Racial stereotyping in advertising

Racial stereotyping in advertising refers to using assumptions about people based on characteristics thought to be typical of their identifying racial group in marketing.[1]

Advertising trends may adopt racially insensitive messages or comply with stereotypes that embrace the values of problematic racial ideologies. Commercials and other forms of media advertisements may be influenced by social stigma regarding race.[2]

Racial stereotypes are mental frameworks that viewers use to process social information based on their cultural, racial, or ethnic group, which may not directly "carry negative or positive values."[3] Advertisers include racial stereotypes in their messaging to target a specific demographic, which can potentially impact viewers negatively through offensive language or concepts. A common rule of thumb for people working in advertising is to "be aware of the potential to cause serious or widespread offense when referring to different races, cultures, nationalities or ethnic groups."[4]

## Defining racism in advertising

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There is no universal definition of racism or standard for detecting it within the scope of advertisement.[5] Racial tropes are commonly used to target a particular demographic, which tends to lead to insult. The ambiguous nature of defining racism creates a debate about whether it is ethical to use stereotypes in advertisements. Those against racial stereotyping argue that using archetypes as representative of a population is an oversimplification of an entire race of people and further narrows the representation available of marginalized groups. This perspective argues that the media is especially harmful because commercial advertisements are one of the most prevalent and commonplace forms of media. Conversely, others believe that advertisements may use racial stereotypes as long as they do not cause intentional or lasting harm to a population.[6]

Stereotypes are the inferred beliefs of roles, attributes, or positions assigned to different people based on factors like race, religion, sexual orientation, or gender.[7] Advertisers use stereotypes to provide familiarity to a viewer, but pose the risk of generalizing and misrepresenting groups of people to a large audience.[8]

A debate has existed historically around using stereotypes in advertising, but can be simplified by the "mirror" vs. "mold" argument coined by Pollay in 1986.[9] This argument states that advertising "mirrors" society and does not present ideas to viewers that do not already exist as stereotypes. The "mirror" theory argues that advertising reflects the lifestyles and ideals of society and that it is this mirroring effect that drives familiarity with the product or service offered and the subsequent consumer engagement. However, the "mold" argument maintains that advertising influences society, and thus encourages stereotypes because of their ubiquity. The "mold" theory argues that sales are driven by society attempting to conform to the stereotypes and ideas communicated in advertising, as it shapes their own values and beliefs.[10]

Stereotypes in advertising include creating caricatures based upon a perceived notion of a particular group. The limited amount of time given for a commercial advertisement leads to simplified characters who may employ archetypal traits.[11] Audiences use stereotypes to fill in holes in a general character's backstory. Within a thirty-second commercial, advertisers rely on audiences' preconceived notions to understand a character and situation based on the strict prioritization of their time. Stereotypes facilitate a collective but unspoken understanding of the meaning of the commercial, even if the stereotype is damaging to the affiliated group.[8]

## Targeting specific demographics

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Racial stereotyping has the potential to reap results for a company if it targets a particular demographic. Audiences have perceptual biases toward people or characters similar to themselves and within their in-group. An in-group consists of people whom individuals socially identify with through similarities in characteristics such as age, race, gender, and religion. Studies have shown that "the enhancement of in-group bias is more related to increased favoritism toward in-group members than increased hostility toward out-group members."[12] Advertisers use this knowledge when targeting a product or service to a particular market and may use demographics to inform the messages they present. Different countries and cultures speak different languages and understand symbols differently, so an advertiser must tactfully account for in-group bias. Viewers are more likely to cast favoritism toward people they can socially identify with. Advertisers, therefore, consider the audience heavily when figuring out how to present their characters. This thought process explains why advertisers use racial stereotyping they may not recognize as offensive.

Advertisers argue that specific demographics can be used to simultaneously employ racial stereotypes and create a successful result for an audience. This argument suggests that a company can achieve successful marketing while creating a message which viewers can identify and connect with. Sociologist Stuart Hall argues that reading a particular image depends not only on the messages contained in it, but on the messages surrounding it and the situational, societal, and historical context.[13] He claims that society constructs stereotypes and it is not a company's responsibility to avoid them.

