Reverse racism

Concept that affirmative action and similar programs constitute anti-white discrimination

For a definition of the term "reverse racism", see the Wiktionary entry reverse racism.

Not to be confused with Anti-white racism.

Reverse racism, sometimes referred to as reverse discrimination,[1] is the concept that affirmative action and similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are forms of anti-white racism.[2] The concept is often associated with conservative social movements,[2][3] and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by Black people and other people of color cause disadvantages for white people.[4][5][6]

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that white Americans are disadvantaged as a group.[7] Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the ability to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S.[8][9] Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power,[1][10][11] which most sociologists and psychologists include in their definition of racism.[1][8]

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s,[2][12] and have formed part of a racial backlash against social gains by people of color.[13] While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever white supremacy has diminished, such as in post-apartheid South Africa.[4]

## United States

[edit]

See also: Race and ethnicity in the United States

### Overview

[edit]

The concept of reverse racism in the United States is commonly associated with conservative opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such as affirmative action. Amy E. Ansell of Emerson College identifies three main claims about reverse racism: that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in white men; that racial preferences violate the individual right of equal protection before the law; and that color consciousness itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism.[2] The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.[14]

### History

[edit]

Concerns that the advancement of African Americans might cause harm to white Americans date back as far as the Reconstruction Era in the context of debates over providing reparations for slavery.[2] Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual anecdotes, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.[9]

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the racially color-blind view that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong.[2] Sociologist Bob Blauner argues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning of racism among whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives and centrist liberals in the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism".[15] Where past race-conscious policies such as Jim Crow have been used to maintain white supremacy, modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality.[16] Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism.[17] For example, sociologist Nathan Glazer argued in his 1975 book Affirmative Discrimination that affirmative action was a form of reverse racism[18][19] violating white people's right to equal protection under the law.[20] This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), which said that racial quotas for minority students were discriminatory against white people.[17]

Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instance Regents of the University of California v. Bakke; Gratz v. Bollinger; and Grutter v. Bollinger (regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) and Ricci v. DeStefano (regarding employment discrimination).[21] Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination.[22] Sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva writes that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded.[23] Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.[22]

Since 2020, conservative activists such as Stephen Miller and Edward Blum have challenged diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs as being discriminatory towards whites. Following the 2023 Supreme Court ruling against race-conscious affirmative action in college admissions, US courts have seen an increase in reverse discrimination claims,[24][25] with some individual plaintiffs being awarded damages against companies such as Starbucks and Novant Health.[26]

### Public attitudes

[edit]

While not empirically supported,[7] belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States,[10][27] primarily among white people.[6] Psychological studies with white Americans have shown that belief in anti-white discrimination is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S.[28][29] as well as the belief that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities.[30][31] The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the Tea Party and support for Donald Trump.[3] Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and meritocracy.[32] Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "angry white male"[2] and a backlash against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.[13]

The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination.[5] A survey in Pennsylvania in the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely.[33] A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed.[34][35] Researchers at Tufts University and Harvard report that as of the early 2010s many white Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary.[27][36][37] Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent.[21][38] Among white respondents since the 1990s:

> Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.[39]

Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus".[12] He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of "color-blind racism", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform.[40] Journalist Vann R. Newkirk II writes that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the civil rights movement of the 1960s.[41] Using data from the 2006 Portraits of American Life Study, Damon Mayrl and Aliya Saperstein find that whites who claim to have experienced racial discrimination are "more likely to be racially self-aware, to be pessimistic about the future, and to have a recent history of unemployment compared to their non-discrimination-reporting peers".[42][non-primary source needed]

### Scholarly analysis

[edit]

While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.[4] Race relations in the United States have been historically shaped by European imperialism and long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites,[14] who remain the dominant group.[8][9] Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component of racism; in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism.[1][43] In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar Stanley Fish wrote that "'Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".[44]

