Roman Kingdom

Period of Roman history (c. 753 – c. 509 BC)

"Regal period" redirects here. For the regal period in Athenian history, see List of kings of Athens.

For the 5th-century "Roman kingdom" in Soissons ruled by Syagrius, see Kingdom of Soissons.

Roman Kingdom

Roma (Latin)

c. 753 – c. 509 BC

The ancient quarters of Rome

Capital| Rome
Common languages| Old Latin
Religion

| Roman religion
Government| Elective monarchy
King|

• 753–716 BC

| Romulus

• 715–672 BC

| Numa Pompilius

• 672–640 BC

| Tullus Hostilius

• 640–616 BC

| Ancus Marcius

• 616–578 BC

| L. Tarquinius Priscus

• 578–534 BC

| Servius Tullius

• 534–509 BC

| L. Tarquinius Superbus
Legislature|

* Senate
* Roman Assemblies

Historical era| Iron Age

• Founding of Rome

| 753 BC

• Monarchy overthrown

| 509 BC

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Latial culture

|

| Alba Longa
| Etruscan civilization
| Roman Republic |

|

Today part of|

* Italy
* Vatican City

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The Roman Kingdom, also known as the Roman monarchy and the regal period of ancient Rome, was the earliest period of Roman history, when the city and its territory were ruled by kings. According to tradition, the Roman Kingdom began with the city's founding c. 753 BC, with settlements around the Palatine Hill along the river Tiber in central Italy, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Republic c. 509 BC.

Little is certain about the kingdom's history as no records and few inscriptions from the time of the kings have survived. The accounts of this period written during the Republic and the Empire are thought largely to be based on oral tradition.

## Origin

[edit]

Main article: Founding of Rome

See also: Latial culture

Shards of terracotta decorative plaques, 6th century BC (Roman Kingdom and Etruscan period), found in the Roman Forum, now in the Diocletian Baths Museum, Rome

The site of the founding of the Roman Kingdom (and eventual Republic and Empire) included a ford where one could cross the river Tiber in central Italy. The Palatine Hill and hills surrounding it provided easily defensible positions in the wide fertile plain surrounding them. Each of these features contributed to the success of the city.[1]

The traditional version of Roman history, which has come down principally through Livy (64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17), Plutarch (46–120), and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 BC – after 7 BC), recounts that a series of seven kings ruled the settlement in Rome's first centuries. The traditional chronology, as codified by Varro (116 BC – 27 BC) and Fabius Pictor (c. 270 – c. 200 BC), allows 243 years for their combined reigns, an average of almost 35 years. Since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, modern scholarship has generally discounted this schema. The Gauls destroyed many of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC (according to Varro; according to Polybius, the battle occurred in 387–6), and what remained eventually fell prey to time or to theft. With no contemporary records of the kingdom surviving, all accounts of the Roman kings must be carefully questioned.[2][3]

## Monarchy

[edit]

Further information: King of Rome, Constitution of the Roman Kingdom, and Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom

The kings following Romulus, the city's founder, were elected by the people of Rome to serve for life, and did not rely upon military force to gain or keep the throne. The only king to break fully with this tradition was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the final king, who according to tradition seized power from his predecessor and ruled as a tyrant.

The insignia of the kings of Rome were twelve lictors (attendants or servants) wielding the symbolic fasces bearing axes, the right to sit upon a curule seat, the purple toga picta, red shoes, and a white diadem around the head. Of all these insignia, the most important was the purple toga picta.

### Chief Executive

[edit]

The king was invested with supreme military, executive, and judicial authority through the use of imperium, formally granted to the king by the Curiate Assembly with the passing of the Lex curiata de imperio at the beginning of each king's reign. The imperium of the king was held for life and protected him from ever being brought to trial for his actions. As the king was the sole owner of imperium in Rome at the time, he possessed ultimate executive power and unchecked military authority as the commander-in-chief of all of the Roman legions. Also, the laws that kept citizens safe from magistrates' misuse of imperium did not exist during the monarchical period.

The king had the power to either appoint or nominate all officials to offices. He would appoint a tribunus celerum to serve as both the tribune of the Ramnes tribe in Rome and as the commander of the king's personal bodyguard, the celeres. The king was required to appoint the tribune upon entering office and the tribune left office upon the king's death. The tribune was second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before it.

