Rosa Parks

American civil rights activist (1913–2005)

For other uses, see Rosa Parks (disambiguation).

Rosa Parks

Parks c. 1993 during the 30th anniversary of the March on Washington

Born|

Rosa Louise McCauley

(1913-02-04)February 4, 1913

Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S.

Died| October 24, 2005(2005-10-24) (aged 92)

Detroit, Michigan, U.S.

Resting place| Woodlawn Cemetery, Detroit
Education| Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes (now Alabama State University)
Occupation| Civil rights activist
Known for| Montgomery bus boycott
Movement| Civil Rights Movement
Spouse(s)| Raymond Parks
(m. 1932; died 1977)
Signature

Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an American civil rights activist. She is best known for her refusal to move from her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in defiance of Jim Crow racial segregation laws, in 1952, which sparked the Montgomery bus boycott. She is sometimes known as the "mother of the civil rights movement".[1]

Born in Tuskegee, Alabama, Parks grew up under Jim Crow segregation. She later moved to Montgomery and joined the Montgomery chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1943, serving as the organization's secretary. Despite various policies designed to disenfranchise Black citizens, Parks successfully registered to vote after three separate attempts between 1943 and 1945. She investigated cases and organized campaigns around cases of racial and sexual violence in her capacity as NAACP secretary, including those of Recy Taylor and Jeremiah Reeves, laying the groundwork for future civil rights campaigns.

Custom in Montgomery required Black passengers to surrender their seats in the front of the bus to accommodate white riders, with the rows in the back being designated for Black riders. Prior to Parks's refusal to move, several Black Montgomerians had refused to do so, leading to arrests. When Parks was arrested in 1955, local leaders were searching for a person who would be a good legal test case against segregation. She was deemed a suitable candidate, and the Women's Political Council (WPC) organized a one-day bus boycott on the day of her trial. The boycott was widespread, with many Black Montgomerians refusing to ride the buses that day. After Parks was found guilty of violating state law, the boycott was extended indefinitely, with the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) organizing its own community transportation network to sustain it. During this time, Parks and other boycott leaders faced harassment, ostracization, and various legal obstacles. The boycott lasted for 381 days, finally concluding after segregation on buses was deemed unconstitutional in the court case Browder v. Gayle.

Parks faced both financial hardship and health problems as a result of her participation in the boycott, and in 1957, she relocated to Detroit, Michigan. She continued to advocate for civil rights, providing support for individuals such as John Conyers, Joanne Little, Gary Tyler, Angela Davis, Joe Madison, and Nelson Mandela. She was also a supporter of the Black power movement and an anti-apartheid activist, participating in protests and conferences as part of the Free South Africa Movement. In 1987, she co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development with Elaine Eason Steele. After Parks's death in 2005, she was honored with public viewings and memorial services in three cities: in Montgomery; in Washington, D.C., where she lay in state at the United States Capitol rotunda; and in Detroit, where she was ultimately interred at Woodlawn Cemetery. Parks received many awards and honors, both throughout her life and posthumously. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, a Congressional Gold Medal, and was also the first Black American to be memorialized in the National Statuary Hall.

## Early life

[edit]

Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama. Her mother, Leona (née Edwards), was a teacher from Pine Level, Alabama. Her father, James McCauley, was a carpenter and mason from Abbeville, Alabama. Her name was a portmanteau of her maternal and paternal grandmothers' names: Rose and Louisa. In addition to her African ancestry, one of her great-grandfathers was of Scotch-Irish descent, and one of her great-grandmothers was of partial Native American ancestry.[2] Her maternal grandfather, Sylvester Edwards, was the child of an enslaved woman and a plantation owner's son.[3]

When she was an infant, Parks moved from Tuskegee to live with her father's family in Abbeville. When Parks and her parents arrived, the house became too crowded, and Parks's father was seldom home because of the itinerant nature of his occupation. As a result, Parks's mother left Abbeville with her, and the two relocated to Pine Level to live with Parks's mother's family.[4] In Pine Level, Parks attended the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church, a century-old independent Black denomination founded by free Blacks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the early nineteenth century. Baptized at age two, she remained a member of the church throughout her life.[5] Her mother worked as a teacher in the nearby community of Spring Hill, where she lived during the week.[6] While her mother was away, Parks lived with her grandparents on their family farm, where they grew fruit, pecan, and walnut trees and raised chickens and cows.[7] At the age of six or seven, she began working on the plantation of Moses Hudson, who paid Black children 50 cents a day to pick cotton.[8] Parks also learned quilting and sewing from her mother, completing her first quilt at the age of 10 and her first dress at 11.[9]

Growing up in Alabama, Parks faced a society characterized by racial segregation and violence. Alabama and other southern states began implementing segregationist policies during the 1870s and 1880s, shortly after the end of the American Civil War in 1865, culminating in a 1901 state constitutional convention that formally codified Jim Crow segregation into law. This system enforced racial separation in nearly all aspects of life, including financial institutions, healthcare, religious facilities, burial grounds, and public transportation.[10][11] Acts of racist violence were also widespread, with the Ku Klux Klan intensifying its activity both in Pine Level and across the United States after the end of World War I.[12] Parks later recalled that she "heard of a lot of black people being found dead" under mysterious circumstances during her childhood.[13]

Parks initially attended a one-room schoolhouse at the local Mount Zion AME church.[14] When she was eleven or twelve, she began attending the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls, where she received vocational training.[15] After the school closed in 1928, she transferred to Booker T. Washington Junior High School. She then attended a laboratory school set up by the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes, but dropped out to care for her ailing grandmother and mother.[16]

After leaving school, Parks worked on her family's farm and as a domestic worker in white households.[17] Black women in Alabama who worked as domestic workers often experienced sexual violence.[18] During the 1950s or 60s, Parks wrote an account of an incident where a white man named "Mr. Charlie" attempted to sexually assault her. In her account, she claims that she verbally resisted Mr. Charlie's advances and denounced his racism. The account concludes with her attempting to read a newspaper while ignoring him. While the account may have been partially or entirely fictionalized, biographer Jeanne Theoharis notes that many of the elements of the account "correspond to Parks's life", speculating that Parks "wrote [the account] as an allegory to suggest larger themes of domination and resistance", or that, "given that more than twenty-five years had passed before she wrote [the account] down, she augmented what she said to Charlie that evening with all the points that she had wished to make as she resisted his advances".[19]

In 1931, when she was 18, Rosa was introduced to her future husband, Raymond Parks, by a mutual friend. He was 28.[20] She was initially "[not] very interested in him" because of "some unhappy romantic experiences"[a] and because of his light skin.[22] However, Raymond eventually persuaded Parks to ride with him in his car. At the time, automobile ownership was rare among Black men in Alabama.[23] Parks described Raymond as the "first real activist" she had met, admiring his opposition to racial prejudice. The two married on December 18, 1932, at Rosa's mother's house.[24] Soon after, they moved to a rooming house in the Centennial Hill neighborhood of Montgomery.[25]

### Early activism

[edit]

Following their marriage, Rosa and Raymond became involved in the Scottsboro Boys case, concerning a group of nine Black youths falsely accused of raping two white women on a train in Paint Rock, Alabama. The nine faced trial in Scottsboro, Alabama, where they were sentenced to death by electrocution. To raise support for their defense, Rosa and Raymond hosted fundraising meetings and gatherings for Scottsboro legal defenders at their house.[26] According to historian Robin Kelley, the couple also attended meetings of the Communist Party USA, which helped bring attention to the Scottsboro Boys case.[27]

In 1933, Parks completed her high school education with encouragement from Raymond. At the time in Alabama, only 7% of Black people held a high school diploma. Subsequently, she worked as a nurse's aide at St. Margaret's Hospital, sewing to supplement her income. In 1941, she began working at Maxwell Air Force Base,[28] a training facility for air force cadets.[29] The base was fully integrated, and Parks was able to take public transit alongside her white coworkers on-base. However, when she returned home, she was required to use segregated buses, which frustrated her. According to Parks, her time at Maxwell "opened her eyes up", providing an "alternative reality to the ugly racial policies of Jim Crow".[30]

Parks began attending meetings of the Montgomery chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1943 after seeing a picture of a former classmate of hers, Johnnie Carr, at a meeting.[31] In December 1943, she was elected secretary of the chapter. Parks later explained that she accepted the role (which was considered a woman's position at the time) because "I was the only woman there, and they needed a secretary, and I was too timid to say no". She and Raymond were also members of the Voter's League, a local organization focused on increasing Black voter registration.[32] There were numerous obstacles preventing Black people from registering to vote in Alabama during this period, including poll taxes, literacy tests, intrusive questions on voter registration applications, and retaliation by employers. As of 1940, less than 0.1% of Black Montgomerians were registered to vote.[33] Encouraged by NAACP activist E. D. Nixon, Parks attempted to register three times beginning in 1943, finally succeeding in 1945.[34]

In her capacity as secretary, Parks began investigating the gang rape of Recy Taylor, a Black woman from Abbeville, in 1944.[35] After a grand jury declined to indict the perpetrators, Parks and other civil rights activists organized "The Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor", launching "the strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade", according to The Chicago Defender.[36] The campaign, which received nationwide attention, put pressure on Governor Chauncey Sparks to take steps to prosecute Taylor's assailants. Sparks ultimately promised to investigate the case.[37] However, the state failed to secure indictments for the assailants after a second grand jury hearing in 1945.[38] Despite this, historian Danielle L. McGuire describes the movement for justice in the Recy Taylor case as "the largest and best organized of many efforts to draw attention to the ruthless heart of the racial caste system", claiming that it "brought the building blocks of the Montgomery bus boycott together a decade earlier and kept them in place".[39] Parks also organized support for Jeremiah Reeves, who was accused of raping a white woman in 1952. Reeves was ultimately executed in 1957.[40]

Beginning in 1954, Parks began working as a seamstress for Clifford and Virginia Durr, a white couple. Politically liberal and opposed to segregation, the Durrs became her friends.[41] They encouraged, and eventually helped sponsor, Parks to attend the Highlander Folk School, an activist training center in Monteagle, Tennessee, in the summer of 1955. There, Parks was mentored by the veteran organizer Septima Clark.[42] Parks enjoyed her time at Highlander, where Black and white people worked, cooked, and lived together as equals.[43] She later recalled it as one of the rare moments in her life when she felt no racial hostility and the first time in her adult life that she could envision a "unified society", describing how "people of all races and backgrounds" interacted harmoniously.[44] In August 1955, she attended a Montgomery meeting concerning the lynching of Emmett Till.[45] According to Theoharis, Parks was "heartened by the attention that people managed to get to the [Till] case", since the custom was to "keep things covered up".[46]

## Arrest and bus boycott

[edit]

### Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs

[edit]

The No. 2857 bus on which Parks was riding before her arrest is now a museum exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum.[47]