Sociologist Ellis Cashmore writes that the terms reverse racism and reverse discrimination imply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups.[14] Sociologist Joe Feagin argues that the term reverse discrimination is an oxymoron in the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue of systemic racism" disadvantaging people of color.[45] Critical race theorist David Theo Goldberg says the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination.[46] Sociologist Karyn McKinney writes, "most claims that whites are victimized as whites rely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level".[47] Anthropologist Jane H. Hill argues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of white privilege and power in society.[11] Linguist Mary Bucholtz says the concept of reverse racism, which she calls racial reversal, "runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".[48]

According to sociologist Rutledge Dennis, individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities.[9] Sociologists Matthew Desmond and Mustafa Emirbayer distinguish between institutional racism and interpersonal racism,[49] arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people.[50] Psychologist and educator Beverly Daniel Tatum argues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them.[51] Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the term racist only for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority."[51]

Promotion of substantive equality, for example through affirmative action, may violate formal equality of opportunity according to Richard Arneson.[52] Differences between equality concepts are also called Dilemma of difference.[53]

## South Africa

[edit]

See also: Racism in South Africa

This section may lend undue weight to individual allegations of reverse racism rather than the broader social impact of the term/concept. Please help improve it by rewriting it in a balanced fashion that contextualises different points of view. (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

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The concept of reverse racism has been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end of white-supremacist rule.[4] Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".[54]

Nelson Mandela in 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff at South African universities.[55] Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.[56]

Mixed-race South Africans have also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government.[57] Similar accusations have been leveled by Indian and Afrikaner groups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.[58]

Helen Suzman, a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged the African National Congress and the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.[59]

South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.[60][verification needed]

## See also

[edit]

* Law portal
* United States portal

* Racism in South Africa
* Racism in the United States
* Racism in France
* Reverse sexism – Sociological concept
* Xenoracism – Form of prejudice

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Yee, June Ying (2008). "Racism, Types of". In Shaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3. SAGE Publications. pp. 1118–19\. ISBN 978-1-41-292694-2. "[T]he term reverse racism (or reverse discrimination) has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism."
2. ^ a b c d e f g Ansell, Amy Elizabeth (2013). Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts. Routledge. pp. 135–136\. ISBN 978-0-415-33794-6. "Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry)."
3. ^ a b Garner, Steve (2017). "New Racisms?". Racisms: An Introduction (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. p. 185\. ISBN 978-1-5264-1285-0.
4. ^ a b c d Ansell (2013), p. 137.
5. ^ a b Mazzocco, Philip J. (2017). The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 91\. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59302-3. ISBN 978-1-13-759967-4.
6. ^ a b Roussell, Aaron; Henne, Kathryn; Glover, Karen S.; Willits, Dale (2019). "Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila". Criminology & Public Policy. 18 (1): E6. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12289. ISSN 1745-9133. "Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses in White status"
7. ^ a b

* Ansell (2013), p. 137: "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists."
* Garner (2017), p. 185: "[T]here is no evidence that [reverse racism] is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people qua white people exists."
* Spanierman & Cabrera (2014), p. 16: "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans."
* Bax (2018), p. 117: "Many Americans—including some people of color—staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect."
* Roussell et al. (2019), pp. E6–E7: "Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked"