## Whitewashing

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Whitewashing refers to the phenomenon of non-white characters being portrayed by white actors or actresses.[14] The term first gained prominence in 2010.[15]

As an example, in the 2018 comedy blockbuster Crazy Rich Asians, the main character (Nick) was portrayed by a half-Asian actor (Henry Golding) instead of a 'full' Asian man.[16] The portrayal of an Asian character by a man who has White ancestry has been criticized as a perpetuation of the stereotype that Asian men are not attractive or charismatic enough to be portrayed in leading male roles.[16] Writer Nick Chen pointed out that it would be 'unthinkable' for Crazy Rich Asians to be re-written to cast a white female in the place of the Asian female laad.[16]

The casting of fully white male actors in Asian fiction has also been criticized. For example, Matt Damon's role as the lead protagonist in the Chinese film The Great Wall was criticized by Constance Wu, who said that his casting perpetuated the idea that "only white men can save the world".[17] Matt Damon himself defended his casting in the role, denying any allegations of whitewashing, which he said is an issue he takes seriously.[17]

The 2012 film Argo was criticized by Latino actor Edward James Olmos for casting Ben Affleck, who is not Hispanic, in a Mexican-American leading male role.[18] Olmos suggested that a number of Hispanic men could have been cast for the role, including himzelf as a viable choice.[18]

According to Syler & Banks (2019), whitewashing has been criticized for three primary reasons. The casting of white actors in roles that depict non-white characters erases any potential benefit of cultural expertise that non-white actors may be able to offer.[15] The use of white actors may lend itself to ethnic mimicry, which might give the film an inauthentic feel.[15] Lastly, hiring white actors for non-white roles contributes to the massive disparity of representation and opportunity in media.[15]

## Offending marginalized populations

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One of the primary adverse effects of racial stereotyping in marketing is offending the population alluded to in an advertisement.

Researcher Srividya Ramasubramanian discusses how stereotypes become harmful, explaining that there are two stages in the stereotyping process, where activation is more automatic and application is more deliberate. She means essentially that stereotypical thoughts about other groups exist for all people implicitly, even if not acted upon or outwardly expressed.[19] This argument suggests that all people believe in stereotypes to a certain degree, but only become offended when stereotypes are explicitly and openly stated.

Because people naturally identify themselves socially, they assign qualities to themselves that they can also associate with other people. Creating connections within a particular group increases the likelihood of experiencing hurt by stereotypical messaging present in advertisements, which "has a significant impact on the way the individuals within the group self-identify."[20] Therefore, typical outcomes to offensive racial stereotypes are outrage at the producer of the advertisement or self-doubt within the group. Many believe that advertisements' archetypal representations of particular groups are unrealistic and distorted.[21]

## Examples of racial stereotyping

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Stereotypes directed at people of Asian descent represent well-educated individuals with a high work ethic. Commercials with these stereotypes tend to exist within advertising that promotes technology and business more than other races.[11] Asian people were in ads that take place in the workplace or office setting in 50% of the print ads that they featured in, compared to other races that were featured in more leisure-oriented ads from 2003.[11] Ads that feature Asian Americans often perpetuate a stereotype of success and sacrifice to achieve financial rewards, but some argue that the stereotype of hard work and affluence may appear to be a positive one but is actually problematic.[22] Indeed, stereotypes related to the false "Model minority" discourse have been proven to increase pressure on Asian people to be productive and successful.[23] Television and print advertising shape viewers' perceptions of minorities, and many Asian and Asian-American journalists argue that this representation of Asian people hegemonizes and inaccurately represents a vast and convoluted group.[24]

Stereotypes of Black people common in advertisements are a connection to hip-hop music.[25] Black men in commercials also have exceptional physical and athletic ability, demonstrated by a young man playing basketball in a Kellogg's commercial or the variety of athletes in EA Sport's advertisements for basketball and soccer video games.[26] Similarly, a typical representation for Black women is the "angry black woman" stereotype, where the woman is portrayed as irrational and violent.[27] Other stereotypes may include the hypersexualization and dehumanization of Black people, as demonstrated through an ad by LINGsCARS[28] that received complaints about trivializing the Black Lives Matter movement and stereotyping by playing off the offensive phrase "Once you go black, you never go back."[29] The ad posted on Facebook read "Once you go black, you never go back" and "Black Cars Matter."[30]

Latin American people are drastically underrepresented in the media, featured with speaking roles in only 1% of television ads[31] and in only 4.7% of television ads overall in the early 2000s time period.[32] In a study done by Mastro and Stern (2003) examining frequencies of different races in commercials, Latino people advertise soap or hygiene products in 43% of ads they are featured in, closely followed by other non-occupational roles promoting clothing or footwear.[31] Paek and Shah found Latino populations to participate in advertisements that portrayed subservient and blue-collar labor roles.[11][33] Additionally, advertisements featuring Latino people poke fun at accents, implement "Spanglish," and emphasize clichés.[34]