Another officer appointed by the king was the praefectus urbi, who acted as the warden of the city. When the king was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king's powers and abilities, even to the point of being bestowed with imperium while inside the city.

The king also received the right to be the only person to appoint patricians to the Senate.

### Chief Priest

[edit]

What is known for certain is that the king alone possessed the right to the augury on behalf of Rome as its chief augur, and no public business could be performed without the will of the gods made known through auspices. The people knew the king as a mediator between them and the gods (cf. Latin pontifex, "bridge-builder", in this sense, between men and the gods) and thus viewed the king with religious awe. This made the king the head of the national religion and its chief executive. Having the power to control the Roman calendar, he conducted all religious ceremonies and appointed lower religious offices and officers. It is said that Romulus himself instituted the augurs and was believed to have been the best augur of all. Likewise, King Numa Pompilius instituted the pontiffs and through them developed the foundations of the religious dogma of Rome.

### Chief Legislator

[edit]

Main article: Leges regiae

Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority. They were not independent since they lacked the right to meet together and discuss questions of state at their own will. They could be called together only by the king (and the tribune in the case of the Curiate Assembly) and could discuss only the matters that the king laid before them. While the Curiate Assembly had the power to pass laws that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was effectively an honorary council. It could advise the king on his action but by no means could prevent him from acting. The only thing that the king could not do without the approval of the Senate and the Curiate Assembly was to declare war against a foreign nation.

### Chief Judge

[edit]

The king's imperium both granted him military powers and qualified him to pronounce legal judgement in all cases as the chief justice of Rome. Though he could assign pontiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both war and peace. While some writers believed there was no appeal from the king's decisions, others believed that a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by any patrician during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly.

To assist the king, a council advised him during all trials, but this council had no power to control his decisions. Also, two criminal detectives (quaestores parricidi) were appointed by him as well as a two-man criminal court (duumviri perduellionis), which oversaw cases of treason. According to Livy, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and final king of Rome, judged capital criminal cases without the advice of counsellors, thereby creating fear amongst those who might think to oppose him.[4]

### Election of the kings

[edit]

Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of interregnum. Supreme power of the state would devolve to the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members—the interrex—to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome. If no king were nominated at the end of five days, with the Senate's consent the interrex would appoint another Senator to succeed him for another five-day term. This process would continue until a new king was elected. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee to the kingship, he would bring the nominee before the Senate and the Curiate would review him. If the Senate passed the nominee, the interrex would convene the Curiate Assembly and preside over it during the election of the king. Once the nominee was proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the citizens of Rome could either accept or reject him. If accepted, the king-elect did not immediately enter office. Two other acts still had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power.

First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment by means of the auspices, since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the king-elect to the citadel, where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below. If found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens, thus confirming the king's priestly character. The second act which had to be performed was the conferral of the imperium upon the king. The Curiate Assembly's previous vote only determined who was to be king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power of the king upon him. Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Curiate Assembly a law granting him imperium, and the Curiate Assembly by voting in favor of the law would grant it. In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process.

### Senate

[edit]

Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and Citizens' assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

According to legend, Romulus established the Senate after he founded Rome by personally selecting the most noble men (wealthy men with legitimate wives and children) to serve as a council for the city. As such, the Senate was the King's advisory council as the Council of State. The Senate was composed of 300 senators, with 100 senators representing each of the three ancient tribes of Rome: the Ramnes (Latins), Tities (Sabines), and Luceres (Etruscans). Within each tribe, a senator was selected from each of the tribe's ten curiae. The king had the sole authority to appoint the senators, but this selection was done in accordance with ancient custom.

Under the monarchy, the Senate possessed very little power and authority as the king held most of the political power of the state and could exercise those powers without the Senate's consent. The chief function of the Senate was to serve as the king's council and be his legislative coordinator. Once legislation proposed by the king passed the Curiate Assembly, the Senate could either veto it or accept it as law. The king was, by custom, to seek the advice of the Senate on major issues. However, it was left to him to decide what issues, if any, were brought before them and he was free to accept or reject their advice as he saw fit. Only the king possessed the power to convene the Senate, except during the interregnum, during which the Senate possessed the authority to convene itself.