The seat layout on the bus where Parks sat, December 1, 1955

Montgomery passed a city ordinance segregating streetcar passengers by race in 1900, before state-wide segregation was implemented.[48] Montgomery's Black residents conducted boycotts against segregated streetcars between 1900 and 1902, coinciding with similar boycotts and protests in other southern cities.[49] The boycotts resulted in an amendment to the city ordinance, which stipulated that "no rider had to surrender a seat unless another was available". However, many drivers failed to follow the ordinance. Altercations between bus drivers and Black passengers were frequent.[50] According to historian Cheryl Phibbs, "bus drivers were given policeman-like authority to determine where racial divisions were enforced".[51] They were also generally armed.[52]

Black people constituted a majority of bus riders in Montgomery.[53] According to the Women's Political Council, a Montgomery-based advocacy group,[54] "three-fourths of the riders" on Montgomery buses were Black.[55] Despite this, the front rows on each Montgomery bus were reserved for white passengers, while the back rows were designated for Black passengers. Segregation in the middle rows was enforced at the driver's discretion.[56] While city ordinances did not require patrons to give up their seats, bus drivers frequently demanded Black passengers do so to accommodate white riders.[57] Furthermore, Black passengers were sometimes required to pay their fares at the front of the bus, then exit and re-board through the back door.[58]

In 1943, bus driver James F. Blake confronted Parks when she tried to take her seat from the front of the bus, insisting that she re-board in the back. Parks refused, telling Blake that she was "already on the bus and didn't see the need of getting off and getting back on when people were standing in the stepwell".[59] After Blake grasped her sleeve, Parks moved to the front of the bus, sitting in one of the rows reserved for white passengers, where she dropped her purse. Blake told her to "get off [his] bus", appearing poised to assault her. Parks admonished Blake, saying that he "better not hit [her]".[60] She then exited the bus without re-boarding. Following this encounter, she typically avoided riding on Blake's bus.[61]

### Refusal to move

[edit]

Rosa Parks's arrest

Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 1

Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 2

Fingerprint card of Parks from her arrest on December 1, 1955

Parks was fingerprinted on February 22, 1956 after being arrested again alongside other organizers[b] for orchestrating the Montgomery bus boycott.[62][63]

Before December 1955, several people were arrested for declining to give up their seats on Montgomery buses. Maxwell Air Force Base employee Viola White was arrested in 1944, and Mary Wingfield was arrested in 1949.[64] Teenager Mary Louise Smith was arrested in October 1954.[65] In March 1955, Claudette Colvin, a fifteen-year-old student at Booker T. Washington Magnet High School, was also arrested.[66] Additional arrests included Aurelia Browder on April 29, 1955, and Susie McDonald on October 21, 1955.[67] Smith, Colvin, Browder, and McDonald were the plaintiffs in the 1956 lawsuit Browder v. Gayle.[68] Many Black riders rallied around the idea of a boycott in the aftermath of Colvin's arrest. Black activists, including members of the WPC and NAACP, considered both Colvin and Smith as test cases for a community bus boycott. The WPC was particularly focused on bus integration, partly because it was an issue that significantly affected Black women. However, both the WPC and NAACP ultimately determined that Colvin and Smith were not suitable candidates for such a test case.[69][70]

At 5:00 p.m. on December 1, 1955, Parks left work and purchased several items from Lee's Cut-Rate Drug before walking to Court Square to wait for her bus.[71] She boarded the bus at around 5:30. Lost in thought, she did not notice that James F. Blake was the driver. Parks later stated that if she had noticed Blake, she would not have boarded.[61] She paid her fare and went to sit in the middle section of the bus, next to a Black man and across from two Black women. Her chronic bursitis was causing her significant discomfort, particularly in her shoulders.[72]

As the bus traveled along its regular route, all the white-only seats in the bus filled up. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire Theater, and several white passengers boarded. One man was forced to stand.[73] Blake then demanded that Black passengers in the middle row yield their seats. While those seated near Parks complied, Parks remained seated.[74] According to Parks:

> I felt that, if I did stand up, it meant that I approved of the way I was being treated, and I did not approve.[52]

When Blake inquired if she intended to stand, Parks refused. Blake threatened her with arrest, to which Parks responded: "You may do that." She considered physically resisting, but decided against it, as she "didn't have any way of fighting back". Blake then left the bus and called his supervisor from a nearby payphone. His supervisor advised him to call the police. Two officers arrived on the scene, and, at the insistence of Blake, arrested Parks for violating the Montgomery municipal code.[75]

According to biographer Douglas G. Brinkley, Parks's refusal to move was not premeditated.[76] Parks's former classmate, Mary Fair Burks, also clarified that Parks was not acting on behalf of the NAACP, as she "would have done so openly and demanded a group action on the part of the organization".[77] Parks said of her refusal to move:

> People always say that I didn't give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn't true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.[78]

After her arrest, Parks was taken to Montgomery city hall, where she filled out her arrest forms. She was then taken to the city jail, where she was fingerprinted and photographed. After repeated requests, she was granted permission to call home, notifying her mother of her arrest and asking for Raymond to come. E. D. Nixon was also informed of Parks's arrest who then drove down to the jail with Clifford and Virginia Durr and paid Parks's bail.[79]

### Montgomery bus boycott

[edit]

Main article: Montgomery bus boycott

After Parks's arrest, Nixon conferred with Clifford Durr about the possibility of adopting Parks's arrest as a test case. The two favored Parks because of her high standing in the Black community, her respectable manners, and her "firm quiet spirit", which, according to Durr, "would be needed for the long battle ahead". After being approached by Nixon to be a test case, Parks consulted with her family. Despite concerns about potential violent retaliation, she ultimately consented. Attorney Fred Gray agreed to represent Parks in court, and WPC president Jo Ann Robinson was notified of the case.[80] The WPC began planning for a one-day boycott of Montgomery buses on December 5, 1955, the day of Parks's trial. Under the guise of grading exams, Robinson collaborated with two students at Alabama State College to produce 35,000 leaflets announcing the boycott using a mimeograph provided by the college's business chair, John Cannon.[81]

WPC members distributed the leaflets throughout the Black community, and Nixon enlisted the support of several members of the local Black clergy, including Martin Luther King Jr, who was the pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church.[82] A planning meeting including members of the Black clergy was held at the church on December 2. While about half of the clergy in attendance left the meeting partway through, not wanting to be associated with politics, half stayed, and plans were drafted for alternative transportation during the boycott, including carpooling networks and collaboration with local taxi drivers. More leaflets were created at the meeting, and in the following days, were distributed by King and pastor Ralph Abernathy at bars and clubs. In addition, many Black pastors announced the boycott in their churches on Sunday December 4.[83] Extensive media coverage in the Montgomery Advertiser and on local television and radio further publicized the boycott.[84]

Despite attempts by Montgomery police officers to organize escorts for Black passengers, who they thought might fear retaliation from the Black community, bus ridership was low on the day of Parks's trial.[84] Many Black residents walked or carpooled.[85] The trial took place in the courtroom at Montgomery city hall, with almost 500 Black Montgomerians attending.[86] Parks pleaded "not guilty," and while she did not testify, two witnesses[c] corroborated that there were seats available when she refused to move.[89] The prosecution moved to indict Parks on state charges rather than municipal charges. The presiding judge permitted the change, and Parks was found guilty of violating state law. She was fined $10, plus $4 in court fees (equivalent to $164 in 2024).[87] The trial took between five and thirty minutes.[d][90] Gray immediately filed to appeal the ruling, while Nixon addressed the crowd assembled outside, urging them to remain nonviolent and vacate city hall.[91]

While Parks handled telephone communications at Gray's office, boycott organizers gathered at Mount Zion AME Zion Church that afternoon to discuss prolonging the boycott and plan a mass meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church scheduled for that evening.[92] They formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) to oversee the boycott,[93] electing King as leader.[94] The evening meeting was attended by 15,000 people. Nixon and King both gave speeches, while Abernathy read the demands of the organizers to the crowd:

>   1. Courteous treatment on the buses;
>   2. First-come, first-served seating with whites in front and blacks in back;
>   3. Hiring of black drivers for the black bus routes.[95]

He then asked them to stand if they supported a continued boycott. The crowd overwhelmingly did so.[96] Parks, hailed by King as a "heroine", asked if she should address the crowd, who repeatedly encouraged her to speak. However, she was told by "someone" that she had "said enough" and did not speak that evening.[97] The decision not to have Parks speak has been interpreted by some as reflecting gender inequality within the civil rights movement. According to Theoharis, while Parks was celebrated as a heroine by the crowd at that moment, she was excluded from the movement's later strategic discussions.[97]

At a December 6 press conference, King declared that the boycott would continue until all demands had been satisfied.[98] However, at a meeting on December 8, city and bus company officials dismissed the MIA's demands. The MIA began developing a parallel transportation network for Black Montgomerians to support the boycott.[99] Parks served temporarily as a dispatcher, coordinating transportation within the MIA's ride-sharing system.[100] She was ostracized by her coworkers at Montgomery Fair, where she worked as a seamstress, and in January 1956, she was terminated. A week later, Raymond was also terminated from his job at Maxwell Air Force Base. That same month, Montgomery Police Commissioner Clyde Sellers initiated a "Get Tough" policy, harassing Black pedestrians and boycott participants. Boycott organizers, including Parks, received regular death threats.[101] In February, a state grand jury declared the boycott illegal, indicting a number of the boycott's leaders, including Parks, many of whom were arrested.[b][102] Amidst protests at the courthouse, the arrestees were released on bond.[102] Ultimately, only King was tried after the indictment. The boycott continued.[103]

Responding to a plan by city officials to stall Parks's case in state circuit courts, Gray filed suit in federal court. While Parks was initially included as a plaintiff in this case, she was eventually removed to avoid federal dismissal on the grounds that her case was already being heard in Alabama's state court.[104] In the end, the federal case excluding Parks was brought before the Supreme Court as Browder v. Gayle, which ruled the statute mandating segregation of Montgomery buses unconstitutional. Later, before a district court, the Supreme Court's ruling was upheld. After rejecting appeals by the city of Montgomery and state of Alabama, the Supreme Court ordered the integration of Montgomery's buses on December 20, 1956. King called off the boycott that day, 381 days after it took effect.[68]

## Later years

[edit]

### Late 1950s

[edit]

After being terminated from their jobs, Rosa and Raymond faced significant financial hardship, particularly after their landlord implemented a monthly rent increase of $10.[105] In February 1956, King issued a memorandum requesting a $250-$300 disbursement for Parks from the MIA relief fund. The funds were authorized.[106] However, Parks continued to struggle. She developed severe health problems, including chronic insomnia, stomach ulcers, and a heart condition.[107] Despite this, she traveled throughout the year, including in March to Detroit, Michigan. While there, she visited her brother and addressed United Auto Workers (UAW) Local 600, in a departure from the mainstream NAACP, who opposed trade union affiliations.[108]

