Reusable spacecraft

Spacecraft designed for repeated use and reusability

This article is about reusable spacecraft. For distinct launch systems, see Reusable launch system.

Space Shuttle Endeavour landing from orbit on STS-126, its 22nd spaceflight

Reusable spacecraft are spacecraft capable of repeated launch, atmospheric reentry, and landing or splashdown. This contrasts with expendable spacecraft which are designed to be discarded after use. Agencies operating reusable spacecraft aim to have lower costs and higher flight frequencies.[1]

Reusable spacecraft may be crewed or uncrewed and orbital or sub-orbital. Examples include spaceplanes such as the Space Shuttle and the Boeing X-37B, and space capsules such as the SpaceX Dragon. The Blue Origin New Shepard is an example of a sub-orbital spacecraft.

## History

[edit]

Gemini paraglider during tests at Edwards Air Force Base in August 1964; glider landings were canceled in favor of parachute splashdowns.

On 17 July 1962, the North American X-15 rocket plane reached an altitude of 95.9km on a sub-orbital flight. In 1963, the X-15 completed two flights above 100km.[2] These marked the first spaceflights with a reusable vehicle.[a] The Gemini SC-2 capsule followed, making a sub-orbital flight in 1965 and another sub-orbital flight in 1966.[3]

The first spacecraft to be reused in orbit was the Soviet VA spacecraft, a capsule that was part of the larger TKS spacecraft. A VA capsule that launched in 1977 was reflown in 1978.[4]

The Space Shuttle was the first orbital spacecraft designed for reuse according to NASA, and first launched in 1981.[5] Five orbiters would launch 135 times before the vehicle's retirement in 2011. Space Shuttle Discovery set the record of 39 spaceflights with a single spacecraft in 2011.[6] The Space Shuttle program, however, faced criticism that it failed to reduce the cost of access to space and had safety concerns following the Challenger and Columbia disasters.[7][8]

The SpaceX Dragon 1 first flew in 2010 and became the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to be recovered from orbit. In 2012, Dragon became the first commercial vehicle to attach to the International Space Station (ISS), after which it conducted regular cargo resupply flights for NASA.[9] Its first reuse was in 2017,[10] and the vehicle led to the development of the Dragon 2, which first reached orbit in 2019. Dragon 2 carries both cargo and crew, and has been described as the most cost-effective spacecraft ever used by NASA.[11] In 2021, Dragon 2 conducted the first orbital flight with only private astronauts onboard.[12]

SpaceShipOne, another rocket plane, completed the first private sub-orbital spaceflight in 2004 and led to the development of SpaceShipTwo. The Blue Origin New Shepard capsule conducts commercial sub-orbital spaceflights, as did SpaceShipTwo.[b]

Development flights for SpaceX Starship test vehicles began in 2019. Starship is intended to be both a fully reusable spacecraft and launch vehicle.[c] Starship's first integrated launch with its booster was in 2023, and it reached space the same year. In 2024, Starship successfully reentered the atmosphere and completed propulsive splashdowns in the Indian Ocean, although as of January 2025[update] it has not been recovered from space intact.

## Design

[edit]

Crew Dragon Endurance being recovered after its second flight

Reusable spacecraft must survive reentry and safely return to the surface. The mass of any hardware dedicated for this reduces potential payload mass.

### Atmospheric entry

[edit]

Orbital spacecraft initiate a deorbit burn and orient themselves for atmospheric entry. The Boeing Starliner and Orion discard their service modules, including most of their maneuvering engines. The SpaceX Dragon discards its trunk, which includes its solar panels and radiators, but retains its Draco engines in the capsule.[13] The Space Shuttle was notable for recovering the entire spacecraft.

In general, around 15% of the landed weight of a vehicle is heat shielding.[14] Thermal protection systems (TPS) can be made of a variety of materials, including reinforced carbon-carbon and ablative materials.[15] Historically, these materials were first developed on ballistic missile reentry vehicles. However, the requirements of reusable space systems differ from those of single use reentry vehicles, especially with regards to heat shield requirements. In particular the need for durable high emissivity coatings that can withstand multiple thermal cycles constitutes a key requirement in the development of new reusable spacecraft. Current materials for such high emissivity coatings include transition metal disilicides.[16]

Ablative heat shields are reliable, but are heavy and diminished with use. Reinforced carbon-carbon heat tiles such as those used on the Space Shuttle are fragile, contributing to the Columbia disaster. The Space Shuttle used the LI-900 material.

### Landing and refurbishment

[edit]

Runway landings from orbit became prevalent with the introduction of the Space Shuttle. Spaceplanes that land horizontally on a runway require lifting surfaces and landing gear. Designs include the Space Shuttle's delta wing and the Dream Chaser's lifting body. Spaceplanes require access to a long enough runway, a necessary consideration for the Space Shuttle launch abort modes.