## Military

[edit]

Main article: Structural history of the Roman military

## Kings of Rome

[edit]

Years BC

Dates follow Livy's chronology of reign-lengths. Consult particular article for details of each king.
Year | King | Other notable information

|
|

753–716 BC | Romulus | Myth of Romulus and Remus; founder of Rome; established Roman Senate, army, first religious institutions.
715–672 BC | Numa Pompilius | Established many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions; introduced twelve-month solar calendar.
672–640 BC | Tullus Hostilius | Defeated and destroyed Alba Longa; integrated the noble Alban families into the Roman aristocracy.
640–616 BC | Ancus Marcius | Established port of Ostia; defeated the Sabines.
616–578 BC | Tarquinius Priscus | Expanded Roman hegemony over Latium; doubled membership in the Senate to 200; drained the Roman Forum, and constructed the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus.
578–534 BC | Servius Tullius | Established the Servian Tribes and the centuries; built the Temple of Diana and a new wall around the city; instituted the Compitalia.
534–509 BC | Tarquinius Superbus | Last King of Rome; overthrew Servius; conquered various Latin cities and established colonies; built the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus; deposed and Roman Republic established.

### Romulus

[edit]

A map of Rome in 753 BC. Colours show topography, with green lowlands and brown highlands. The Latin names of hills are included in all caps.

Son of the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia, ostensibly by the god Mars, the legendary Romulus was Rome's founder and first king. After he and his twin brother Remus had deposed King Amulius of Alba and reinstated the king's brother and their grandfather Numitor to the throne, they decided to build a city in the area where they had been abandoned as infants. After killing Remus in a dispute, Romulus began building the city on the Palatine Hill. His work began with fortifications. He permitted men of all classes to come to Rome as citizens, including slaves and freemen without distinction.[5] He is credited with establishing the city's religious, legal and political institutions. The kingdom was established by unanimous acclaim with him at the helm when Romulus called the citizenry to a council for the purposes of determining their government.[6][7][8][9]

Romulus established the Senate as an advisory council with the appointment of 100 of the most noble men in the community. These men he called patres (from pater, father, head), and their descendants became the patricians. To project command, he surrounded himself with attendants, in particular the twelve lictors.[6][10] He created three divisions of horsemen (equites), called centuries: Ramnes (Romans), Tities (after the Sabine king) and Luceres (Etruscans). He also divided the populace into 30 curiae, named after 30 of the Sabine women who had intervened to end the war between Romulus and Tatius. The curiae formed the voting units in the popular assemblies (Comitia Curiata).[11]

Growth of the city region during the kingdom

Romulus was behind one of the most notorious acts in Roman history, the incident commonly known as The Rape of the Sabine Women. To provide his citizens with wives, Romulus invited the neighbouring tribes to a festival in Rome where the Romans committed a mass abduction of young women from among the attendees. The accounts vary from 30 to 683 women taken, a significant number for a population of 3,000 Latins (and presumably for the Sabines as well). War broke out when Romulus refused to return the captives. After the Sabines made three unsuccessful attempts to invade the hill settlements of Rome, the women themselves intervened during the Battle of the Lacus Curtius to end the war. The two peoples were united in a joint kingdom, with Romulus and the Sabine king Titus Tatius sharing the throne.[12][13][14] In addition to the war with the Sabines, Romulus waged war with the Fidenates and Veientes and others.[15]

He reigned for thirty-seven years.[16][17] According to the legend, Romulus vanished at age fifty-four[17] while reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. He was reported to have been taken up to Mt. Olympus in a whirlwind and made a god. After initial acceptance by the public, rumours and suspicions of foul play by the patricians began to grow. In particular, some thought that members of the nobility had murdered him, dismembered his body, and buried the pieces on their land.[18] These were set aside after an esteemed nobleman testified that Romulus had come to him in a vision and told him that he was the god Quirinus.[19] He became not only one of the three major gods of Rome, but the very likeness of the city itself.[20][21]

A replica of Romulus's hut was maintained in the centre of Rome until the end of the Roman Empire.[22]

### Numa Pompilius

[edit]

Numa depicted on a 48 BC denarius

After Romulus died, there was an interregnum for one year, during which ten men chosen from the Senate governed Rome as successive interreges. Under popular pressure, the Senate finally chose the Sabine Numa Pompilius to succeed Romulus, on account of his reputation for justice and piety. The choice was accepted by the Curiate Assembly.[23][24][25]