In 1957, after the end of the boycott, Virginia Durr offered her a position at Highlander Folk School in hopes of organizing a Black voter registration campaign in Montgomery. Parks declined, citing the school's location in Tennessee and concerns about potential reprisals if she were to speak in Alabama, Mississippi, or Louisiana. She also disagreed with King and the emerging Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) regarding their impending airport desegregation campaign. Tensions between King and Nixon caused a rift in the MIA, with Parks taking Nixon's side.[109] However, tensions developed between Nixon and Parks as well, and her health further deteriorated.[110] In August 1957, prompted by economic insecurity, threats to her safety, and divisions within the MIA leadership, she left Montgomery for Detroit, where her brother, Sylvester, and her cousins, Thomas Williamson and Annie Cruse, lived.[111] The MIA, embarrassed by her decision to move, raised $500 for her as a "going-away present".[112]

Upon arriving in Detroit, Rosa, Raymond, and Rosa's mother lived with Rosa's cousin before renting an apartment on Euclid Avenue. For a brief period beginning in October 1957, Parks moved to Hampton, Virginia to work at a Holly Tree Inn as a hostess. She returned to Detroit in December.[113] She and her family continued to struggle financially.[114] They lost their apartment in 1959 and moved into a meeting hall for the Progressive Civic League (PCL), a local Black professional organization. Rosa managed the treasury at the PCL's credit union while Raymond served as the meeting hall's caretaker.[115]

### 1960s

[edit]

In early 1960, Parks's health further deteriorated, necessitating multiple surgeries. She and her family incurred significant debt due to unpaid medical bills. She received donations from the MIA and PCL, and the Black press began to write about her financial difficulties.[116] In 1961, after her health improved and she found employment at Stockton Sewing Company, the family moved to Detroit's Virginia Park neighborhood. Raymond also secured employment at a local barber shop.[117]

Throughout the 1960s, Parks remained active in the civil rights movement. She was an honorary member of the SCLC, and periodically attended meetings, including the 1962 SCLC convention in Birmingham, Alabama.[118] In August 1963, she traveled to Washington, D.C. to take part in the March on Washington. More than 250,000 people participated in the march, and Parks was honored alongside other prominent women in the civil rights struggle during the event's "Tribute to Women" segment. The march has been criticized for its lack of women's representation, with no women being included in the delegation that was sent to meet with the Kennedy administration. Parks said of the event that it was "a great occasion, but women were not allowed to play much of a role".[119]

Parks played a critical role in John Conyers's 1964 congressional campaign. She persuaded King, who was generally reluctant to endorse local candidates, to appear with Conyers, boosting the novice candidate's profile.[120] When Conyers was elected, he hired her as a secretary and receptionist for his congressional office in Detroit.[121] As part of her position, Parks engaged with Conyers's constituents, focusing on addressing socio-economic challenges such as welfare, education, job discrimination, and affordable housing. Through regular visits to schools, hospitals, senior citizen facilities, and community gatherings, she ensured Conyers remained connected to grassroots concerns.[122] Conyers later recalled of Parks that "you treated her with deference because she was so quiet, so serene—just a very special person".[123]

Parks attended the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, joined the Lowndes County Freedom Organization, and supported the Freedom Now Party.[124] She was an admirer of Nation of Islam spokesman Malcolm X and "armed self defense" advocate Robert F. Williams, befriending Williams after his return from China, where he had been invited to visit by Chairman Mao Zedong.[125] In a 1967 interview, she said that she "[did not] believe in gradualism or that whatever should be done for the better should take forever to do". In the wake of the 1967 Detroit riot, Parks spoke in support of rioters, comparing the "burning and looting" of the riot with her own actions during the Montgomery bus boycott. Later, after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, she attended protests as part of the Memphis sanitation strike.[126] She also took part in the Black power movement, attending the Philadelphia Black power conference in 1968.[127]

### 1970s

[edit]

Parks continued to support the Black power movement throughout the 1970s, attending the National Black Political Convention in Gary, Indiana in 1972.[127] She also advocated for political prisoners, playing a key role in the establishment of the Detroit chapter of the Joanne Little Defense Committee. Little, who was incarcerated, was charged with killing her jailer, Clarence Alligood, while he was sexually assaulting her.[128] Following national outcry around her case, Little was acquitted in July 1975.[129] Parks also organized on behalf of Gary Tyler, who was wrongfully[e] convicted of shooting of a 13-year-old white boy while being attacked by a group of white segregationists.[131] Tyler was ultimately freed in 2016, after 41 years in prison.[134] Additionally, Parks advocated for the Wilmington 10 and Imaria Obadele of the Republic of New Africa (RNA) and spoke in support of Angela Davis, introducing her to a crowd of 12,000 as a "dear sister who has endured significant persecution" following Davis's acquittal in the kidnapping and murder case of Judge Harold Haley.[135]

Parks continued to experience health problems throughout the 1970s, and was injured several times after falling on ice. She also experienced personal losses, with Raymond dying of throat cancer in 1977 and her brother Sylvester dying of stomach cancer soon after. These personal struggles caused her to gradually withdraw from the civil rights movement. She learned of the death of Fannie Lou Hamer, once a close friend, from a newspaper, lamenting that Hamer was "dead quite before [she] knew of it", and that "no one mentioned it to [her]". Without support from her husband and unable to afford a nurse, Parks relocated her elderly mother, first to a retirement facility, then to a senior living apartment, where they lived together until her mother's death in 1979.[136]

During the 1979/1980 academic year, Parks visited the Black Panther school in Oakland, California. As part of her visit, she attended a student play dramatizing her refusal to move in 1955, staying after to answer the students' questions. According to the school's director, Ericka Huggins, Parks "loved" the visit, praising the school's instructors and the Black Panther Party for their work. Huggins later said of Parks's visit:

> I consider Rosa Parks a radical woman, a revolutionary woman, showing up in real time at an elementary school run by the Black Panther Party.[137]

### 1980s

[edit]

During the 1980s, Parks continued to take part in various social and political causes. In 1981, she wrote to attorney Chokwe Lumumba in support of arrested activists from the Black Liberation Army, the May 19th Communist Organization, the RNA, and Weather Underground.[131] She also participated in the Free South Africa Movement, which opposed apartheid in South Africa. Working with the movement, Parks participated in anti-apartheid demonstrations in Washington, D.C. and Berkeley, California, and in the National Conference Against Apartheid, which took place at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia. She supported Jesse Jackson's 1984 and 1988 presidential campaigns. Speaking on his behalf at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, Parks said:

> At some point we should step aside and let the younger ones take over. But we first must take care of our young people to make sure that they have the rights of first-class citizens... And when we see so little done by so many, we just will not give up.[138]

Parks also worked extensively with radio host and NAACP activist Joe Madison during the 1980s. After a proposed ordinance that would ban non-residents from using parks in Dearborn, Michigan, which Madison believed would lead to racial discrimination, she and Madison planned a city-wide boycott.[139] The ordinance was ultimately overturned by a Wayne County Circuit Judge, who ruled that it was racially discriminatory.[140] Madison and Parks also unsuccessfully ran for president and vice president of the NAACP's Detroit chapter in 1985.[139]

In 1987, Parks co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development with Elaine Eason Steele. The purpose of the institute is to develop youth leaders' capabilities in advancing civil rights initiatives. The institute also offers "Pathways to Freedom" bus tours, which introduce young people to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites throughout the country.[141] Parks also served on the Board of Advocates for Planned Parenthood.[142] Unrelated to her activism, she donated several quilts made by members of her family to the Detroit Historical Museum.[143]

### 1990s

[edit]

Parks in 1993

Parks continued to be politically active into the 1990s. In 1990, at a Washington, D.C. gala celebrating her birthday, Parks gave a speech calling for the release of anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela. She also attended the 1994 meeting of the National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America in Detroit alongside Jesse Jackson and Queen Mother Moore. In 1995, at the invitation of Louis Farrakhan, she participated in the Million Man March alongside Moore, Betty Shabazz, Dorothy Height, and Maya Angelou.[144] During the 1990s, Parks authored several autobiographical works, including Rosa Parks: My Story in 1992, Quiet Strength in 1994, and Dear Mrs. Parks in 1997.[145]

Parks was robbed and assailed in her home on August 30, 1994, at age 81. The assailant, Joseph Skipper, broke down her back door, falsely claiming to have deterred an intruder and demanding a reward of $3. After Parks complied, he demanded additional money and assaulted her, punching her in the face. Eventually, Parks agreed to give Skipper all of the money she had: $103. Parks then called Steele, co-founder of the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute, who called the police.[146]

According to United States Representative Edward Vaughn, after reports of Skipper's conduct circulated, vigilantes proceeded to search for and assault him.[146] Skipper was arrested on August 31.[147] While many commentators saw Parks's assault as evidence of the moral decline of Black youth, Parks cautioned against "read[ing] too much into the attack" and expressed compassion for Skipper, acknowledging "the conditions that made him this way".[148] After the assault, Parks moved from downtown Detroit to a gated community.[149] Learning of Parks's move, Little Caesars owner Mike Ilitch offered to pay for her housing expenses indefinitely. According to judge Damon Keith, funds from Ilitch were regularly deposited into a trust on Parks's behalf.[150]

### 2000s

[edit]

Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Parks joined actor Danny Glover and activists Harry Belafonte and Gloria Steinem in signing an open letter[151] that cautioned against a "military response" and advocated for international collaboration.[152] Later, in 2002, Parks received an eviction notice from her $1,800 per month (equivalent to $3,100 in 2024) apartment for non-payment of rent. Parks was incapable of managing her own financial affairs by this time due to age-related physical and mental decline. Her rent was paid from a collection taken by Hartford Memorial Baptist Church in Detroit. When her rent became delinquent and her impending eviction was publicized in 2004, her landlord announced they had forgiven the back rent and would allow Parks, by then 91 and in extremely poor health, to live rent-free in the building for the remainder of her life. Steele, co-founder of the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute, defended Parks's care and stated that the eviction notices were sent in error.[153] Several of Parks's family members alleged that her financial affairs had been mismanaged.[154]

## Death and funeral

[edit]

The casket of Rosa Parks at the U.S. Capitol rotunda

Parks died of natural causes in her home on October 24, 2005, at the age of 92.[155] City officials in Detroit and Montgomery announced that the front seats of their city buses would be reserved with black ribbons and fabric in honor of Parks until her funeral, with Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick placing down a ribbon on October 27.[156] Her remains were flown to Montgomery for a public viewing and funeral service. Among the attendees was United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, who remarked that "without Mrs. Parks, I probably would not be standing here today as Secretary of State". Her remains were then flown to Washington, D.C., with the plane circling twice over Montgomery while the pilot sang "We Shall Overcome".[157]

Representative Conyers introduced Concurrent Resolution 61, which received approval on October 29, 2005, allowing Parks's remains to lie in state at the United States Capitol rotunda from October 30 to October 31.[158] Her remains were transported to the rotunda by the United States National Guard. 40,000 mourners came to pay their respects, with President George W. Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush laying a wreath on her coffin.[157] Parks was the 31st individual, and the second[f] private citizen, to be laid in state.[159] A public memorial was also held at the Metropolitan AME Church before her remains were returned to Detroit.[160]

In Detroit, Parks's casket was displayed at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History. A memorial service was held at the Greater Grace Temple on November 2. Attendees included Bill and Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama.[161] An honor guard accompanied Parks's casket via horse-drawn carriage to the service, where soul singer Aretha Franklin performed. After the service, a white hearse conveyed Parks's remains to Woodlawn Cemetery, where she was interred in a mausoleum alongside Raymond and her mother.[162] The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel in her honor[163]