The first recoverable space capsules landed under parachute, either on land or by splashing down in a body of water. Ground landings require additional cushioning, which Starliner accomplishes with deployable airbags. This was considered for Orion as well, but was ruled out due to the extra mass required.[17] The sub-orbital New Shepard uses retro-rockets to slow down just before touchdown, a technique that has been used by the expendable Soyuz since the 1960s. Splashing down allows the water to cushion the spacecraft, but exposure to salt water can have adverse effects on the vehicle.[18][19] Despite this, SpaceX began regularly reusing Dragon capsules after splashdown.[20]

Dragon 2 was originally designed to propusively land using its SuperDraco engines; however, propulsive landings for Dragon were canceled[d] and Dragon 2 also uses parachutes to splashdown in the ocean.[22] Starship is designed to propulsively land using its Raptor engines. It aims to be "caught" by the launch tower, as is done for the Super Heavy booster. This eliminates the need for traditional landing legs on the vehicle and aims to lower the turnaround time between launches.[23]

After a spacecraft is recovered, it may need to be refurbished before its next flight. Depending on the spacecraft design, this process may be lengthy and expensive, and there may be a limit to how many times a spacecraft can be refurbished before it has to be retired.[24]

## List of reusable spacecraft

[edit]

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### Operational

[edit]

Vehicle  | Origin  | Manufacturer  | Orbital or sub-orbital  | Crew capacity  | Reuse  | Recovery method  | First spaceflight

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Dragon 2 |  United States | SpaceX | Orbital  | 4-7 (crew)[25]
0 (cargo)  | Partial  | Parachute splashdown  | 2019 (crew)[26]
2020 (cargo)[27]
New Shepard |  United States | Blue Origin | Sub-orbital  | 6  | Full  | Parachute landing  | 2015 [28]
X-37B |  United States | Boeing | Orbital  | —  | Full[e] | Runway  | 2010[30]
Starliner |  United States | Boeing | Orbital  | 4  | Partial  | Parachute landing  | 2019[31]
Orion |  United States | Lockheed Martin (Crew Module)
Airbus Defense and Space (Service Module)  | Orbital  | 4  | Partial  | Parachute splashdown  | 2014[32]
Shenlong |  China |  | Orbital  | —  |  | Runway  | 2020[33]

### Under development

[edit]

Vehicle  | Origin  | Manufacturer  | Orbital or sub-orbital  | Crew capacity  | Reuse  | Recovery method  | Expected spaceflight

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Dream Chaser |  United States | Sierra Space | Orbital  | 7 (crew)
0 (cargo)  | Partial  | Runway  | TBA (crew)
2025 (cargo)
Starship |  United States | SpaceX | Orbital  | 100 (crew)
0 (cargo)  | Full  | Propulsive landing  | 2025[f]
Delphi  |  United States | Lux Aeterna  | Orbital  | \-  | Full  | Parachute landing  | 2027[34]
Space Rider |  Europe | Avio and Thales Alenia Space | Orbital  | \-  | Partial  | Parachute landing  | 2025
Mengzhou |  China | CAST | Orbital  | 3-7  | Partial  | Parachute landing  | 2020[g]
RLV-TD |  India |  |  | \-  |  | Runway  |
Orel |  Russia | RKK Energia | Orbital  | 4-6  | Partial  |  | 2028
Comparison of Soyuz, Starliner, Crew Dragon, Orion, and Susie.

### Retired

[edit]

Vehicle  | Origin  | Manufacturer  | Orbital or sub-orbital  | Crew capacity  | Reuse  | Recovery method  | First Spaceflight  | Retired

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

X-15 |  United States | North American Aviation | Sub-orbital  | 1  | Full  | Runway  | 1962[2][h] | 1968
Gemini |  United States | McDonnell Aircraft | Orbital[i] | 2  | Partial  | Parachute splashdown  | 1964[35] | 1966
VA spacecraft |  Soviet Union | NPO Mashinostroyeniya | Orbital  | —[j] | Partial  | Parachute  | 1976[36] | 1985
Space Shuttle |  United States | Rockwell International | Orbital  | 8  | Full  | Runway  | 1981[37] | 2011
Buran[k] |  Soviet Union |  | Orbital  | 10[l] | Full  | Runway  | 1988[38] | 1988
SpaceShipOne |  United States | Scaled Composites | Sub-orbital  | 1  | Full  | Runway  | 2004[39] | 2004
Dragon 1 |  United States | SpaceX | Orbital  | —  | Partial  | Parachute splashdown  | 2010[40] | 2020
SpaceShipTwo |  United States | Scaled Composites & The Spaceship Company | Sub-orbital  | 6  | Full  | Runway  | 2018[41][m] | 2024