## Campaigns against stereotypes

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Some companies make efforts toward being culturally sensitive, but are not received well, such as Pepsi's advertisement featuring Kendall Jenner that was meant to highlight police brutality in the United States.[35] Pepsi and Kendall Jenner both later apologized for the insensitive ad and it was taken down.[36] Common complaints against the ad were that it was "co-opting protest movements for profit"[37] and demonstrated the "white savior" trope in a way that trivialized the movement against police brutality.[38]

An effort that was more positively received by society was the transition of PepsiCo's Aunt Jemima to Pearl Milling Company in 2021.[39] Aunt Jemima was criticized for using stereotypical images and language to represent a Black woman as the "mammy" character.[40] Based on Nancy Green, Aunt Jemima was a stereotypical representation of this woman who created the original recipe and served as the face of the brand for years.[41] Dedicated to removing racial stereotypes, PepsiCo pledged a rebrand, a "$1 million commitment to empower and uplift Black girls and women," and a "five-year investment to uplift Black business and communities."[39]

Another example of a commercial designed to combat racial stereotyping was the Proctor & Gamble "Widen the Screen" ad.[42] This ad was part of a "larger effort by the company to confront racial stereotypes in media and give opportunities to Black creators."[43] Proctor & Gamble created this campaign to emphasize statistics, including that "less than 6% of writers, directors, and producers of U.S.-produced films are Black," "only 8 of 1,447 directors identified as Black women" from 2007 to 2019, "black characters accounted for 15.7% of all film roles" in 2019, and "33% of the top 100 films in 2019 had no Black girls/women in any speaking or named roles."[44] According to Proctor & Gamble, their brand hopes to fight systemic racism and support Black creators.[44]

## See also

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* Gender advertisement
* Representation of African Americans in media
* Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