## Legacy and honors

[edit]

### Awards

[edit]

President Bill Clinton, presented Rosa Parks with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996.[164]

Parks received numerous awards as a result of her contributions to the civil rights movement. The SCLC established the Rosa Parks Freedom Award in 1963, though Parks herself did not receive it until 1972.[165] In 1965, she received the "Dignity Overdue" award from the Afro-American Broadcasting Company and was honored at a ceremony held at the Ford Auditorium in Detroit.[166] The Capitol Press Club presented her with the Martin Luther King Jr. Award in 1968.[167] In 1979, the NAACP awarded her the Spingarn Medal, citing her "quiet courage and determination" in refusing to relinquish her seat.[168] The NAACP further recognized her with their own Martin Luther King Jr. Award in 1980.[169] In 1983, she was inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame.[169] She also received the Candace Award in 1984 from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women.[170]

In 1992, Parks received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award.[169] She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1993.[171] She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest award a civilian can receive from the United States executive branch, from Bill Clinton in 1996.[164][172] Later, in 1999, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal with unanimous Senate approval despite opposition in the House from Representative Ron Paul.[164] Also in 1999, she was honored with the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival Freedom Award, and Time named her one of the 20 most influential figures of the 20th century. In 2000, Parks received both the Alabama Governor's Medal of Honor and the Alabama Academy Award. In 2003, she received the International Institute Heritage Hall of Fame Award.[173]

### Memorialization

[edit]

The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal

Many locations and institutions have been named in honor of Parks. At the behest of her friend Louise Tappes, Detroit's 12th street was renamed "Rosa Parks Boulevard" in 1976.[g][175][176] A bronze sculpture of Parks was displayed at the National Portrait Gallery in 1991.[177] Michigan designated February 4 as Rosa Parks Day in 1997.[169] In 2000, at the cost of $10 million, Troy University opened the Rosa Parks Library and Museum at the site of Parks's arrest. Parks's apartment in Montgomery was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002. The bus on which Parks refused to move was restored with funding from the Save America's Treasures program and placed on display at The Henry Ford museum in 2003.[177]

After Parks's death in 2005, President Bush signed H.R. 4145, which authorized a statue of Parks to be placed in the National Statuary Hall at the United States Capitol.[178] Parks was the first Black American to receive this honor. After a competition including entries from 150 artists, a statue sculpted by Eugene Daub and Rob Firmin, which depicted Parks on the day of her arrest, was selected to be placed in the hall.[179] The statue was unveiled in 2013, with President Obama and House Speaker John Boehner in attendance.[180]

Rosa Parks Transit Center in Detroit

In 2006, Nassau County, New York County Executive Tom Suozzi, announced that the Hempstead Transit Center would be renamed the Rosa Parks Hempstead Transit Center in Parks's honor.[181] The Portland Boulevard station of the Los Angeles County MetroRail system was also officially named Rosa Parks Station in 2009.[182] Also in 2009, the Rosa Parks Transit Center opened in downtown Detroit at the intersection of Cass and Michigan avenues.[183] The asteroid 284996 Rosaparks, discovered in 2010 by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, was named in Parks's memory.[184]

On February 1, Obama proclaimed February 4, 2013, as the "100th Anniversary of the Birth of Rosa Parks", calling "upon all Americans to observe this day with appropriate service, community, and education programs to honor Rosa Parks's enduring legacy".[185] The Henry Ford Museum designated February 4, 2013, as a "National Day of Courage".[186] Also on February 4, the United States Postal Service unveiled a postage stamp in Parks's honor.[187]

The Rosa Parks Railway Station in Paris

In 2014, a statue of Parks was dedicated at the Essex Government Complex in Newark, New Jersey.[188] Rosa Parks station opened in Paris, France in 2015.[189] In 2016, Parks's former residence in Detroit was threatened with demolition. A Berlin-based American artist, Ryan Mendoza, arranged to have the house disassembled, moved to his garden in Germany, and partly restored and converted into a museum honoring Parks.[190] In 2018, the house was moved back to the United States. While Brown University was initially planning to exhibit the house, the display was cancelled.[191] The house was eventually exhibited at the WaterFire Arts Center in Providence, Rhode Island.[192] Also in 2018, Continuing the Conversation, a public sculpture of Parks, was unveiled on the main campus of Georgia Tech.[193] Another statue of Parks was unveiled in Montgomery in 2019.[194] In 2021, a bust of Rosa Parks was added to the Oval Office when Joe Biden began his presidency.[195] A statue of Parks was approved for the Alabama State Capitol grounds in 2023.[196]

### Historiography

[edit]

President Barack Obama sat on the Rosa Parks bus at an event in Dearborn, Michigan in 2012.[197]

Many popular narratives surrounding Parks portray her as a heroine, with Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist claiming that Parks's refusal to move was "not an intentional attempt to change a nation, but a singular act aimed at restoring the dignity of the individual".[198] Writing in the Florida State University Law Review, civil rights advocate A. Leon Higginbotham Jr. describes Parks as a "heroine" who exemplified both "raw courage" and "genteelness".[199] Academic Kenan İli characterizes Parks as an "icon of leadership", emphasizing her "quiet strength" and "feminine dignity". He argues that Parks's actions, driven by "values and integrity", served as a powerful catalyst for change, inspiring both a city and a nation to confront their systemic injustices.[200]

Theoharis, in her 2015 biography The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, argues that the popular narrative of Rosa Parks as a "quiet" and "accidental" figure in the civil rights movement obscures her lifelong radical activism and political philosophy, as well as the "variety of struggles" that she took part in. She describes the "quiet" portrayal of Parks as a "gendered caricature", contending that interviewers misinterpreted her words in an attempt to form their own narratives around Parks.[201] Academic Riché Richardson similarly critiques the "uses, abuses, and appropriations" of Parks's legacy in contemporary political discourse, particularly the ways in which her image has been manipulated to serve various political agendas.[202]

Academic Dennis Carlson argues that the popular conception of Rosa Parks transforms her into a "monumentalist hero", a figure used to reinforce conservative narratives of American history and morality. According to Carlson, this portrayal isolates her act of defiance, framing it as an individual, legally-focused moment of courage that both ignited and calmed a potentially violent Black community.[203] Biographer Darryl Mace speculates that Parks's passive and quiet public image was shaped both by the gendered norms of the 1950s and the male-dominated leadership of the civil rights movement. He contends that Parks was relegated to gendered roles in the movement, and that her refusal to move was framed within a narrative of female vulnerability.[204]

Scholars have also examined Parks's actions in relation to other, earlier instances of civil disobedience. Sociologist Barry Schwartz posits that while Parks became the celebrated symbol of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, many other individuals—including Browder, Colvin, Smith, and McDonald—played equally important and even more active roles in the struggle against segregation.[205] Colvin herself felt a mix of emotions regarding Parks: glad that an adult had "stood up to the system" but also abandoned because the community had not supported her similar actions months prior.[h][207] Browder's son maintained that Parks's prominence had overshadowed his mother's contributions, leaving her role largely unrecognized.[208] Schwartz argues that accounts emphasizing the exceptional nature of Parks's refusal to move necessarily simplify the civil rights movement, creating a more accessible and symbolically compelling narrative.[209]

## In popular culture

[edit]

### Film and television

[edit]

In 1999, Parks filmed a cameo appearance for the television series Touched by an Angel.[173] She was played by Iris Little-Thomas in the 2001 film Boycott, directed by Clark Johnson,[210] and by Angela Bassett in the 2002 biopic The Rosa Parks Story, directed by Julie Dash.[211] She was also the subject of the short documentary film Mighty Times: The Legacy of Rosa Parks, which was nominated for Best Documentary Short Film at the 75th Academy Awards.[212][213]

The 2002 film Barbershop, directed by Tim Story, garnered controversy due to its inclusion of a scene discussing Parks's actions. In the scene, Eddie, played by Cedric the Entertainer, downplays Rosa Parks's role in the civil rights movement, arguing that her actions were simply those of a tired person and that many others had performed similar acts of defiance without receiving recognition. He attributes her fame to her NAACP connections and association with King.[214] Jesse Jackson and activist Al Sharpton criticized the movie, with Sharpton calling for a boycott of the film.[215] However, NAACP president Kweisi Mfume stated he thought the controversy was "overblown".[216] Parks herself boycotted the 2003 NAACP Image Awards ceremony, which Cedric hosted.[217]

The 2018 episode "Rosa", of the science-fiction television series Doctor Who, centers on Parks, as portrayed by Vinette Robinson. The episode was received positively, with many online commenters determining that "the writers hadn't undermined the legacy of Rosa Parks", according to commentary from the BBC.[218] In 2022, the documentary The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, the first full-length documentary about Parks, was released on Peacock. The documentary, directed by Johanna Hamilton and Yoruba Richen, was inspired by Theoharis's biography of the same name.[219]

### Music

[edit]

In 1998, Parks filed a $5 billion lawsuit against American hip-hop duo Outkast and their record company claiming that the duo's song "Rosa Parks", released on their 1998 album Aquemini, used her name without permission, harming her reputation.[220] After a federal court dismissed the lawsuit, Parks filed another suit in 2004 against BMG Rights Management, Arista Records, and LaFace Records. In 2005, a settlement was reached, wherein Outkast and BMG without admitting liability agreed to pursue projects that would "enlighten today's youth about the significant role Rosa Parks played in making America a better place for all races". The role of Steele, co-founder of the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute, and Parks's attorney, Gregory Reed, in these legal proceedings was subject to scrutiny, with some accusing them of "exploiting" Parks for their own gain.[221]

Rapper Nicki Minaj received backlash online for incorporating Parks into her 2020 song "Yikes", where she rapped, "All you bitches Rosa Park, uh-oh, get your ass up". Journalist Ernest Owens criticized the lyric for its inaccurate portrayal of Parks's actions:

> Y'all go remind Nicki Minaj that. Quick history lesson: She never got up, she stayed seated. The lyric makes no sense.[222]

### Other

[edit]

One of the cards in the Supersisters trading card set, released in 1979, featured Parks's name and picture. She is card no. 27 in the set.[223] In 2019, Mattel released a Barbie doll in Parks's likeness as part of their "Inspiring Women" series.[224]

On January 4, 2016, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit reviewed a lawsuit brought by the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development against American retail corporation Target. In the lawsuit, the institute alleged that Target infringed on Parks's rights to her name and likeness by selling merchandise using her name, contrary to a Michigan law safeguarding against the unauthorized use of a person's identity for commercial gain. The court's ruling, given by Judge Robin S. Rosenbaum, stated that "the use of Rosa Parks's name and likeness in the books, movie, and plaque are necessary to chronicling and discussing the history of the Civil Rights Movement—matters quintessentially embraced and protected by Michigan's qualified privilege", permitting the sale of the items at Target.[225]

## See also

[edit]

