017/s0020743800053320. S2CID 159835641.
* Cook, David B. (2013). "Gog and Magog". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27495.
* Cook, Michael (2000). The Koran; A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285344-8. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
* Corbin, Henry (1993) [1964 (in French)]. History of Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard, Liadain; Sherrard, Philip. London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2.
* Dost, Suleyman (2023). "Pilgrimage in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Continuity and Rupture from Epigraphic Texts to the Qur'an". Millennium. 20 (1): 15–32\. doi:10.1515/mill-2023-0003.
* Guessoum, Nidhal (2011). Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science. I.B. Tauris. p. 174\. ISBN 978-1-84885-517-5.
* Jeffrey, Arthur (1952). The Qur'an as Scripture. New York: Russell F. Moore Company.
* Levenson, Jon Douglas (2012). Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691155692.
* Lings, Martin (2004). Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now. Archetype. ISBN 978-1-901383-07-2.
* Krek, Miroslav (1979). "The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 38 (3): 203–212\. doi:10.1086/372742. S2CID 162374182.
* Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam: Religion, History and Civilization. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
* Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
* Peters, Francis E. (August 1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (3): 291–315\. doi:10.1017/S0020743800056312. S2CID 162433825.
* Rippin, Andrew; et al., eds. (2006). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4.
* Robinson, Neal (1996). Discovering the Qur'an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text. SCM Press.
* Tabatabae, Mohammad Hosayn (1988). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7103-0266-3.
* Watt, W. Montgomery (1960–2007). "al-Iskandar". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3630.
* Watson, William J. (1968). "İbrāhīm Müteferriḳa and Turkish Incunabula". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 88 (3): 435–441\. doi:10.2307/596868. JSTOR 596868.
* Ziolkowski, Jan M. (2007). Fairy Tales from Before Fairy Tales: The Medieval Latin Past of Wonderful Lies. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-03379-9.

## Further reading

[edit]

### Introductory texts

[edit]

* Bell, Richard; Watt, William Montgomery (1970). Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0597-2.
* Hawting, G.R. (1993). Approaches to the Qur'ān (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05755-4.
* Hixon, Lex (2003). The heart of the Qurʼan: an introduction to Islamic spirituality (2 ed.). Quest. ISBN 978-0-8356-0822-0.
* Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. Major Themes of the Qur'an (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5.
* Robinson, Neal (2002). Discovering the Qur'an. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-024-6.
* Sells, Michael (15 November 1999). Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations (Book & CD ed.). White Cloud Press. ISBN 978-1-883991-26-5.
* Wild, Stefan (1996). The Quʼran as Text. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09300-3.

### Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir)

[edit]

Main article: List of tafsir works

* Al-Tabari (1987) [Cairo 1955–69]. "Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan taʼwīl al-qurʼān". The Commentary on the Qurʼān. transl. J. Cooper (ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920142-6.
* Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.

### Topical studies

[edit]

* McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (1991). Qurʼānic Christians: an analysis of classical and modern exegesis. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36470-6.
* Siljander, Mark D.; Mann, John David (2008). A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide. New York: Harper One. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8.
* Stowasser, Barbara Freyer (1 June 1996). Women in the Qur'an, Traditions and Interpretation (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511148-4.

### Literary criticism

[edit]

* M.M. Al-Azami (2003). The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments (First ed.). UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
* Boullata, Issa J, ed. (2000). Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur'ān. Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-1256-9..
* Luling, Gunter (2003). A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8.
* Luxenberg, Christoph (2007) [2004]. The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8.
* Puin, Gerd R. (1996). "Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in Sana'a". In Wild, Stefan (ed.). The Qurʾan as Text. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 107–11.
* Wansbrough, John (1977). Quranic Studies. Oxford University Press.

### Encyclopedias

[edit]

* McAuliffe JD, et al., eds. (2001). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an (First ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11465-4.
* Leaman O, et al., eds. (2005). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia (First ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77529-8.
* Iqbal M, et al., eds. (2013). The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur'an (First ed.). Center for Islamic Sciences. ISBN 978-1-926620-00-8.

### Academic journals

[edit]

* Journal of Qur'anic Studies (ISSN 1465-3591), published by the School of Oriental and African Studies
* Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies, published by King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex

## External links

[edit]

Quran at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity

### Reference material

[edit]

* The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts – Islam Archived 17 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine

### Manuscripts

[edit]

* Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library
* 2017-232-1 al-Qurʼān. / القرآن at OPenn
* Digitised Manuscripts Sorted by Verses at Corpus Coranicum

### Quran browsers and translation

[edit]

* Quran Pdf
* Al-Quran.info Archived 29 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
* Quran Archive – Texts and Studies on the Quran
* Quran text and translation at Tufts University
* Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator
* Quran.com
* Previous.quran.com – By clicking Settings and selecting The Bridges’ translation by Fadel Soliman, words that have significant variants among the ten canonical qira'at are highlighted in red, together with a footnote listing the readers or transmitters and an English translation for each of the variant readings
* Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)
* Latin script transliterated Qur'an. Hans Zirker. University of Frankfurt.