Numa's reign was marked by peace and religious reform. He constructed a new temple to Janus and, after establishing peace with Rome's neighbours, closed the doors of the temple to indicate a state of peace. They remained closed for the rest of his reign.[26] He established the Vestal Virgins at Rome, as well as the Salii, and the flamines for Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. He also established the office and duties of pontifex maximus. Numa reigned for 43 years.[27][28] He reformed the Roman calendar by adjusting it for the solar and lunar year, as well as by adding the months of January and February to bring the total number of months to twelve.[26]

### Tullus Hostilius

[edit]

Tullus Hostilius was as warlike as Romulus had been, completely unlike Numa as he lacked any respect for the gods. Tullus waged war against Alba Longa, Fidenae and Veii and the Sabines. During Tullus's reign, the city of Alba Longa was completely destroyed and Tullus integrated its population into Rome.[29] Tullus is attributed with constructing a new home for the Senate, the Curia Hostilia, which survived for 562 years after his death.

According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods until, towards the end of his reign, he fell ill and became superstitious. However, when Tullus called upon Jupiter and begged assistance, Jupiter responded with a bolt of lightning that burned the king and his house to ashes.[30][31] His reign lasted for 32 years.[32]

### Ancus Marcius

[edit]

Ancus Marcius depicted on a 57 BC denarius

Following the mysterious death of Tullus, the Romans elected a peaceful and religious king in his place, Numa's grandson, Ancus Marcius. Much like his grandfather, Ancus did little to expand the borders of Rome and only fought wars to defend the territory. He also built Rome's first prison on the Capitoline Hill.[33]

Ancus further fortified the Janiculum Hill on the western bank, and built the first bridge across the Tiber River. He also founded the port of Ostia Antica on the Tyrrhenian Sea and established Rome's first salt works, as well as the city's first aqueduct. Rome grew, as Ancus used diplomacy to peacefully unite smaller surrounding cities into alliance with Rome. Thus, he completed the conquest of the Latins and relocated them to the Aventine Hill, thus forming the plebeian class of Romans.[34]

He died a natural death, like his grandfather, after 25 years as king, marking the end of Rome's Latin–Sabine kings.[32]

### Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

[edit]

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus was the fifth king of Rome and the first of Etruscan birth. After immigrating to Rome, he gained favour with Ancus, who later adopted him as son. Upon ascending the throne, he waged wars against the Sabines and Etruscans, doubling the size of Rome and bringing great treasures to the city. To accommodate the influx of population, the Aventine and Caelian hills were populated.[35]

One of his first reforms was to add 100 new members to the Senate from the conquered Etruscan tribes, bringing the total number of senators to 200. He used the treasures Rome had acquired from the conquests to build great monuments for Rome. Among these were Rome's great sewer systems, the Cloaca Maxima, which he used to drain the swamp-like area between the Seven Hills of Rome. In its place, he began construction on the Roman Forum. He also founded the Roman games.

Priscus initiated great building projects, including the city's first bridge, the Pons Sublicius.[36] The most famous is the Circus Maximus, a giant stadium for chariot races. After that, he started the building of the temple-fortress to the god Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. However, before it was completed, he was killed by a son of Ancus Marcius, after 38 years as king.[32] His reign is best remembered for introducing the Roman symbols of military and civil offices, and the Roman triumph, being the first Roman to celebrate one.[37]

### Servius Tullius

[edit]

A map of the City of the Four Regions, roughly corresponding to the city limits during the later kingdom. The division is traditionally, though probably incorrectly, attributed to Servius Tullius. The seven hills of Rome are shown in green, with Latin names.

Priscus was succeeded by his son-in-law Servius Tullius, Rome's second king of Etruscan birth, and the son of a slave. Like his father-in-law, Servius fought successful wars against the Etruscans. He used the booty to build the first wall all around the Seven Hills of Rome, the pomerium. He also reorganized the army.

Servius Tullius instituted a new constitution, further developing the citizen classes. He instituted Rome's first census, which divided the population into five economic classes, and formed the Centuriate Assembly. He used the census to divide the population into four urban tribes based on location, thus establishing the Tribal Assembly. He also oversaw the construction of the Temple of Diana on the Aventine Hill.