* United States portal
* Biography portal

* Charlotte L. Brown – American educator and civil rights activist
* Claudette Colvin – African-American civil rights activist (born 1939)
* Cleveland Court Apartments 620–638
* Sarah Mae Flemming
* Elizabeth Jennings Graham – African-American activist (1827–1901)
* Irene Morgan – African-American anti-segregation activist
* John Mitchell Jr. – American journalist
* List of civil rights leaders
* Rosa Parks Act – 2006 Alabama law
* Timeline of the civil rights movement

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Mace speculates that this may refer to some form of sexual violence.[21]
2. ^ a b A contemporary news story from the New York Daily News puts the number indicted at 113 and the number arrested at 73.[62] However, according to Hanson, 89 were indicted and 75 were arrested. According to Mace, the city was prepared to arrest 115, but 89 were ultimately indicted, and 75 were arrested.[102]
3. ^ According to Mace, there was one witness who testified to there being open seats.[87] However, according to Brinkley and Theoharis, there were two witnesses who testified that there were open seats.[88]
4. ^ The trial took five minutes according to Brinkley and Phibbs and 30 according to Theoharis.[90]
5. ^ While he accepted a manslaughter plea as a condition of his release, Tyler continues to assert his innocence.[130] Many sources, including Theoharis,[131] Nowakowski,[132] Vargas,[133] and Benor,[134] consider Tyler's conviction wrongful.
6. ^ French urban planner Pierre L'Enfant was the first.[159]
7. ^ According to Theoharis, this happened in 1969.[174]
8. ^ While Colvin initially received support from the local NAACP, some community leaders saw her as "feisty", "uncontrollable", and not of the "right social standing". They did not pursue her case, and her later pregnancy further distanced her from the organization.[206]

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[edit]

1. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 92.
2. ^ Mace 2021, pp. 1–5.
3. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 3.
4. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 19–20.
5. ^ Murphy, Melton & Ward 1993, pp. 6–7; Brinkley 2000, pp. 12–13; Mace 2021, p. 21.
6. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 6.
7. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 10; Mace 2021, p. 11.
8. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 25–26; Mace 2021, p. 11.
9. ^ Parks 1997, pp. 133–136.
10. ^ Sheehan-Dean 2022, p. 8.
11. ^ Novkov, Julie (2023). "Segregation (Jim Crow)". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Auburn: Alabama Humanities Alliance. Retrieved February 13, 2025.
12. ^ McVeigh 1999, p. 1463; Theoharis 2015, p. 18; Mace 2021, p. 9.
13. ^ Mace 2021, p. 20.
14. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 5; Mace 2021, p. 18.
15. ^ Mace 2021, p. 24.
16. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 10.
17. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 25.
18. ^ McGuire 2010, p. 10; Theoharis 2015, p. 26.
19. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 10–12.
20. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 12; Mace 2021, p. 37.
21. ^ Mace 2021, p. 27.
22. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 12.
23. ^ Mace 2021, p. 37.
24. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 14, 28.
25. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 41.
26. ^ McGuire 2010, pp. 10–11; Mace 2021, p. 39.
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32. ^ Mace 2021, p. 50; 61.
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35. ^ McGuire 2010, pp. 5–6, 13.
36. ^ McGuire 2010, pp. 13–14.
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60. ^ Mace 2021, p. 54.
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63. ^ Yawn, Andrew J. (December 5, 2018). "Alabama officer recalls 1955 arrest of Rosa Parks". Press Herald. Archived from the original on December 5, 2018. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
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65. ^ Phibbs 2009, p. 9.
66. ^ Mace 2021, p. 86.
67. ^ Mace 2021, p. 130.
68. ^ a b "Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903". The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. Stanford University. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
69. ^ Phibbs 2009, pp. 8–9; Mace 2021, pp. 88–90.
70. ^ Younge, Gary (December 16, 2000). "She would not be moved". The Guardian. London. Retrieved May 11, 2025.
71. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 105; Theoharis 2015, pp. 60–61.
72. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 105–106.
73. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 46; Mace 2021, p. 110.
74. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 62–63.
75. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 63–66.
76. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 109.
77. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 67.
78. ^ Parks & Haskins 1992, p. 116.
79. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 110–113.
80. ^ Phibbs 2009, pp. 15–16; Theoharis 2015, p. 50.
81. ^ Phibbs 2009, p. 16; Mace 2021, p. 102.
82. ^ Phibbs 2009, pp. 17–18, 28; Mace 2021, p. 102.
83. ^ Phibbs 2009, pp. 17–20.
84. ^ a b Mace 2021, p. 108.
85. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 87.
86. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 131–132.
87. ^ a b Mace 2021, p. 111.
88. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 133; Theoharis 2015, p. 88.
89. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 88.
90. ^ a b Brinkley 2000, p. 133; Phibbs 2009, p. 23; Theoharis 2015, p. 88.
91. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 89.
92. ^ Jackson 2008, p. 92; Phibbs 2009, p. 23; Theoharis 2015, p. 89; Mace 2021, p. 112.
93. ^ Mace 2021, p. 112.
94. ^ Woodham, Rebecca (2023). "Montgomery Improvement Association". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Auburn: Alabama Humanities Alliance. Retrieved February 13, 2025.
95. ^ Mace 2021, pp. 114–115.
96. ^ Mace 2021, p. 115.
97. ^ a b Theoharis 2015, p. 93.
98. ^ Phibbs 2009, p. 36.
99. ^ Mace 2021, pp. 118–119.
100. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 97.
101. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 100–102.
102. ^ a b c Hanson 2011, p. 102; Mace 2021, pp. 131–132.
103. ^ Mace 2021, p. 132.
104. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 109.
105. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 116.
106. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 119.
107. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 124.
108. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 118, 142.
109. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 135–138.
110. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 140–142.
111. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 141–142, 148.
112. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 148.
113. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 177–181.
114. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 150.
115. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 151.
116. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 152–155.
117. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 157–158.
118. ^ Brinkley 2000, p. 183.
119. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 159–162.
120. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 180–181.
121. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 164.
122. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 182–183.
123. ^ "Parks remembered for her courage, humility". CNN. October 30, 2005. Archived from the original on February 26, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2025.
124. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 170, 190, 210.
125. ^ Tyson 1999, p. 294; Theoharis 2015, pp. 207–215.
126. ^ Theoharis 2009, pp. 130–131.
127. ^ a b Theoharis 2015, p. 221.
128. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 226.
129. ^ McGuire 2010, pp. 213–217, 225.
130. ^ "After Spending 41 Years in Prison, Former Death Row Prisoner Gary Tyler Debuts First Solo Art Exhibition". Death Penalty Information Center. 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2025.
131. ^ a b c Theoharis 2015, p. 227.
132. ^ Nowakowski, Teresa (August 3, 2023). "He Was Wrongfully Imprisoned for 41 Years. Now He Has His First Solo Exhibition". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved March 16, 2025.
133. ^ Vargas, Steven (2024). "At Frieze LA, Gary Tyler Finds Resilience after Prison—in Each Stitch of His Poignant Quilts". ARTnews. Retrieved March 16, 2025.
134. ^ a b Benor, Dayla (2024). "He was wrongfully imprisoned for 40 years. Now he's an award-winning artist: 'I turned my past into something good'". The Guardian. Retrieved March 16, 2025.
135. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 225–227.
136. ^ Brinkley 2000, pp. 209–210.
137. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 228–229.
138. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 230.
139. ^ a b Theoharis 2015, p. 231.
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141. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 234–235.
142. ^ Tarlo, Shira (2017). "Rosa Parks' Birthday: 5 Things You May Not Know About Civil Rights Icon". NBC. Retrieved March 17, 2025.
143. ^ Parks 1997, p. 133.
144. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 231–232.
145. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 94.
146. ^ a b Theoharis 2015, p. 233.
147. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 156.
148. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 234; Richardson 2021, p. 101.
149. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 181.
150. ^ Botta, Christopher (February 24, 2014). "Ilitch aids civil rights pioneer Rosa Parks, others". Sports Business Daily. Archived from the original on February 16, 2017. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
151. ^ "'Justice, Not Vengeance': Read Our 2001 Statement on the 9/11 Attacks". Institute for Policy Studies. 2021. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
152. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 235.
153. ^ "Landlord won't ask Rosa Parks to pay rent". NBC. 2004. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
154. ^ Zaslow, Jeffrey (November 16, 2005). "Rosa Parks's Death Stirs Up Bitter Feud Over Her Estate". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
155. ^ Mace 2021, p. 156.
156. ^ "Buses save Parks a front seat". Colorado Springs Gazette. Associated Press. October 28, 2005. Retrieved March 20, 2025 - via NewspaperArchive.
157. ^ a b Theoharis 2015, p. vii.
158. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 120.
159. ^ a b Glass, Andrew (October 30, 2017). "Rosa Parks mourned at Capitol, Oct. 30, 2005". Politico. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
160. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. vii–viii.
161. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. viii.
162. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 121.
163. ^ Esparza, Santiago (November 3, 2005). "Parks to remain private in death". The Indianapolis Star. Archived from the original on June 14, 2006. Retrieved March 20, 2025.
164. ^ a b c Theoharis 2015, p. 239.
165. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 159; Mace 2021, p. 154.
166. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 211.
167. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 219.
168. ^ Mace 2021, p. 154.
169. ^ a b c d Hanson 2011, p. xxiii.
170. ^ "Candace Award Recipients 1982-1990". National Coalition of 100 Black Women. Archived from the original on March 14, 2003. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
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173. ^ a b Hanson 2011, p. xxiv.
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175. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 199; Mace 2021, p. 153.
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177. ^ a b Hanson 2011, pp. 157–158.
178. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. viii; Richardson 2021, pp. 125–126.
179. ^ Richardson 2021, pp. 126–127.
180. ^ Gamboa, Suzanne (2013). "Rosa Parks statue unveiled at Capitol". Associated Press. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
181. ^ "New York: Hempstead: Transit Center Named For Rosa Parks". The New York Times. February 16, 2006. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
182. ^ "TriMet MAX station name honors Rosa Parks". Portland Tribune. February 3, 2009. Archived from the original on June 8, 2011. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
183. ^ Shea, Bill (July 9, 2009). "Detroit's Rosa Parks Transit Center opens Tuesday". Crain's Detroit Business. Archived from the original on June 22, 2021. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
184. ^ "(284996) Rosaparks = 2010 LD58". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
185. ^ Slack, Donovan (February 1, 2013). "Obama honors Rosa Parks". Politico. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
186. ^ Lacy, Eric (February 4, 2013). "Rosa Parks' 100th birthday to be honored at The Henry Ford as part of Black History Month". MLive. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
187. ^ "Rosa Parks stamp unveiled for late civil rights icon's 100th birthday". CBS. February 4, 2013. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
188. ^ Mazzola, Jessica (October 2, 2014). "Newark home to state's first Rosa Parks statue, officials say". NJ.com. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
189. ^ "Paris: Les habitants découvrent leur nouvelle gare Rosa-Parks" [Paris: Residents discover their new Rosa-Parks station]. Le Parisien (in French). December 13, 2015. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
190. ^ McGrane, Sally (May 2, 2017). "Saved From Demolition, Rosa Parks's House Gets a Second Life". The New York Times. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
191. ^ Smith, Michelle R. (March 9, 2018). "Brown University cancels Rosa Parks house display in dispute". Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 19, 2024. Retrieved March 22, 2025.
192. ^ Dunn, Christine (March 28, 2018). "WaterFire Arts to display 'Rosa Parks House'". The Providence Journal. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
193. ^ Bentley, Rosalind (2018). "Rosa Parks statue to be unveiled at Georgia Tech on April 5". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
194. ^ "Alabama unveils statue of civil rights icon Rosa Parks". Richmond Free Press. December 6, 2019. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
195. ^ "Biden's new-look Oval Office is a nod to past US leadership". BBC. January 21, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
196. ^ Rocha, Alexander (December 11, 2023). "Rosa Parks statue for Alabama State Capitol grounds gets final approval". Alabama Reflector. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
197. ^ "President Barack Obama Sits On The Famed Rosa Parks Bus". The White House. 2016. Archived from the original on July 5, 2025. Retrieved July 5, 2025.
198. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. vii–ix.
199. ^ Higginbotham Jr. 1995, p. 901.
200. ^ İli 2016, pp. 91–92.
201. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. viii–xi.
202. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 123.
203. ^ Carlson 2003, pp. 47–49.
204. ^ Mace 2021, pp. 160–162.
205. ^ Schwartz 2009, pp. 128–130.
206. ^ Theoharis 2015, pp. 57–58.
207. ^ Theoharis 2015, p. 78.
208. ^ Schwartz 2009, p. 138.
209. ^ Schwartz 2009, p. 135.
210. ^ James, Caryn (February 23, 2001). "How History Was Made In a Moment of Defiance". The New York Times. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
211. ^ Richardson 2013, p. 61.
212. ^ Richardson 2013, p. 57.
213. ^ "Academy Award® Nominees". CNN. 2003. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
214. ^ Richardson 2021, p. 106.
215. ^ Campbell, Duncan (September 29, 2002). "Storm in a Barbershop". The Guardian. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
216. ^ "'Barbershop' actor to host Image Awards". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. January 25, 2003. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
217. ^ "Rosa Parks boycotts NAACP awards ceremony". The Record. Associated Press. 2003. Archived from the original on October 22, 2018. Retrieved May 23, 2025.
218. ^ "Doctor Who: Why has the Rosa Parks episode got people talking?". BBC. October 22, 2018. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
219. ^ Hinds, Julie (October 19, 2022). "Rosa Parks documentary on Peacock redefines the legend's courageous life". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
220. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 159; Richardson 2021, p. 106.
221. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 159.
222. ^ Saponara, Michael (February 4, 2020). "Nicki Minaj Slammed For Rosa Parks Reference in Preview of New Song 'Yikes'". Billboard. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
223. ^ Wulf, Steve (March 21, 2015). "Supersisters: Original Roster". ESPN. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
224. ^ Macht, Daniel (August 27, 2019). "Barbie Releases Dolls Honoring Rosa Parks, Sally Ride". NBC. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
225. ^ Gardner, Eriq (January 4, 2016). "Rosa Parks Heirs Lose Legal Battle Over Movie, Books Sold at Target". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 22, 2025.