* v
* t
* e

People and things in the Quran

Characters

Non-humans

* Allāh ('The God')
* Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)

| Animals|

| Related|

* The baqara (cow) of Israelites
* The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
* The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians
* Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
* The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
* The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
* The namlah (female ant) of Solomon
* The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
* The nāqat (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ

|

Non-related|

* ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)
* Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)
* Ḥimār (Wild ass)
* Naḥl (Honey bee)
* Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')

Malāʾikah (Angels)|

* Angels of Hell
* Mālik
* Zabāniyah
* Bearers of the Throne
* Harut and Marut
* Jundallah
* Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes)
* Raqib
* Atid

| Muqarrabun|

* Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief)
* Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit')
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit')
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit')
* Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)
* Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael)
* Mīkāil (Michael)

|

Jinn (Genies)|

* Jann
* ʿIfrīt
* Sakhr (Asmodeus)
* Qarīn

Shayāṭīn (Demons)|

* Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil)
* Mārid ('Rebellious one')

Others|

* Ghilmān or Wildān
* Ḥūr

Prophets

| Mentioned|

* Ādam (Adam)
* Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)
* Ayyūb (Job)
* Dāwūd (David)
* Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
* Hārūn (Aaron)
* Hūd (Eber?)
* Idrīs (Enoch?)
* Ilyās (Elijah)
* ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
* Isḥāq (Isaac)
* Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)
* Dhabih Ullah
* Lūṭ (Lot)
* Ṣāliḥ
* Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
* Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
* ʿUzair (Ezra?)
* Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
* Yaʿqūb (Jacob)
* Isrāʾīl (Israel)
* Yūnus (Jonah)
* Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')
* Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale')
* Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
* Zakariyyā (Zechariah)

| Ulul-ʿAzm
('Those of the
Perseverance
and Strong Will')|

* Muḥammad
* Aḥmad
* Other names and titles of Muhammad
* ʿĪsā (Jesus)
* Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
* Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
* Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
* Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
* Nūḥ (Noah)

|

Debatable ones|

* Dhūl-Qarnain
* Luqmān
* Maryam (Mary)
* Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)

Implied|

* Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
* Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)
* Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)

People of Prophets

| Good ones|

* Adam's immediate relatives
* Martyred son
* Wife
* Believer of Ya-Sin
* Family of Noah
* Father Lamech
* Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
* Luqman's son
* People of Abraham
* Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
* Ishmael's mother
* Isaac's mother
* People of Jesus
* Disciples (including Peter)
* Mary's mother
* Zechariah's wife
* People of Solomon
* Mother
* Queen of Sheba
* Vizier
* Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son)

| People of
Joseph|

* Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
* Egyptians
* ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
* Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))
* Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)
* Mother

|

People of
Aaron and Moses|

* Egyptians
* Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)
* Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)
* Magicians of the Pharaoh
* Wise, pious man
* Moses' wife
* Moses' sister-in-law
* Mother
* Sister

Evil ones|

* Āzar (possibly Terah)
* Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
* Hāmān
* Jālūt (Goliath)
* Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
* As-Sāmirī
* Abū Lahab
* Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)

Implied or
not specified|

* Abraha
* Abu Bakr
* Bal'am/Balaam
* Barṣīṣā
* Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
* Luqman's son
* Nebuchadnezzar II
* Nimrod
* Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
* Shaddad

Groups

| Mentioned|

* Aṣḥāb al-Jannah
* People of Paradise
* People of the Burnt Garden
* Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)
* Jesus' apostles
* Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
* Companions of Noah's Ark
* Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
* Companions of the Elephant
* People of al-Ukhdūd
* People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
* People of Yathrib or Medina
* Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* Nation of Noah

| Tribes,
ethnicities
or families|

* ‘Ajam
* Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans')
* Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)
* Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah)
* People of Ibrahim
* People of Ilyas
* People of Nuh
* People of Shuaib
* Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
* Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood')
* Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)
* Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
* People of Fir'aun
* Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
* Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
* Anṣār (literally 'Helpers')
* Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)
* People of Mecca
* Wife of Abu Lahab
* Children of Ayyub
* Sons of Adam
* Wife of Nuh
* Wife of Lut
* Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)
* Son of Nuh