Servius' reforms made a big change in Roman life: voting rights based on socio-economic status, favouring elites. However, over time, Servius increasingly favoured the poor in order to gain support from plebeians, often at the expense of patricians. After a 44-year reign,[32] Servius was killed in a conspiracy by his daughter Tullia and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.[38]

### Lucius Tarquinius Superbus

[edit]

Map of Italy around 500 BC

The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. He was the son of Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius, whom he and his wife had killed.[39]

Tarquinius waged a number of wars against Rome's neighbours, including against the Volsci, Gabii and the Rutuli. He also secured Rome's position as head of the Latin cities. He also engaged in a series of public works, notably the completion of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, and works on the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus. However, Tarquin's reign is remembered for his use of violence and intimidation to control Rome and his disrespect for Roman custom and the Roman Senate.[40]

Tensions came to a head when the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped Lucretia, wife and daughter to powerful Roman nobles. Lucretia told her relatives about the attack, and committed suicide to avoid the dishonour of the episode. Four men, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, and including Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Publius Valerius Poplicola, and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus incited a revolution that deposed and expelled Tarquinius and his family from Rome in 509 BC.[41]

Tarquin was viewed so negatively that the word for king, rex, held a negative connotation in the Latin language until the fall of the Roman Empire.[42]

Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus became Rome's first consuls, marking the beginning of the Roman Republic. This new government would survive for the next 500 years until the rise of Julius Caesar and Augustus, and would cover a period during which Rome's authority and area of control extended to cover vast areas of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.[43] He ruled 25 years.[32]

## Public offices after the monarchy

[edit]

Main articles: Roman Republic, Constitution of the Roman Republic, and History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

Further information: Elections in the Roman Republic

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The constitutional history of the Roman Republic began with the revolution that overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC and ended with constitutional reforms that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. The Roman Republic's constitution was a constantly evolving, unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, by which the government and its politics operated.[44]

### Senate

[edit]

Main article: Senate of the Roman Republic

Further information: SPQR

The Curia Julia, the senate house started by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by Octavian in 29 BC, replacing the Curia Cornelia as the meeting place of the Senate.

The senate's authority derived from the senators' esteem and prestige.[45] This esteem and prestige were based on both precedent and custom, as well as the senators' calibre and reputation. The senate passed decrees called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate, but in practice, the magistrates usually followed them.[46] Through the course of the middle republic and Rome's expansion, the senate became more dominant in the state: the only institution with the expertise to administer the empire effectively, it controlled state finances, assignment of magistrates, external affairs, and deployment of military forces. Also, a powerful religious body, it received reports of omens and directed Roman responses thereto.[47]

When its prerogatives started to be challenged in the 2nd century, the senate lost its customary preapproval for legislation. Moreover, after the precedent set in 121 BC with the killing of Gaius Gracchus, the senate claimed to assume the power to issue a senatus consultum ultimum: such decrees directed magistrates to take whatever actions were necessary to safeguard the state, irrespective of legality, and signalled the senate's willingness to support that magistrate if such actions were later challenged in the courts.[48]

Its members were usually appointed by censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. Status was not hereditary and there were always some new men, though sons of former magistrates found it easier to be elected to the qualifying magistracies. During emergencies, a dictator could be appointed for the purpose of appointing senators (as was done after the Battle of Cannae). However, by the end of the republic men such as Caesar and the members of the Second Triumvirate usurped these powers for themselves.[47]

### Legislative assemblies

[edit]

Main article: Citizens' assemblies of the Roman Republic

The Roman Forum, the commercial, cultural, religious, and political center of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government

The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights, such as the right to trial and appeal, marry, vote, hold office, enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called optimo iure (lit. 'having the greatest rights'). Citizens who were optimo iure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies: the comitia ('committees'), which were assemblies of all citizens optimo jure, and the consilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens optimo jure.[49]

Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which each gathered into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ('Centuriate Assembly') was the assembly of the centuries (that is., soldiers). The Comitia Centuriata's president was usually a consul. The centuries voted, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority. The Comitia Centuriata elected magistrates who had imperium (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war and ratify the results of a census.[50] It served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.

The assembly of the tribes, that is, the citizens of Rome, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and composed of 35 tribes. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, voting ended. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[51] The Plebeian Council[52] was identical to the assembly of the tribes but excluded the patricians. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually, a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws and could act as a court of appeal.

### Magistrates

[edit]

Main article: Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic

Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Each was assigned a provincia by the Senate. This was the scope of that particular office holder's authority. It could apply to a geographic area or to a particular responsibility or task.[53] The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians).[54] Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Strictly speaking, it was the authority to command a military force, but in reality, it carried broad authority in other public spheres, such as diplomacy and the justice system. In extreme cases, those with the imperium power could sentence Roman Citizens to death. All magistrates also had the power of coercitio (coercion). Magistrates used this to maintain public order by imposing punishment for crimes.[55] Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents.