## Sources

[edit]

* Beito, David T.; Beito, Linda Royster (2009). Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03420-6.
* Brinkley, Douglas G. (2000). Rosa Parks: A Penguin Life. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-89160-6.
* Carlson, Dennis (February 2003). "Troubling Heroes: Of Rosa Parks, Multicultural Education, and Critical Pedagogy". Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies. 3 (1): 44–61\. doi:10.1177/1532708603239267. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
* Garrow, David J. (1986). Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-688-04794-7.
* Glennon, Robert Jerome (Spring 1991). "The Role of Law in the Civil Rights Movement: The Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-1957". Law and History Review. 9 (1): 59–112\. doi:10.2307/743660. JSTOR 743660. Retrieved February 22, 2025.
* Hanson, Joyce A. (2011). Rosa Parks: A Biography. Santa Barbara: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-35218-8.
* Higginbotham Jr., A. Leon (1995). "Rosa Parks: Foremother & (and) Heroine Teaching Civility & Offering a Vision for a Better Tomorrow". Florida State University Law Review. 22: 899–911. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
* İli, Kenan (2016). "Rosa Louise Parks as a Quiet Leader Who Transforms American Society Forever". In Erçetin, Şefika Şule (ed.). Women Leaders in Chaotic Environments: Examinations of Leadership Using Complexity Theory. Lecture Notes in Social Networks. Cham: Springer. pp. 87–98\. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44758-2_8. ISBN 978-3-319-44756-8.
* Jackson, Troy (2008). Becoming King: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Making of a National Leader. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2520-6.
* Mace, Darryl (2021). Rosa Parks: A Life in American History. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-6843-6.
* McGuire, Danielle L. (2010). At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power. New York; Toronto: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26906-5.
* McVeigh, Rory (June 1999). "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915-1925". Social Forces. 77 (4): 1461–1496\. doi:10.2307/3005883. JSTOR 3005883. Retrieved May 4, 2025.
* Meier, August; Rudwick, Elliott (March 1969). "The Boycott Movement Against Jim Crow Streetcars in the South, 1900-1906". The Journal of American History. 55 (4): 756–775\. doi:10.2307/1900151. JSTOR 1900151. Retrieved February 21, 2025.
* Murphy, Larry G.; Melton, J. Gordon; Ward, Gary L., eds. (1993). "African Methodist Episcopal Church". Encyclopedia of African American Religions. New York; London: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-0500-1.
* Parks, Rosa; Haskins, James (1992). Rosa Parks: My Story. New York: Dial Books. ISBN 0-8037-0673-1.
* Parks, Rosa (1997). "An Interview with Rosa Parks, the Quilter". In MacDowell, Marsha L. (ed.). African American Quiltmaking in Michigan. Interviewed by Smith Barney, Deborah. Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-410-8.
* Phibbs, Cheryl Fisher (2009). The Montgomery Bus Boycott: a History and Reference Guide. Santa Barbara: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-35888-3. OCLC 318420889.
* Richardson, Riché (Spring 2013). "Framing Rosa Parks in Reel Time". Southern Quarterly. 50 (3): 54–65, 125. ProQuest 1436021489. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
* Richardson, Riché (2021). Emancipation's Daughters: Reimagining Black Femininity and the National Body. Durham: Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv1dv0w3k. ISBN 978-1-4780-9091-5. JSTOR j.ctv1dv0w3k.
* Schwartz, Barry (June 1, 2009). "Collective Forgetting And The Symbolic Power Of Oneness: The Strange Apotheosis Of Rosa Parks". Social Psychology Quarterly. 72 (2): 123–142\. doi:10.1177/019027250907200204.
* Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed. (2022). "The Violence of the Civil War in Comparative Perspective". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.236. ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5.
* Theoharis, Jeanne (2009). "'A Life of Being Rebellious': The Radicalism of Rosa Parks". In Theoharis, Jeanne; Woodard, Komozi; Gore, Dayo F. (eds.). Want to Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-8313-9.
* Theoharis, Jeanne (2015). The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks. New York: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5048-4. Retrieved April 5, 2025.
* Tyson, Timothy B. (1999). Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2502-6.

## External links

[edit]

Rosa Parks at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote

* Rosa Parks Papers at the Library of Congress
* Rosa Parks Library and Museum at Troy University
* The Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development
* Parks article by Frye Gaillard in the Encyclopedia of Alabama—Archived December 16, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
* Rosa Parks page by Arlisha Norwood on the National Women's History Museum website
* Rosa Parks bus on display at the Henry Ford Museum—Archived November 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
* Rosa Parks' Biography: A Resource for Teaching Rosa Parks—Archived January 30, 2025, at the Wayback Machine

### Multimedia and interviews

[edit]

* Appearances on C-SPAN
* "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies"—National Public Radio
* "Civil Rights Pioneer Rosa Parks 1913–2005"—Democracy Now!
* "Eyes on the Prize; Interview with Rosa Parks" at the American Archive of Public Broadcasting, November 14, 1985

### Others

[edit]

* Complete audio/video and newspaper archive of the Montgomery bus boycott—Archived December 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
* Rosa Parks: cadre of working-class movement that ended Jim Crow—The Militant
* Print media reaction to Parks' death in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2005-10-25.
* Photo of Rosa Parks Childhood Home
* Rosa Parks at IMDb