8. ^ a b c Drustrup, David; Liu, William Ming; Rigg, Thomas; Davis, Katelynn (2022). "Investigating the white racial equilibrium and the power-maintenance of whiteness". Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. 22 (3): 961–988\. doi:10.1111/asap.12321. ISSN 1530-2415. "[M]ost scholars within critical race theory, psychology, and sociology include notions of power in their definition of racism [...] This means that only the dominant group (i.e., whites in U.S. society) can enforce prejudiced and discriminatory laws, behavior, and cultural ideologies onto the minoritized group (i.e., people of Color)."
9. ^ a b c d Dennis, Rutledge M. (2004). "Racism". In Kuper, A.; Kuper, J. (eds.). The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2 (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 843–845\. ISBN 978-1-13-435970-7.
10. ^ a b Bax, Anna (2018). "'The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism'". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 28 (2): 117. doi:10.1111/jola.12185. ISSN 1548-1395. S2CID 4768398.
11. ^ a b Hill, Jane H. (2011). The Everyday Language of White Racism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 15\. ISBN 978-1-4443-5669-4.
12. ^ a b Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2010). Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (3rd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 211\. ISBN 978-1-4422-0218-4.
13. ^ a b Ansell (2013), pp. 17, 137.
14. ^ a b c Cashmore, Ellis, ed. (2004). "Reverse Racism/Discrimination". Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies. Routledge. p. 373\. ISBN 978-1-13-444706-0.
15. ^ Blauner, Bob (1994). "Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race". In Pincus, Fred L.; Ehrlich, Howard J. (eds.). Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 23\. ISBN 0-8133-1661-8.
16. ^ Ansell (2013), pp. 4, 46.
17. ^ a b McBride, David (2005). "Affirmative Action". In Carlisle, Rodney P. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. p. 8\. ISBN 978-1-41-290409-4.
18. ^ Mazzocco (2017), p. 23.
19. ^ Blauner, Bob (1989). Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 346\. ISBN 978-0-520-06261-0.
20. ^ Ansell (2013), p. 57.
21. ^ a b Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (2011a). "Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing" (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (3): 215–18\. doi:10.1177/1745691611406922. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 26168512. S2CID 10616480. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 10, 2023. See also:

"Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks". TuftsNow (Press release). May 23, 2011. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 7, 2023.