## References

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1. ^ Toland Frith, Katherine; Mueller, Barbara (2010). Advertising and Societies: Global Issues. Peter Lang Publishing Inc. p. 110\. ISBN 978-1433103858. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
2. ^ Paeka, Hye Jin; Shaha, Hemant (2003). "Racial Ideology, Model Minorities, and the "Not-So-Silent Partner:" Stereotyping of Asian Americans in U.S. Magazine Advertising". Howard Journal of Communications. 14 (4): 225–243. doi:10.1080/716100430. S2CID 144619668.
3. ^ Frith and Mueller (2010). Advertising and Societies Global Issues. New York, United States of America: Peter Lang Publishing, inc.
4. ^ Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) (2021). "Offence: Race". Advertising Standards Authority. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
5. ^ Lazarri, Zach (2018). "Types of Stereotyping in Advertising". Chron. Hearst Newspapers.
6. ^ Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) (2021). "Offence: Use of stereotypes". Advertising Standards Authority.
7. ^ McLeod, Saul (2017). "Stereotypes". Simply Psychology.
8. ^ a b Eisend, Martin; Plagemann, Julia; Sollwedel, Julia (3 July 2014). "Gender Roles and Humor in Advertising: The Occurrence of Stereotyping in Humorous and Nonhumorous Advertising and Its Consequences for Advertising Effectiveness". Journal of Advertising. 43 (3): 256–273. doi:10.1080/00913367.2013.857621. ISSN 0091-3367. S2CID 143821882.
9. ^ Pollay, R (1986). "The Distorted Mirror: Reflections on the Unintended Consequences of Advertising". Journal of Marketing. 50 (2): 18–36. doi:10.2307/1251597. JSTOR 1251597.
10. ^ Zotos, Yorgos C.; Tsichla, Eirini (25 August 2014). "Female Stereotypes in Print Advertising: A Retrospective Analysis". Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2nd International Conference on Strategic Innovative Marketing. 148: 446–454. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.064. hdl:20.500.14279/8462.
11. ^ a b c d Paek, J (2003). "Racial Ideology, Model Minorities, and the "Not-So-Silent Partner:" Stereotyping of Asian Americans in U.S. Magazine Advertising". Howard Journal of Communications. 14 (4): 225–243. doi:10.1080/716100430. S2CID 144619668.
12. ^ Brewer, M (1979). "In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 86 (2): 307–324. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307.
13. ^ Hall, Stuart (2021). "Representation and the Media". YouTube. University of Westminster. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
14. ^ Gillespie, Claire. "What Is Whitewashing, and Why Is It Harmful?". Health. "In media, whitewashing is when White actors portray non-White characters. Historically, White actors have portrayed Black and Asian people, as well as classical and mythological characters.1 For example, in the 2022 film "Bullet Train," Brad Pitt and Joey King played Japanese characters from the original book by Kōtarō Isaka, despite neither actor being of Japanese descent."
15. ^ a b c d Syler, Claire; Banks, Daniel (17 July 2019). Casting a Movement: The Welcome Table Initiative. Routledge. p. 51\. ISBN 978-0-429-94828-2.
16. ^ a b c Chen, Nick (15 September 2018). Why I'm only half-crazy about Crazy Rich Asians.
17. ^ a b Thorne, Will (6 December 2016). "Matt Damon Blames 'The Great Wall' Whitewashing Claims on Clickbait Articles". Variety.
18. ^ a b Seddon, Dan (6 June 2020). "Ben Affleck criticised for playing whitewashed Mexican-American character in Argo". Yahoo Sports.
19. ^ Ramasubramanian, S (2007). "Media-based strategies to reduce racial stereotypes activated by news stories". Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. 84 (2): 249–264. doi:10.1177/107769900708400204. hdl:1969.1/194126. S2CID 144914411.
20. ^ Alavi, Roksana (2010). "Race, Identity, Stereotyping and Voluntary Oppression". Global Virtue Ethics Review. 6 (1): 13–27.
21. ^ Jhally, Sut. "Affirming Inaction". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
22. ^ Shah, Niral (2019). "Asians Are Good At Math Is Not a Compliment: Stem Success As a Threat To Personhood". Harvard Educational Review. 89 (4): 661–686. doi:10.17763/1943-5045-89.4.661.
23. ^ Cohut, Mari (2020). "The 'model minority' myth: Its impact on well-being and mental health". Medical News Today.
24. ^ Hanzhang Jin, Connie (2021). "6 Charts That Dismantle The Trope Of Asian Americans As A Model Minority". NPR.
25. ^ Bailey, A (2006). "A Year in the Life of the African American Male in Advertising". Journal of Advertising. 35 (1): 83–104. doi:10.2753/joa0091-3367350106. JSTOR 20460714. S2CID 144320096.
26. ^ Bristor, J (1995). "Race and Ideology: African American Images in Televised Advertising". Journal of Public Policy and Marketing. 14 (1): 48–59. doi:10.1177/074391569501400105. JSTOR 30000378. S2CID 159373453.
27. ^ Motro, Daphna; Evans, Jonathan B.; Ellis, Aleksander P.J.; Benson, Lehman (2022). "The "Angry Black Woman" Stereotype at Work". Harvard Business Review.
28. ^ Ling. "The UK's craziest car leasing website!". LINGsCARS.
29. ^ Stevens, Rebecca (2021). "Why Do People Say: Once You Go Black You Never Go Back". Medium.
30. ^ Hinde, Natasha (2020). "This Car Ad Has Been Banned For Trivialising Black Lives Matter". HuffPost.
31. ^ a b Mastro, D (2003). "Representations of Race in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis of Prime Time Advertising". Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 47 (4): 638–647. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4704_9. S2CID 146689469.
32. ^ Bang, H (1997). "Portrayals of Latinos in Magazine Advertising". Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. 74 (2): 285–303. doi:10.1177/107769909707400204. S2CID 144385147.
33. ^ Ordway, Denise-Marie (2020). "How the news media portray Latinos in stories and images: 5 studies to know". The Journalist's Resource. Harvard Kennedy School.
34. ^ Vega, Tanzina (2011). "Flaunting Latino Clichés in Effort to Defuse Them". New York Times.
35. ^ "People Are Outraged By This Pepsi Ad Starring Kendall Jenner". YouTube. 2017.
36. ^ Yahr, Emily (2017). "Kendall Jenner cries over Pepsi ad backlash in 'Keeping Up With the Kardashians' premiere". Washington Post.
37. ^ Solon, Olivia (2017). "Kendall Jenner's Pepsi ad criticized for co-opting protest movements for profit". The Guardian.
38. ^ Amatulli, Jenna (2020). "Kendall Jenner's Out-Of-Touch Pepsi Ad Resurfaces Amid Protests, Gets Recreated". HuffPost.
39. ^ a b PepsiCo (2021). "Aunt Jemima Rebrands As Pearl Milling Company". PepsiCo News.
40. ^ Broadus, Angel Mason (2021). "Racism in Marketing and Advertising". Puzzle Pieces.
41. ^ Nagasawa, Katherine (2020). "The Fight To Commemorate Nancy Green, The Woman Who Played The Original 'Aunt Jemima'". NPR.
42. ^ P&G (2021). "Widen the Screen". YouTube.
43. ^ "This new P&G ad confronts stereotypes against Black Americans". CNN Business. 2021.
44. ^ a b Proctor & Gamble (2021). "Widen the Screen". P&G Brand.