Aʿrāb (Arabs
or Bedouins)|

* ʿĀd (people of Hud)
* Companions of the Rass
* Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba)
* People of Sabaʾ or Sheba
* Quraysh
* Thamūd (people of Ṣāliḥ)
* Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland')

Ahl al-Bayt
('People of the
Household')|

* Household of Abraham
* Brothers of Yūsuf
* Lot's daughters
* Progeny of Imran
* Household of Moses
* Household of Muhammad
* ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
* Daughters of Muhammad
* Muhammad's wives
* Household of Salih

Implicitly
mentioned|

* Amalek
* Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
* Banu Nadir
* Banu Qaynuqa
* Banu Qurayza
* Iranian people
* Umayyad Dynasty
* Aus and Khazraj
* People of Quba

Religious
groups|

* Ahl al-Dhimmah
* Kāfirūn
* disbelievers
* Majūs Zoroastrians
* Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites)
* Muslims
* Believers
* Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book)
* Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
* Ruhban (Christian monks)
* Qissis (Christian priest)
* Yahūd (Jews)
* Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
* Rabbani/Rabbi
* Sabians
* Polytheists
* Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
* Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot

Locations

Mentioned|

* Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land')
* 'Blessed' Land'
* Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden')
* Jahannam (Hell)
* Door of Hittah
* Madyan (Midian)
* Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn
* Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
* Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)

| In the
Arabian Peninsula
(excluding Madyan)|

* Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills')
* Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)
* Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
* ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām
* Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
* Badr
* Ḥunayn
* Makkah (Mecca)
* Bakkah
* Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')
* Kaʿbah (Kaaba)
* Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
* Safa and Marwa
* Sabaʾ (Sheba)
* ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)
* Rass

|

Sinai Region
or Tīh Desert|

* Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
* Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
* Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place')
* Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor

In Mesopotamia|

* Al-Jūdiyy
* Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed')
* Bābil (Babylon)
* Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh)

Religious
locations|

* Bayʿa (Church)
* Miḥrāb
* Monastery
* Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration')
* Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove')
* Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')
* Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
* Masjid al-Dirar
* A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
* Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)
* The Prophet's Mosque
* Salat (Synagogue)

Implied|

* Antioch
* Antakya
* Arabia
* Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier')
* Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
* Cave of Hira
* Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
* Hudaybiyyah
* Ta'if
* Ayla
* Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
* Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
* Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
* Canaan
* Cave of Seven Sleepers
* Dār an-Nadwa
* Jordan River
* Nile River
* Palestine River
* Paradise of Shaddad

Events, incidents, occasions or times

* Incident of Ifk
* Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree)
* Event of Mubahala
* Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba)
* The Farewell Pilgrimage
* Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

| Battles or
military expeditions|

* Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates')
* Battle of Badr
* Battle of Hunayn
* Battle of Khaybar
* Battle of Uhud
* Expedition of Tabuk
* Conquest of Mecca

|

Days|

* Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)
* As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
* Days of battles
* Days of Hajj
* Doomsday

Months of the
Islamic calendar|

* 12 months: Four holy months
* Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)
* Ramaḍān

Pilgrimages|

* Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)
* Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)

Times for prayer
or remembrance|

Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):

* Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
* Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings')
* Al-Bukrah ('The Morning')
* Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning')
* Al-Layl ('The Night')
* Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night')
* Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon')
* Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun')
* Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening')
* Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)')
* Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon')
* Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon')
* Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun')
* Al-Fajr ('The Dawn')

Implied|

* Ghadir Khumm
* Laylat al-Mabit
* First Pilgrimage

Other

Holy books|

* Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)
* Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)
* Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
* At-Tawrāt (The Torah)
* Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
* Tablets of Stone
* Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
* Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)')

Objects
of people
or beings|

* Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles
* Noah's Ark
* Staff of Musa
* Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
* Throne of Bilqis
* Trumpet of Israfil

| Mentioned idols
(cult images)|

* 'Ansāb
* Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god)

| Of Israelites|

* Baʿal
* The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites

|

Of Noah's people|

* Nasr
* Suwāʿ
* Wadd
* Yaghūth
* Yaʿūq

Of Quraysh|

* Al-Lāt
* Al-ʿUzzā
* Manāt

Celestial
bodies|

Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):

* Al-Qamar (The Moon)
* Kawākib (Planets)
* Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
* Nujūm (Stars)
* Ash-Shams (The Sun)

Plant matter|

* Baṣal (Onion)
* Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
* Shaṭʾ (Shoot)
* Sūq (Plant stem)
* Zarʿ (Seed)

| Fruits|

* ʿAdas (Lentil)
* Baql (Herb)
* Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)
* Rummān (Pomegranate)
* Tīn (Fig)
* Zaytūn (Olive)
* In Paradise
* Forbidden fruit of Adam

|

Bushes, trees
or plants|

* Plants of Sheba
* Athl (Tamarisk)
* Sidr (Lote-tree)
* Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
* Nakhl (Date palm)
* Sidrat al-Muntahā
* Zaqqūm