One check on a magistrate's power was collega ('collegiality'). Each magisterial office was held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. While in Rome, all citizens were protected from coercion, by provocatio, an early form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates occasionally had their imperium extended. In effect, they retained the powers of the office (as a promagistrate) without officially holding that office.[56]

In times of military emergency, a dictator was appointed for a term of six months.[57] Constitutional government was dissolved, and the dictator was the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored.

The censor was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.[58] The power of the censor was absolute: no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words censor and censorship.[59] During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate or purge them from the senate.[60]

The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest-ranking ordinary magistrates. Each served for one year.[61] Consular powers included the kings' former imperium and appointment of new senators. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They presided over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul commanded an army.[62] His authority abroad was nearly absolute.

Since the tribunes were considered the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge the plebeians took to kill anyone who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, disregard his veto, or otherwise interfere with him.[63]

Praetors administered civil law[64] and commanded provincial armies. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.

## Notes and references

[edit]

1. ^ "Palatinus (Palatine Hill)". www.penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
2. ^ Asimov, Isaac (1991). Asimov's Chronology of the World. New York: HarperCollins. p. 69. ISBN 0-06-270036-7.
3. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 12.
4. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.49
5. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8
6. ^ a b "Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 1, chapter 8". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-09.
7. ^ Everitt 2012, p. [page needed].
8. ^ Everitt 2012, pp. 22–23.
9. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 17.
10. ^ He may have chosen this number from the number of the birds who foretold his sovereignty
11. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8, 13
12. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:9–13
13. ^ Matyszak 2003, pp. 19–20.
14. ^ Everitt 2012, pp. 21–22.
15. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:14–15
16. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.21
17. ^ a b Plutarch Life of Romulus 29.7
18. ^ Livy Ab Urbe Book I ch. 16
19. ^ Plutarch Life of Romulus Book I ch. 28
20. ^ Everitt 2012, pp. 24–25.
21. ^ Matyszak 2003, pp. 20–21.
22. ^ Le Glay, Marcel. (2009). A history of Rome. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8327-7. OCLC 760889060.
23. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:17–18
24. ^ Everitt 2012, pp. 25–26.
25. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 22.
26. ^ a b Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:19
27. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:20
28. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 25.
29. ^ Matyszak 2003, pp. 26–28.
30. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:31
31. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 29.
32. ^ a b c d e Livy, ab urbe condita libri, I
33. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 30.
34. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 31.
35. ^ Everitt 2012, p. 30
36. ^ Everitt 2012, p. 28
37. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 36.
38. ^ Matyszak 2003, pp. 38–39.
39. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 40.
40. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 41.
41. ^ Matyszak 2003, p. 42.
42. ^ Tempest, Kathryn (2011-01-20). Cicero: Politics and Persuasion in Ancient Rome. A&C Black. p. 10\. ISBN 978-1-4411-5482-8.
43. ^ Matyszak 2003, pp. 43–45.
44. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 161.
45. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 96.
46. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 44.
47. ^ a b Momigliano & Cornell 2016.
48. ^ Momigliano & Lintott 2012; Golden 2013, p. 148.
49. ^ Abbott 2001, p. 251.
50. ^ Abbott 2001, p. 257.
51. ^ Taylor 1966, p. 7.
52. ^ Abbott 2001, p. 196.
53. ^ Lintott 1999a, p. 101.
54. ^ Lintott 1999a, p. 95.
55. ^ Lintott 1999a, p. 97.
56. ^ Lintott 1999a, p. 113.
57. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 24.
58. ^ Suolahti, J. (1963) The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure (Helsinki)
59. ^ "censorship | Etymology, origin and meaning of censorship". etymonline. Archived from the original on Oct 12, 2023.
60. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 26.
61. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 20.
62. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 179.
63. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 23.
64. ^ Byrd 1995, p. 32.