22. ^ a b Desmond, Matthew; Emirbayer, Mustafa (2010). Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 197\. ISBN 978-0-07-297051-7.
23. ^ Bonilla-Silva (2010), p. 83.
24. ^ Telford, Taylor (December 27, 2023). "2024 might be do-or-die for corporate diversity efforts. Here's why". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved October 8, 2024.
25. ^ Telford, Taylor (August 29, 2023). "Ex-Morgan Stanley executive alleges reverse discrimination in lawsuit". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 8, 2024.
26. ^ Guynn, Jessica (December 20, 2023). "DEI under siege: Why more businesses are being accused of 'reverse discrimination'". USA Today. Retrieved September 17, 2024.
27. ^ a b Spanierman, Lisa; Cabrera, Nolan (2014). "The Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism". In Watson, V.; Howard-Wagner, D.; Spanierman, L. (eds.). Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions. Lexington Books. p. 16\. ISBN 978-0-73-919297-9.
28. ^ Mazzocco (2017), p. 85.
29. ^ Wilkins, C. L.; Kaiser, C. R. (2013). "Racial Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias". Psychological Science. 25 (2): 439–46\. doi:10.1177/0956797613508412. ISSN 1467-9280. PMID 24343099. S2CID 6934961.
30. ^ Cyr, Lauren (2018). "Literature Review: Interdisciplinary Findings on Diversity and Inclusion". In Kim Gertz, S.; Huang, B.; Cyr, L. (eds.). Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24\. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70175-2. ISBN 978-3-31-970174-5.
31. ^ Wilkins, Clara L.; Wellman, Joseph D.; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2013). "Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 49 (6): 1114–19\. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017. ISSN 1096-0465.
32. ^ Ansell (2013), p. 17.
33. ^ Feagin, Joe R. (2001). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York: Routledge. p. 127\. ISBN 978-0-4159-2532-7.
34. ^ Massie, Victoria M. (June 29, 2016). "Americans are split on "reverse racism". That still doesn't mean it exists". Vox. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
35. ^ Jones, Robert P.; et al. (June 23, 2016). How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Public Religion Research Institute. p. 2\. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
36. ^ Fletcher, Michael A. (October 8, 2014). "Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 21, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
37. ^ Ingraham, Christopher (August 2, 2017). "White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening". The Washington Post.
38. ^ Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (May 23, 2011b). "Jockeying for Stigma". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
39. ^ Norton & Sommers (2011a), p. 215, quoted in Garner (2017), p. 185
40. ^ Garner (2017), p. 186.
41. ^ Newkirk, Vann R. II (August 5, 2017). "How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
42. ^ Mayrl, Damon; Saperstein, Aliya (2013). "When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics". Social Science Research. 42 (3): 742–754\. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007. ISSN 0049-089X. PMID 23521992.
43. ^ McKinney, Karyn D. (2005). Being White: Stories of Race and Racism. New York: Routledge. p. 147\. ISBN 978-0-4159-3572-2.
44. ^ Fish, quoted in Pincus, Fred L. (2003). Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 68–69\. ISBN 978-1-58-826203-5.
45. ^ Feagin (2001), p. 250\. Cited in Cashmore (2004), p. 373.
46. ^ Pinder, Sherrow O. (2015). Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137431103. ISBN 978-1-13-743488-3.[page needed]
47. ^ McKinney (2005), p. 146\. Cited in Bax (2018), p. 117.
48. ^ Bucholtz, Mary (2011). "'It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth". Discourse & Society. 22 (4): 385–402\. doi:10.1177/0957926510395832. ISSN 0957-9265. S2CID 145109978. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved April 4, 2023. Cited in Bax (2018), p. 117.
49. ^ Desmond & Emirbayer (2010), p. 30.
50. ^ Desmond & Emirbayer (2010), p. 32.
51. ^ a b Tatum, Beverly Daniel (2004). "Defining Racism: 'Can We Talk?' ". In Rothenberg, Paula S. (ed.). Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 129\. ISBN 978-0-7167-5515-9. &rft.btitle=Race,+Class+and+Gender+in+the+United+States:+An+Integrated+Study&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=129&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Worth+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-5515-9&rft.aulast=Tatum&rft.aufirst=Beverly+Daniel&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Reverse+racism" class="Z3988"> Cited in McKinney (2005), p. 147.
52. ^ Arneson, Richard (October 8, 2002). "Equality of Opportunity §2.4 Affirmative Action". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
53. ^ Minow, Martha (1985). "Learning to Live with the Dilemma of Difference: Bilingual and Special Education". Law and Contemporary Problems. 48 (2). Duke University School of Law: 157–211\. doi:10.2307/1191571. ISSN 0023-9186. JSTOR 1191571.
54. ^ De Villiers, Susan; Simanowitz, Stefan (March 2012). "South Africa: The ANC at 100". The Contemporary Review. Vol. 294, no. 1704\. pp. 39–45\. ISSN 0010-7565. ProQuest 1013463231. "[A]ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in claiming 'reverse racism'."
55. ^ MacGregor, Karen (March 24, 1995). "Mandela slams 'reverse racism'". Times Higher Education. London. ISSN 0049-3929. Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. Retrieved July 18, 2022.
56. ^ Sinclair, Abiola (September 16, 1995). "Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes". New York Amsterdam News. p. 26\. ISSN 1059-1818. "The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools."
57. ^ Polgreen, Lydia (July 27, 2003). "For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 31, 2013.
58. ^ Harman, Dana (September 26, 2002). "South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past". Christian Science Monitor. p. 1\. ISSN 2166-3262. "But old feelings die hard, and some groups - in particular the Afrikaner and Indian minorities - even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism."
59. ^ Calvert, Scott (May 13, 2005). "Against apartheid, at odds with blacks". The Baltimore Sun. ISSN 1930-8965. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved July 18, 2022.
60. ^ Dalamba, Yolisa (2000). "Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa". Journal of Cultural Studies. 2 (1): 40–61\. doi:10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231. ISSN 1595-0956.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Anderson, Kristin J. (2010). "'Affirmative Action is reverse racism': The myth of merit". Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice. Cambridge University Press. pp. 278–334\. ISBN 978-0-52-187835-7.
* Ansell, Amy Elizabeth (1997). New Right, New Racism: Race and Reaction in the United States and Britain. London: Macmillan. pp. 132–138\. ISBN 0-33-364945-1.
* Brown, Michael K. (2010). "Race". In Valelly, Richard M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History, Volume 7: The Clash of Conservatism and Liberalism, 1976 to Present. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 318\. ISBN 978-1-60-426647-4.
* Chang, Robert S. (1996). "Reverse Racism!: Affirmative Action, the Family, and the Dream That Is America" (PDF). Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly. 23 (4): 1115–1134\. ISSN 0094-5617.[dead link]
* Dennis, Rutledge M. (1996). "Racism". In Kuper, Adam; Kuper, Jessica (eds.). The social science encyclopedia (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 715–717\. ISBN 0-415-10829-2.
* Fish, Stanley (November 1993). "Reverse Racism, or How the Pot Got to Call the Kettle Black". The Atlantic Monthly. pp. 128, 130, 132, 135–136\. ISSN 1072-7825.
* Graves, Joseph L.; Goodman, Alan H. (2021). "Everything You Wanted to Know About Racism". Racism, Not Race: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions. Columbia University Press. pp. 59–81\. ISBN 978-0-231-55373-5. JSTOR 10.7312/grav20066.8.
* Gresson, Aaron David III (1995). The Recovery of Race in America. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 9, 145, 163. ISBN 978-0-8166-2446-1.
* Sanneh, Kelefa (August 10, 2009). "Discriminating Tastes". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012.
* Song, Miri (2014). "Challenging a culture of racial equivalence". The British Journal of Sociology. 65 (1): 107–129\. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12054. PMID 24697716 - via ResearchGate.
* Suiter, Tad (2016). "Reverse Racism: A Discursive History". In Kiuchi, Yuya (ed.). Race Still Matters: The Reality of African American Lives and the Myth of Postracial Society. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-43-846273-8.