Awards and Honors for Rosa Parks

* v
* t
* e

Alabama Women's Hall of Fame

1970s

| 1971|

* Hallie Farmer
* Helen Keller
* Julia Strudwick Tutwiler

|

1972|

* Agnes Ellen Harris
* Margaret Murray Washington

1973|

* Edwina Donnelly Mitchell
* Lurleen Wallace

1974|

* Henrietta Gibbs
* Loraine Bedsole Tunstall

1975|

* Dixie Bibb Graves
* Marie Bankhead Owen

1976|

* Ruth Robertson Berrey
* Annie Lola Price

1977|

* Amelia Gayle Gorgas
* Augusta Jane Evans Wilson

1978|

* Annie Rowan Forney Daugette
* Patti Ruffner Jacobs

1979|

* Myrtle Brooke
* Carrie A. Tuggle

1980s

| 1980|

* Kathleen Moore Mallory
* Ruby Pickens Tartt

|

1981|

* Tallulah Bankhead
* Elizabeth Johnston

1982|

* Chrysostom Moynahan
* Loula Friend Dunn

1983|

* Anne Mathilde Bilbro
* Clara Weaver Parrish

1984|

* Mildred Westervelt Warner
* Katherine White-Spunner

1985|

* Blanche Evans Dean
* Katherine Vickery

1986|

* Chamintney Stovall Thomas
* Martha Strudwick Young

1987|

* Elizabeth C. Crosby
* Lella Warren

1988|

* Katherine Cooper Cater
* Mary Elizabeth Phillips Thompson

1989|

* Gwen Bristow
* Geneva Mercer

1990s

| 1990|

* Maud McLure Kelly
* Octavia Walton Le Vert

|

1991|

* Frances Virginia Praytor
* Anna Linton Praytor
* Julia Tarrant Barron

1992|

* Bessie Morse Bellingrath
* Frances Scott Fitzgerald
* Zelda Fitzgerald

1993|

* Ida Elizabeth Brandon Mathis
* Mary George Jordan Waite

1994|

* Doris Marie Bender
* Lottice Howell

1995|

* Elizabeth Burford Bashinsky
* Maude McKnight Lindsay

1997|

* Hattie Hooker Wilkins
* Marion Walker Spidle

1998|

* Martha Foster Crawford
* Maria Howard Weeden

1999|

* Margaret H. Booth
* Juliet Opie Hopkins

2000s

| 2000|

* Florence Golson Bateman
* Maria Fearing

|

2001|

* Ida Vines Moffett
* Sibyl Pool

2002|

* Idella Jones Childs
* Jane Lobman Katz

2003|

* Louise Branscomb
* Bess Bolden Walcott

2004|

* Nancy Batson Crews
* Rosa Gerhardt

2005|

* Vera Hall
* Juliette Hampton Morgan

2006|

* Virginia Foster Durr
* Mary Celesta Johnson Weatherly

2007|

* Fran McKee
* Martha Crystal Myers

2008|

* Rosa Parks

2009|

* Coretta Scott King

2010s

| 2010|

* Mary Ivy Burks
* Margaret Charles Smith

|

2011|

* Evelyn Daniel Anderson
* Ada Ruth Stovall

2012|

Nina Miglionico

2013|

* Zora Neale Hurston
* Frances C. Roberts

2014|

* Hazel Mansell Gore

2015|

* Kathryn Tucker Windham

2016|

* Anne Mae Beddow
* Sarah Haynsworth Gayle

2017|

* Mary Ward Brown
* Sara Crews Finley

2018|

* Jessie Welch Austin
* Jeanne Friegel Berman

2019|

* Milly Francis
* Harper Lee

2020s

| 2020|

* Mother Angelica
* Janie Shores

|

2021|

* Vivian Malone Jones
* Emera Frances Griffin

2022|

* Vestal Goodman
* Allison Wetherbee

2023|

* Mahala Ashley Dickerson
* Alice Finch Lee

2024|

* Janet Nolan
* Mary Olive Enslen Tinder

2025|

* Agnes Baggett
* Helen Shores Lee

* v
* t
* e

Michigan Women's Hall of Fame

1980s

| 1983|

* Harriette Simpson Arnow
* N. Lorraine Beebe
* Mamie Geraldine Neale Bledsoe
* Elizabeth Margaret Chandler
* Mary Stallings Coleman
* Wilma T. Donahue
* Grace Eldering
* Josephine Gomon
* Martha W. Griffiths
* Dorothy Haener
* Laura Smith Haviland
* Mildred Jeffrey
* Pearl Kendrick
* Helen W. Milliken
* Rosa Parks
* Anna Howard Shaw
* Lucinda Hinsdale Stone
* Sojourner Truth

|

1984|

* Virginia Allan
* Helen J. Claytor
* Caroline Bartlett Crane
* Marguerite de Angeli
* Emma Genevieve Gillette
* Icie Macy Hoobler
* Magdelaine Laframboise
* Martha Longstreet
* Elly M. Peterson
* Jessie Pharr Slaton
* Mary C. Spencer
* Bertha Van Hoosen

1986|

* Patricia Boyle
* Elizabeth C. Crosby
* Gwen Frostic
* Elmina R. Lucke
* Marjorie Swank Matthews
* Marjorie Peebles-Meyers
* Mary Chase Perry Stratton
* Helen Thomas

1987|

* Marion Isabel Barnhart
* Patricia Hill Burnett
* Ethel Calhoun
* Georgia Emery
* Betty Ford
* Rosa Slade Gragg
* Clara Raven

1988|

* Louise (Sally) Langdon Brown
* Ethelene Crockett
* Marcia J. Federbush
* Frances Alvord Harris
* M. Jane Kay Nugent
* Agnes Mary Mansour
* Helen M. Martin
* Sarah Goddard Power

1989|

* Clara Arthur
* Anna Sutherland Bissell
* Alexa Canady
* Anne R. Davidow
* Bernadine Newsom Denning
* Isabella Karle
* Jean Ledwith King
* Olga Madar
* Mary Anne Bryant

1990s

| 1990|

* Emily Helen Butterfield
* Erma Henderson
* Dorothy Leonard Judd
* Elba Lila Morse
* Fannie M. Richards
* Emelia Christine Schaub
* Mary P. Sinclair
* Merze Tate
* Delia Villegas Vorhauer

|

1991|

* Rachel Andresen
* Mary Beck
* Jan BenDor
* Janet K. Good
* Jo Jacobs
* Virginia Cecile Blomer Nordby
* Dorothy Comstock Riley
* Edith Mays Swanson

1992|

* Cora Brown
* Mary Lou Butcher
* Sarah Emma Edmonds
* Violet Temple Lewis
* Luise Ruth Leismer Mahon
* Gilda Radner
* Martha Romayne Seger
* Ann M. Shafer
* Sylvia M. Stoesser
* Lucy Thurman
* Charleszetta Waddles

1993|

* Edith Vosburgh Alvord
* Catherine Carter Blackwell
* Jean W. Campbell
* Katherine Hill Campbell
* Lenna Frances Cooper
* Roberta A. Griffith
* Bina West Miller
* Jeanne Omelenchuk
* Sippie Wallace
* Edna Noble White
* Irene Clark Woodman

1994|

* Marie-Therese Guyon Cadillac
* Ruth Carlton
* Flossie Cohen
* Bertha A. Daubendiek
* Genora Johnson Dollinger
* Flora Hommel
* Sarah Van Hoosen Jones
* Aleda E. Lutz
* Helen Walker McAndrew

1995|

* Yolanda Alvarado-Ortega
* Irene Auberlin
* Hilda R. Gage
* Lucia Voorhees Grimes
* R. Louise Grooms
* Odessa Komer
* Laura Freele Osborn
* Jacquelin E. Washington

1996|

* Carrie Frazier Rogers-Brown
* Anna Clemenc
* Waunetta McClellan Dominic
* Margaret Muth Laurence
* Claudia House Morcom
* Betsy Graves Reyneau
* Shirley E. Schwartz
* Joan Luedders Wolfe

1997|

* Ellen Burstyn
* Marion Corwell-Shertzer
* Four Sisters of Charity
* Della McGraw Goodwin
* Alice Hamilton
* Nancy Harkness Love
* Maryann Mahaffey
* Sharon E. Sutton
* Matilda Dodge Wilson

1998|

* Connie Binsfeld
* Hilda Patricia Curran
* Marie Dye
* Eleanor Josaitis
* Dorrie Ellen Rosenblatt
* Ella Merriman Sharp
* Martha Jean Steinberg
* Ruth Thompson
* Lily Tomlin

1999|

* Patricia Beeman
* Olympia Brown
* Doris DeDeckere
* Margaret Drake Elliott
* Elizabeth Homer
* Eleonore Hutzel
* Ella Eaton Kellogg
* Emily Burton Ketcham
* Ardeth Platte

2000s

| 2000|

* Loney Clinton Gordon
* Katherine G. Heideman
* Dauris Gwendolyn Jackson
* Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy
* Marjorie J. Lansing
* Chuan-Pu Lee
* Marilyn Fisher Lundy
* Katharine Dexter McCormick
* Kathleen N. Straus
* Clarissa M. Young

|

2001|

* Cora Reynolds Anderson
* Lucile E. Belen
* Theresa Maxis Duchemin
* Aretha Franklin
* Francie Kraker Goodridge
* Marian Bayoff Ilitch
* Mary Ellen Riordan
* Joesphine Stern Weiner

2002|

* Hortense Golden Canady
* Julia Wheelock Freeman
* Lillian Mellen Genser
* May Stocking Knaggs
* Naomi Long Madgett
* Lucille Hanna McCollough
* Lana Pollack
* Martha Louise Rayne
* Muriel Dorothy Ross

2003|

* Mary Agnes Blair
* Verne Burbridge
* Nellie Cuellar
* Alice Scanlan Kocel
* Joyce Lewis Kornbluh
* Eliza Seaman Leggett
* Ida Lippman
* Marion Weyant Ruth
* Bernice Steadman
* Pamela Withrow
* Ruth Zweifler

2004|

* Geraldine Bledsoe Ford
* Jennifer Mulhern Granholm
* Lystra Gretter
* Florine Mark
* Cathy McClelland
* Constance Mayfield Rourke

2005|

* Margaret Chiara
* Eva Lois Evans
* Georgia A. Lewis Johnson
* Lida Holmes Mattman
* Olivia Maynard
* Deborah Stabenow
* Caroline Thrun
* Margaret Sellers Walker
* Elizabeth Weaver

2006|

* Cynthia Yao
* Mary Esther Daddazio
* Margery Feliksa
* Nancy Hammond
* Viola Liuzzo
* Marge Piercy
* Dora Hall Stockman
* Martha Strickland Clark
* Helen Hornbeck Tanner

2007|

* Mary Brown
* Gertrude Buck
* Emma Cole
* Haifa Fakhouri
* Carolyn Geisel
* Jane Briggs Hart
* Abigail Rogers
* Kathleen Wilbur
* Woman's Hospital Association (charter members)

2008|

* Carol Atkins
* Patricia Cuza
* Carol King
* Vicki Neiberg
* Jane Johnston Schoolcraft
* Leta Snow
* Sister Mary Francilene Van de Vyver

2009|

* Carol Atkins
* Grace Lee Boggs
* Margaret Chandler
* Ruth Ellis
* Edna Ferber
* Glenda Lappan
* Kay Givens McGowan
* Elizabeth Phillips
* Jessica Rickert
* Betty Tableman
* Marlo Thomas

2010s

| 2010|

* Mary Aikey
* Laura Carter Callow
* Augusta Jane Chapin
* Sandra Laser Draggoo
* Annie Etheridge
* Sherrill Freeborough
* Dorean Marguerite Hurley Koenig
* Terry McMillan
* Edith Munger
* Cynthia J. Pasky

|

2011|

* Lois A. Bader
* Jumana Judeh
* Marilyn Kelly
* Valeria Lipczynski
* Edelmira Lopez
* Kary Moss
* Rose Mary Robinson
* Tricia Saunders

2012|

* Gladys Beckwith
* Patricia Caruso
* Mary Jane Dockeray
* Judith Karandjeff
* Les Meres et Debutantes Club of Greater Lansing
* Serena Williams
* L. Anna Ballard
* Eva McCall Hamilton
* Mary E. McCoy

2013|

* Elizabeth W. Bauer
* Judith Levin Cantor
* Paula Cunningham
* Joan Jackson Johnson
* Gladys McKenney
* Marina von Neumann Whitman
* Con-Con Eleven
* Elizabeth Eaglesfield
* Harriet Quimby

2014|

* Elizabeth Lehman Belen
* MaryLee Davis
* Jeanne Findlater
* Dorothy A. Johnson
* Julie Krone
* Mary Carmelita Manning
* Barbara Roberts Mason
* Marylou Olivarez Mason
* Andra M. Rush
* Mary Ellen Sheets
* Lucille Farrier Stickel

2015|

* Jocelyn Benson
* Maxine Berman
* Sue Carter
* Janet C. Cooper
* Mabel White Holmes
* Candice Miller
* Esther K. Shapiro
* Maggie Walz
* Myra Wolfgang
* Linda M. Woods

2016|

* Elizabeth Sparks Adams
* Anan Ameri
* Daisy Elliott
* Faith Fowler
* Evelyn Golden
* Olivia Letts
* Mary Free Bed Guild
* Diana Ross
* Lou Anna Kimsey Simon
* Charlotte Wilson

2017|

* American Legion NUWARINE Post 535
* Ella Mae Backus
* Clara Bryant Ford
* Lisette Denison Forth
* Mary Kay Henry
* Verna Grahek Mize
* Bernice Morton
* Rosie the Riveter
* Rosemary C. Sarri
* Elizabeth Wetzel