### Proposed

[edit]

* SUSIE
* Avatar

### Canceled

[edit]

* Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar
* Hermes
* Kliper
* MAKS
* HOPE-X
* Skylon

## See also

[edit]

* Reusable launch system

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The United States defines spaceflight as above 80km, while 100km is internationally recognized by the FAI
2. ^ SpaceShipTwo has exceeded altitudes of 80km, but not 100km
3. ^ Both the spacecraft and entire launch vehicle are named Starship
4. ^ Crew Dragon retains the ability to propulsively land in the event of parachute failure.[21]
5. ^ The X-37 can carry an optional expendable service module[29]
6. ^ Starship prototypes reached space in 2023 and 2024, but were not recovered
7. ^ A Mengzhou prototype completed an uncrewed test flight in 2020
8. ^ The X-15 reached an altitude of 95.9km on July 17, 1962. It reached an altitude of 106.1km on July 19, 1963
9. ^ Gemini SC-2 was used on two sub-orbital spaceflights, while the class of spacecraft was proven as orbital.[2]
10. ^ The VA spacecraft was designed to carry crew, but this was never proven
11. ^ Buran was designed to be reused and was recovered, but only completed one spaceflight.
12. ^ Buran was designed to carry cosmonauts, but this was not proven
13. ^ SpaceShipTwo exceeded an altitude of 80km, but not 100km

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Rincon, Paul (17 April 2023). "What is Elon Musk's Starship space vehicle?". BBC. Archived from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
2. ^ a b c Heger, Gary (22 August 2020). "The First Reusable Spacecraft: The X-15 Flights Above the Karman Line". Drew Ex Machina. Archived from the original on 10 November 2024. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
3. ^ USAF (2017). "Gemini Capsule". Air Force Space and Missile Museum. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 31 December 2017.
4. ^ "Used spacecraft for sale: Soviet-era space capsule up for auction in Belgium". collectSPACE. 6 May 2014. Archived from the original on 9 November 2024. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
5. ^ "Space Shuttle Era Facts" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
6. ^ "Most re-used spacecraft". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
7. ^ Cegłowski, Maciej (3 August 2005). "A Rocket To Nowhere". Idle Words. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2024.
8. ^ Wattles, Jackie (12 April 2024). "The space shuttle was revolutionary for its time. What went wrong?". CNN. Retrieved 4 December 2024.
9. ^ Chang, Kenneth (25 May 2012). "Space X Capsule Docks at Space Station". New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 June 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
10. ^ Gebhart, Chris (5 June 2017). "SpaceX's CRS-11 Dragon captured by Station for a second time". NASA Spaceflight. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
11. ^ "Infographic: Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA". Statista Daily Data. 8 June 2020. Archived from the original on 10 November 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
12. ^ Overbye, Dennis (21 September 2021). "What a Fungus Reveals About the Space Program - One thing's for sure: Escaping the dung heap doesn't come cheap". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
13. ^ "Coming Up: Crew Dragon Deorbit Burn – Commercial Crew Program". blogs.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
14. ^ Chung, Winchell D. Jr. (30 May 2011). "Basic Design". Atomic Rockets. Projectrho.com. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
15. ^ Johnson, Sylvia (September 2012). "Thermal Protection Materials: Development, Characterization, and Evaluation" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
16. ^ High emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramics for reusable space systems Archived 13 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Corrosion Science 2019
17. ^ Scharr, Jillian (13 June 2013). "NASA Goes 'Green': Next Spacecraft to Be Reusable". Space.com. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
18. ^ Tous, Marcos (28 June 2024). "The science behind splashdown—aerospace engineer explains how NASA and SpaceX get spacecraft safely back". The Conversation. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
19. ^ "A FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING THE REUSABILITY OF HARDWARE (REUSABLE ROCKET ENGINES" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
20. ^ Foust, Jeff (16 June 2020). "NASA to allow reuse of Crew Dragon spacecraft and boosters". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
21. ^ McRea, Aaron. "Dragon receives long-planned propulsive landing upgrade after years of development". Nasa Spaceflight. Archived from the original on 11 November 2024. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
22. ^ Thompson, Loren. "SpaceX Abandons Plan To Make Astronaut Spacecraft Reusable; Boeing Sticks With Reuse Plan". Forbes. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
23. ^ Root, Al (19 November 2024). "SpaceX's Mechazilla Didn't Catch Starship. That's a Bummer". BARRON'S. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
24. ^ Foust, Jeff (25 July 2019). "SpaceX launches Dragon as it prepares for next cargo contract". SpaceNews.com. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
25. ^ "COMMERCIAL CREW PROGRAM" (PDF). NASA. p. 20\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2024. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
26. ^ Finch, Josh (2 March 2019). "NASA, SpaceX Launch First Flight Test of Space System Designed for Crew". NASA. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
27. ^ Garcia, Mark (7 December 2020). "New SpaceX Cargo Dragon Docks to Station". NASA. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
28. ^ Amos, Jonathan (24 November 2015). "New Shepard: Bezos claims success on second spaceship flight". BBC. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
29. ^ Wolfe, Frank (4 March 2022). "Seventh X-37B Mission to Have Service Module, Like Sixth Mission, to Permit More Experiments". Defense Daily. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
30. ^ Clark, Stephen (22 April 2010). "Atlas rocket delivers Air Force spaceplane to orbit". Spaceflightnow. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
31. ^ Burghardt, Thomas (7 July 2020). "NASA and Boeing Complete Starliner Orbital Flight Test Investigation". NASA Spaceflight. Archived from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
32. ^ Foust, Jeff (5 December 2014). "Delta 4 Heavy Launches Orion on Second Attempt". SpaceNews. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
33. ^ Todd, David (4 September 2020). "China launches reusable spacecraft using a Long March 2F rocket…then lands it two days later". Seradata. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
34. ^ O'Kane, Sean (25 June 2025). "Exclusive: New space startup Lux Aeterna wants to make satellites reusable". TechCrunch. Retrieved 13 July 2025.
35. ^ "Gemini 1". NASA. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
36. ^ "The TKS transport ship". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
37. ^ "'Yeeeow!' and 'Doggone!' Are Shouted on Beaches as Crowds Watch Liftoff". The New York Times.
38. ^ Bergin, Chris (15 November 2013). "Remembering Buran – The Shuttle's Estranged Soviet Cousin". NASA Spaceflight. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
39. ^ "SpaceShipOne". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 23 November 2024.
40. ^ "SpaceX Launches Success with Falcon 9/Dragon Flight". NASA. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2012. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
41. ^ Grush, Lauren (13 December 2018). "Virgin Galactic's spaceplane finally makes it to space for the first time". The Verge. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2024.