## External links

[edit]

Reverse racism at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity

* List of cases involving allegations of reverse discrimination, U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

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Racism

Types of racism|

* Aversive
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Manifestations
of racism|

* Anti-miscegenation laws
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* Racial segregation

Racism by region|

* Global apartheid
* Africa
* South Africa
* Zimbabwe
* Asia
* China
* Japan
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Thailand
* Vietnam
* Arab world
* Libya
* Saudi Arabia
* Sudan
* Australia
* Europe
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Italy
* Poland
* Portugal
* Russia
* Soviet Union
* Spain
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Middle East
* Iran
* Israel
* Palestine
* Turkey
* North America
* Canada
* United States
* Mexico
* South America
* Argentina
* Brazil
* Chile

Racism by target|

* Arab
* Asians
* Chinese
* Chinese Americans
* Zainichi Chinese
* Japanese
* Japanese Americans
* Japanese Koreans
* Korean
* Zainichi Koreans
* Vietnamese
* Black
* African Americans
* Arab
* Women
* Mexican
* Native Americans
* Jewish
* Anti-racism
* Jewish Americans
* In Jewish communities
* LGBT
* Middle Eastern
* Muslim
* Romani
* Slavic
* Wine industry
* Racial supremacy
* Black supremacy
* White supremacy
* White

Related topics|

* Ableism
* Alt-right
* Anti-racism
* Casteism
* Ethnic plastic surgery
* Go back to where you came from
* Herrenvolk democracy
* Interminority racism in the United States
* Hispanics/Latinos
* Lynching
* Passing
* Perpetual foreigner
* Psychometrics of racism
* Race and sexuality
* Race card
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racial misrepresentation
* Racial figleaf
* Racial integration
* Racial quota
* Racism in sport
* in Australia
* Reverse racism
* Sociology of race and ethnic relations
* Xenophobia

* Category
* Commons
* Index

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Discrimination

Forms|

* Institutional
* Reverse
* Structural
* Statistical
* Systemic
* Taste-based

Attributes|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Disability
* Economic
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Dialect
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Nationality or citizenship
* Race / Ethnicity
* Reverse
* Skin color
* Scientific racism
* Rank
* Sex
* Reverse
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social|