## Sources

[edit]

* Abbott, Frank Frost (2001) [1901]. A history and description of Roman political institutions. Elibron Classics. ISBN 0-543-92749-0.
* Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23.
* Everitt, Anthony (2012). The rise of Rome: the making of the world's greatest empire (1st ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6663-6.
* Golden, Gregory K (2013). Crisis management during the Roman republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05590-2. OCLC 842919750.
* Hornblower, Simon; et al., eds. (2012). The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. OCLC 959667246.
* Momigliano, Arnaldo; Lintott, Andrew. "senatus consultum ultimum". In OCD4 (2012).
* Lintott, Andrew (1999a). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6.
* Livy, Ab Urbe Condita.
* Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic: the rulers of Ancient Rome from Romulus to Augustus. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05121-4.
* Momigliano, Arnaldo; Cornell, Tim (2016-03-07). "senate, regal and republican period". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5818. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.
* Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08125-7.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Roman Kingdom

* * *

* Online books
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* Cornell, Tim (1995). The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). Routledge history of the ancient world. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7. OCLC 31515793.
* Forsythe, Gary (2005). A critical history of early Rome: from prehistory to the first Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94029-1. OCLC 70728478.
* Lomas, Kathryn (2018). The rise of Rome: from the Iron Age to the Punic Wars (First Harvard University Press ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-65965-0. OCLC 1015274849.

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* March of Montferrat
* Duchy of Montferrat
* Trieste
* Turin
* Tuscany
* Verona
* Duchy of Ivrea
* Duchy of Milan
* Duchy of Mantua
* Duchy of Massa and Carrara
* Duchy of Merania
* Duchy of Mirandola
* Duchy of Modena and Reggio
* County of Novellara and Bagnolo
* Principality of Piombino
* Duchy of Reggio
* Marquisate of Saluzzo
* Duchy of Spoleto
* Bishopric of Tarantasia
* Prince-Bishopric of Trento
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Savoyard state
* Savoy
* County of Savoy
* Piedmont
* Duchy of Aosta
* County of Nice
* County of Tenda

Republic of Venice
(697–1797)|

* Dogado
* Domini di Terraferma
* Stato da Màr

Other Republics
(c. 1000–1797)|

* Republic of Cospaia
* Republic of Florence
* Republic of Lucca
* Republic of Massa
* Republic of Siena
* Republic of Genoa
* Republic of Noli
* Republic of Pisa
* Republic of Ancona

Southern Italy
(774–1139)|

| Byzantine|

* Duchy of Amalfi
* Duchy of Gaeta
* Catepanate of Italy
* Longobardia
* Theme of Lucania
* Duchy of Naples
* Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily
* Duchy of Sorrento

|

Arab|

* Emirate of Bari
* Muslim Sicily

Lombard|

* Principality of Benevento
* Principality of Salerno
* Principality of Capua

Norman|

* County of Apulia and Calabria
* County of Aversa
* County of Sicily
* Principality of Taranto

Sardinia
(from the 9th century)|

* Judicates
* Agugliastra
* Arborea
* Cagliari
* Gallura
* Logudoro
* Oristano
* Republic of Sassari
* Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1861)

Kingdom of Sicily
(1130–1816) and
Kingdom of Naples
(1282–1816)|

* State of the Presidi
* Duke of San Donato
* Duchy of Sora
* Duchy of Bari
* County of Lecce
* Principality of Taranto
* Terra Sancti Benedicti
* Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)
* Hospitaller Malta
* Gozo
* Malta Protectorate
* Crown Colony of Malta

French Revolutionary
and Napoleonic eras
(1792–1815)|

| Republics|

* Cisalpinia
* Cispadania
* Italy
* Liguria
* Lucca
* Parthenopea
* Piedmont
* Rome
* Subalpinia
* Transpadania

|

Monarchies|

* Benevento
* Etruria
* Guastalla
* Italy
* Lucca and Piombino
* Massa and Carrara
* Naples
* Pontecorvo
* Benevento
* Tuscany
* Elba
* Corsica

Post-Napoleonic
states|

* Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848)
* Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847)
* Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829)
* Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859)
* Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (1814–1859)
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859)
* Italian United Provinces (1831)
* Provisional Government of Milan (1848)
* Republic of San Marco (1848–1849)
* Roman Republic (1849–1850)
* United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860)
* Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860)
* Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861)
* Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866)
* Papal States (1814–1870)

| Post-unification|

* Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
* Italian Empire (1882–1960)
* Free State of Fiume (1920–1924)
* Italian Social Republic (1943–1945)
* Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)

|

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* Latvia
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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*[lit.]: literal translation