Liquids|

* Māʾ (Water or fluid)
* Nahr (River)
* Yamm (River or sea)
* Sharāb (Drink)

Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

* v
* t
* e

Islam topics

Outline of Islam

| Beliefs|

* God in Islam
* Allah
* Tawhid
* Muhammad
* In Islam
* Prophets of Islam
* Angels
* Revelation
* Qadar
* Judgement Day
* Holiest sites

|

Five Pillars|

* Shahada
* Salah
* Sawm
* Zakat
* Hajj

* History
* Leaders

* Timeline of the history of Islam
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* Rashidun
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* Abbasid
* Córdoba
* Fatimid
* Almohad
* Sokoto
* Ottoman

Religious texts|

* Quran
* Hadith
* Tafsir
* Seerah
* Story of Prophets

Denominations|

* Sunni
* Ash'arism
* Atharism
* Maturidism
* Mu'tazili
* Salafi
* Wahhabism
* Sufi
* Shia
* Twelver Shi'ism
* Isma'ilism
* Alawites
* Alevism
* Bektashi Alevism
* Zaydism
* Muhakkima/Khawarij
* Azariqa
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* Ibadi
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| Economics|

* Banking
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|

Hygiene|

* Ghusl
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* Family
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* Haya
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Other aspects|

* Baligh
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Islamic studies

| Arts|

* Arabesque
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* Music
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|

Medieval science|

* Alchemy and chemistry
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Philosophy|

* Early
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Other areas|

* Astrology
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Other

| Other religions|

* Christianity
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|

Apostasy|

* Apostasy in Islam by country
* Ex-Muslims
* List of former Muslims
* List of ex-Muslim organisations

Related topics|

* Criticism of Islam
* Muhammad
* Quran
* Cultural Muslim
* Islamism
* Criticism
* Post-Islamism
* Qutbism
* Islamophobia
* Islamic view of miracles
* Nursing
* Persecution of Muslims
* Minority Muslim
* Sectarian
* Quran and miracles
* Symbolism

* Islam portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Religious texts (List)

Antiquity|

* Pyramid Texts (Egyptian religion)
* Vedas (Hinduism)
* Agamas (Jainism)
* Avesta (Zoroastrian)
* Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi (Taoism)
* Tripiṭaka (Buddhism)
* Pali Canon (Theravada Buddhism)
* Paracanon (Theravada Buddhism)
* Atthakatha (Theravada Buddhism)
* Tika (Theravada Buddhism)
* Bible (Judaism, Christianity)
* Tanakh (Judaism)
* Samaritan Torah (Samaritanism)
* Deuterocanon (Roman Catholicism, Eastern Christianity)
* New Testament (Christianity)
* Bhagavad Gita (Hinduism)
* Metamorphoses (Roman polytheism)
* Nag Hammadi library (Gnosticism)
* Talmud (Judaism)
* Theogony (Greek polytheism)
* Upanishads (Hinduism)
* Enneads (Neoplatonism)
* Divine Liturgy (Eastern Christianity)

Medieval|

* Puranas (Hinduism)
* Puya (Sanamahism)
* Quran (Islam)
* Kojiki (Shinto)
* Ambrosian Hymnal (Roman Catholicism)
* Hadith (Islam)
* Summa Theologica (Roman Catholicism)
* Chinese Buddhist canon (Han Buddhism)
* Tripitaka Koreana (Korean Buddhism)

Early modern|

* Guru Granth Sahib (Sikh)
* Luther's Large Catechism (Lutheranism)
* Augsburg Confession (Protestantism)
* Heidelberg Catechism (Protestantism)
* Book of Common Prayer (Anglicanism)
* Roman Missal (Roman Catholicism)
* Roman Catechism (Roman Catholicism)

Modern|

* Book of Mormon (Mormonism)
* Ofudesaki (Tenrikyo)
* Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Baha'i)
* Barahin-e-Ahmadiyya (Ahmadiyya)
* Liber AL vel Legis (Thelemite)
* Taishō Tripiṭaka (Mahayana Buddhism)
* Book of Shadows (Wiccan)
* Dianetics (Scientologism)
* The Satanic Bible (Satanism)
* Geniocracy (Raelian)
* Catechism (Roman Catholicism)

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Norway
* Croatia
* Greece
* Argentina
* Sweden
* Poland
* Vatican
* Israel

Other|

* IdRef
* MusicBrainz work
* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi

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*[pl.]: plural
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