* Arophobia
* Anti-albinism
* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-altruistic
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Elitism
* Endophobia
* Ephebiphobia
* Health
* mental
* in poverty
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Hypergamy
* Homophobia
* In-group
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Against men
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Misogynoir
* Nepotism
* Outgroup
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* Aryanism
* Black
* Hutu
* Chauvinism
* Han
* Female
* Human
* Nordicism
* Male
* Ultranationalism
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Trans men
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophilia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Religious exemption
* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism

* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Race / Ethnicity|

* Afghan
* Pashtun
* Hazara
* African
* Fulani
* Igbo
* Serers
* Albanian
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* South Africa
* United States
* Assyrian
* Austrian
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African American
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Han people
* Colombian
* Croat
* Dutch
* English
* Estonian
* Filipino
* French
* Finnish
* Georgian
* German
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hungarian
* Indian
* Indonesian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Iranian
* Irish
* Israeli
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Eliminationist
* New
* Religious
* Anti-Yiddish
* Zionist
* Khmer
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Lithuanian
* Malay
* Māori
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Montenegrin
* Nigerian
* Pakistani
* Palestinian
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Scottish
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Spanish
* Taiwanese
* Tatar
* Thai
* Tibetan
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese
* Welsh
* White people

Manifestations|

* Algorithmic bias
* Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
* SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Carnism
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Dog whistle
* Domicide
* Economic
* Education
* Academic
* In curricula
* Sexism
* Eliminationism
* Eliminationist antisemitism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Environmental racism
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Excellence
* Gender-based dress codes
* Cosmetics policy
* High heel policy
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Transgender genocide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Circumcision
* Female genital mutilation
* Intersex medical interventions
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* Disability hate crime
* Violence against LGBTQ people
* Violence against transgender people
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Institutional discrimination
* Institutional racism
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Hypergamy
* Age disparity
* Indian rolling
* International inequality
* Kill Haole Day
* Lavender scare
* LGBTQ+
* grooming conspiracy theory
* Linguicide
* Lynching
* Media bias
* Minority stress
* Moral exclusion
* Mortgage
* Native American mascots
* Braves
* Blackhawks
* Chiefs
* Occupational
* Apartheid
* Inequality
* Injustice
* Segregation
* Opposition to immigration
* Paper genocide
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political
* Political repression
* Ideological repression
* Purge
* Racialization
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Selective enforcement
* Selective prosecution
* Sentencing disparity
* Sexual harassment
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Structural abuse
* Structural discrimination
* Structural evil
* Structural inequality
* Structural violence
* Untermensch
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* Wife selling
* Witch hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Algorithmic wage discrimination
* Age of candidacy
* Apartheid
* in South Africa
* in Israel
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Breadwinner model
* Conscription and sexism
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Disparate impact
* Fagging
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Opposition to LGBTQ rights
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* No kid zone
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Segregation academy
* religious
* sexual
* in Islam
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression
* White Australia policy

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Anti-racism
* Audit study
* Autism rights movement
* Gender-blind
* Blind audition
* Constitutional colorblindness
* Cross-sex friendship
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity, equity, and inclusion
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Golden Rule
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* Korenizatsiia
* LGBTQ rights
* Mad pride
* Music in the movement against apartheid
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Rock Against Sexism
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Stop Murder Music
* Toleration
* Transgender rights movement
* Universal suffrage
* Women's rights

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Amatonormativity
* Bias
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Cisnormativity
* Civil liberties
* Criminalization of homosexuality
* Dehumanization
* Diseases of despair
* Ethnic penalty
* Figleaf
* Han chauvinism
* Heteronormativity
* Historical eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Masculism
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Racial color blindness
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social equity
* Social exclusion
* Social model of disability
* Social privilege
* Christian
* male
* white
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* The talk

* Category
* Commons

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