* v
* t
* e

Reusable launch systems and spacecraft

Launch systems

| Active|

* Falcon 9 (first stage)
* Falcon Heavy (core stages)
* New Shepard* (fully reusable)

|

Retired|

* Space Shuttle (orbiter and boosters)
* Petrel* (booster)
* Skua* (booster)

In development|

* Amur (first stage)
* Ariane Next
* CALLISTO
* CORONA
* Electron (first stage)
* Hyperbola-3 (first stage)
* Long March
* 6X (first stage)
* 8R (first stage)
* Miura 5 (first stage)
* New Glenn (first stage)
* Orbex Prime (first stage)
* Pallas-1 (first stage)
* RLV-TD
* Rocket Lab Neutron (first stage)
* Starship (SpaceX)
* Stoke Space Nova
* Terran R (first stage)
* Tianlong-3 (first stage)
* Vulcan (engines)

Proposals|

* Kankoh-maru
* SASSTO
* Saturn-Shuttle

Canceled|

* Adeline
* Angara
* Ares I (first stage)
* Ares V (boosters)
* Chang Cheng-1
* Energia II (Uragan)
* Falcon 1e
* Falcon 5
* Nexus
* Hyperbola-2
* HOPE-X
* Hopper / Phoenix
* HOTOL
* K-1
* Liquid Fly-back Booster
* MAKS
* Reusable Booster System
* Roton
* Sea Dragon
* Skylon
* Tianjiao-1
* Spiral
* V-2
* VentureStar

Spacecraft

| Active|

* Boeing Starliner (capsule)
* Boeing X-37
* New Shepard* (capsule)
* Dragon 2
* Shenlong

|

Retired|

* Dragon (capsule)
* Gemini SC-2*
* SpaceShipOne*
* SpaceShipTwo*
* Space Shuttle orbiter
* X-15*

In development|

* Dream Chaser
* Mengzhou (capsule)
* Orel (spacecraft) (capsule)
* Orion (capsule)
* Starship upper stage

Proposals|

* Avatar
* Goodyear Meteor Junior
* Ya Guidao Gainian Feixingqi*
* SUSIE

Cancelled|

* Buran-class orbiter (never actually reused, flew just once)
* H-2
* Kliper
* Lynx*
* Mustard
* Silver Dart
* SOAR
* X-30 NASP*
* X-33*
* SpaceShipThree*

* * indicates suborbital vehicles

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