2018|

* Agatha Biddle
* Mona Hanna-Attisha
* Clara Stanton Jones
* Angela K. Wilson
* Kym L. Worthy

2019|

* Margaret Kirchner Stevenson
* Lucile A. Watts
* Martha Baldwin
* Gilda Z. Jacobs
* Vernice Davis Anthony
* Terry Blackhawk

2020s

| 2020|

* Najah Bazzy
* Elizabeth Jackson (Michigan)
* Glenda Price
* Martha Teichner
* Atlas Ruth Westbrook
* Dorothy Zehnder

|

2021|

* Rosalind Brewer
* Debra White-Hunt
* Lila Neuenfelt
* Fannie B. Peck
* Sarah Elizabeth Ray
* Diana Sieger

2022|

* Esther Gordy Edwards
* Carol Hutchins
* Mary Kramer (Michigan)
* Mary Locke Petermann
* Danielle Camille Woods

2023|

* Gretchen Whitmer
* Denise Langford Morris
* Kelly Rossman McKinney
* Traverse City Ladies Association

* v
* t
* e

Inductees to the National Women's Hall of Fame

1970–1979

| 1973|

* Jane Addams
* Marian Anderson
* Susan B. Anthony
* Clara Barton
* Mary McLeod Bethune
* Elizabeth Blackwell
* Pearl S. Buck
* Rachel Carson
* Mary Cassatt
* Emily Dickinson
* Amelia Earhart
* Alice Hamilton
* Helen Hayes
* Helen Keller
* Eleanor Roosevelt
* Florence Sabin
* Margaret Chase Smith
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton
* Helen Brooke Taussig
* Harriet Tubman

|

1976|

* Abigail Adams
* Margaret Mead
* Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias

1979|

* Dorothea Dix
* Juliette Gordon Low
* Alice Paul
* Elizabeth Bayley Seton

1980–1989

| 1981|

* Margaret Sanger
* Sojourner Truth

|

1982|

* Carrie Chapman Catt
* Frances Perkins

1983|

* Belva Lockwood
* Lucretia Mott

1984|

* Mary "Mother" Harris Jones
* Bessie Smith

1986|

* Barbara McClintock
* Lucy Stone
* Harriet Beecher Stowe

1988|

* Gwendolyn Brooks
* Willa Cather
* Sally Ride
* Mary Risteau
* Ida B. Wells-Barnett

1990–1999

| 1990|

* Margaret Bourke-White
* Barbara Jordan
* Billie Jean King
* Florence B. Seibert

|

1991|

* Gertrude Belle Elion

1993|

* Ethel Percy Andrus
* Antoinette Blackwell
* Emily Blackwell
* Shirley Chisholm
* Jacqueline Cochran
* Ruth Colvin
* Marian Wright Edelman
* Alice Evans
* Betty Friedan
* Ella Grasso
* Martha Wright Griffiths
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Dorothy Height
* Dolores Huerta
* Mary Putnam Jacobi
* Mae Jemison
* Mary Lyon
* Mary Mahoney
* Wilma Mankiller
* Constance Baker Motley
* Georgia O'Keeffe
* Annie Oakley
* Rosa Parks
* Esther Peterson
* Jeannette Rankin
* Ellen Swallow Richards
* Elaine Roulet
* Katherine Siva Saubel
* Gloria Steinem
* Helen Stephens
* Lillian Wald
* Madam C. J. Walker
* Faye Wattleton
* Rosalyn S. Yalow
* Gloria Yerkovich

1994|

* Bella Abzug
* Ella Baker
* Myra Bradwell
* Annie Jump Cannon
* Jane Cunningham Croly
* Catherine East
* Geraldine Ferraro
* Charlotte Perkins Gilman
* Grace Hopper
* Helen LaKelly Hunt
* Zora Neale Hurston
* Anne Hutchinson
* Frances Wisebart Jacobs
* Susette La Flesche
* Louise McManus
* Maria Mitchell
* Antonia Novello
* Linda Richards
* Wilma Rudolph
* Betty Bone Schiess
* Muriel Siebert
* Nettie Stevens
* Oprah Winfrey
* Sarah Winnemucca
* Fanny Wright

1995|

* Virginia Apgar
* Ann Bancroft
* Amelia Bloomer
* Mary Breckinridge
* Eileen Collins
* Elizabeth Hanford Dole
* Anne Dallas Dudley
* Mary Baker Eddy
* Ella Fitzgerald
* Margaret Fuller
* Matilda Joslyn Gage
* Lillian Moller Gilbreth
* Nannerl O. Keohane
* Maggie Kuhn
* Sandra Day O'Connor
* Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin
* Pat Schroeder
* Hannah Greenebaum Solomon

1996|

* Louisa May Alcott
* Charlotte Anne Bunch
* Frances Xavier Cabrini
* Mary A. Hallaren
* Oveta Culp Hobby
* Wilhelmina Cole Holladay
* Anne Morrow Lindbergh
* Maria Goeppert Mayer
* Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose
* Maria Tallchief
* Edith Wharton

1998|

* Madeleine Albright
* Maya Angelou
* Nellie Bly
* Lydia Moss Bradley
* Mary Steichen Calderone
* Mary Ann Shadd Cary
* Joan Ganz Cooney
* Gerty Cori
* Sarah Grimké
* Julia Ward Howe
* Shirley Ann Jackson
* Shannon Lucid
* Katharine Dexter McCormick
* Rozanne L. Ridgway
* Edith Nourse Rogers
* Felice Schwartz
* Eunice Kennedy Shriver
* Beverly Sills
* Florence Wald
* Angelina Grimké Weld
* Chien-Shiung Wu

2000–2009

| 2000|

* Faye Glenn Abdellah
* Emma Smith DeVoe
* Marjory Stoneman Douglas
* Mary Dyer
* Sylvia A. Earle
* Crystal Eastman
* Jeanne Holm
* Leontine T. Kelly
* Frances Oldham Kelsey
* Kate Mullany
* Janet Reno
* Anna Howard Shaw
* Sophia Smith
* Ida Tarbell
* Wilma L. Vaught
* Mary Edwards Walker
* Annie Dodge Wauneka
* Eudora Welty
* Frances E. Willard

|

2001|

* Dorothy H. Andersen
* Lucille Ball
* Rosalynn Carter
* Lydia Maria Child
* Bessie Coleman
* Dorothy Day
* Marian de Forest
* Althea Gibson
* Beatrice A. Hicks
* Barbara Holdridge
* Harriet Williams Russell Strong
* Emily Howell Warner
* Victoria Woodhull

2002|

* Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis
* Ruth Bader Ginsburg
* Katharine Graham
* Bertha Holt
* Mary Engle Pennington
* Mercy Otis Warren

2003|

* Linda G. Alvarado
* Donna de Varona
* Gertrude Ederle
* Martha Matilda Harper
* Patricia Roberts Harris
* Stephanie L. Kwolek
* Dorothea Lange
* Mildred Robbins Leet
* Patsy Takemoto Mink
* Sacagawea
* Anne Sullivan
* Sheila E. Widnall

2005|

* Florence E. Allen
* Ruth Fulton Benedict
* Betty Bumpers
* Hillary Clinton
* Rita Rossi Colwell
* Mother Marianne Cope
* Maya Y. Lin
* Patricia A. Locke
* Blanche Stuart Scott
* Mary Burnett Talbert

2007|

* Eleanor K. Baum
* Julia Child
* Martha Coffin Pelham Wright
* Swanee Hunt
* Winona LaDuke
* Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
* Judith L. Pipher
* Catherine Filene Shouse
* Henrietta Szold

2009|

* Louise Bourgeois
* Mildred Cohn
* Karen DeCrow
* Susan Kelly-Dreiss
* Allie B. Latimer
* Emma Lazarus
* Ruth Patrick
* Rebecca Talbot Perkins
* Susan Solomon
* Kate Stoneman

2010–2019

| 2011|

* St. Katharine Drexel
* Dorothy Harrison Eustis
* Loretta C. Ford
* Abby Kelley Foster
* Helen Murray Free
* Billie Holiday
* Coretta Scott King
* Lilly Ledbetter
* Barbara A. Mikulski
* Donna E. Shalala
* Kathrine Switzer

|

2013|

* Betty Ford
* Ina May Gaskin
* Julie Krone
* Kate Millett
* Nancy Pelosi
* Mary Joseph Rogers
* Bernice Sandler
* Anna Schwartz
* Emma Willard

2015|

* Tenley Albright
* Nancy Brinker
* Martha Graham
* Marcia Greenberger
* Barbara Iglewski
* Jean Kilbourne
* Carlotta Walls LaNier
* Philippa Marrack
* Mary Harriman Rumsey
* Eleanor Smeal

2017|

* Matilda Cuomo
* Temple Grandin
* Lorraine Hansberry
* Victoria Jackson
* Sherry Lansing
* Clare Boothe Luce
* Aimee Mullins
* Carol Mutter
* Janet Rowley
* Alice Waters

2019|

* Gloria Allred
* Angela Davis
* Sarah Deer
* Jane Fonda
* Nicole Malachowski
* Rose O'Neill
* Louise Slaughter
* Sonia Sotomayor
* Laurie Spiegel
* Flossie Wong-Staal

2020–2029

| 2020|

* Aretha Franklin
* Barbara Hillary
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Henrietta Lacks
* Toni Morrison
* Mary Church Terrell

|

2022|

* Octavia E. Butler
* Judy Chicago
* Rebecca S. Halstead
* Mia Hamm
* Joy Harjo
* Emily Howland
* Katherine Johnson
* Indra Nooyi
* Michelle Obama

2024|

* Patricia Bath
* Ruby Bridges
* Elouise P. Cobell
* Kimberlé Crenshaw
* Peggy McIntosh
* Judith Plaskow
* Loretta Ross
* Sandy Stone
* Anna Wessels Williams
* Serena Williams

* v
* t
* e

NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series

1990s|

* Tichina Arnold (1995)
* No Award (1996)
* Kim Coles (1997)
* Jackée Harry (1998)
* Rosa Parks (1999)

2000s|

* Terri J. Vaughn (2000)
* Terri J. Vaughn (2001)
* Terri J. Vaughn (2002)
* Camille Winbush (2003)
* Camille Winbush (2004)
* Camille Winbush (2005)
* Vanessa Williams (2006)
* Vanessa Williams (2007)
* Keshia Knight Pulliam (2008)
* Keshia Knight Pulliam (2009)

2010s|

* Sofía Vergara (2010)
* Keshia Knight Pulliam (2011)
* Vanessa Williams (2012)
* Brandy (2013)
* Yara Shahidi (2014)
* Marsai Martin (2015)
* Adrienne C. Moore (2016)
* Marsai Martin (2017)
* Marsai Martin (2018)
* Marsai Martin (2019)

2020s|

* Marsai Martin (2020)
* Natasha Rothwell (2021)
* Janelle James (2022)
* Ayo Edebiri (2023)
* Danielle Pinnock (2024)

* v
* t
* e

NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series

1990s|

* Fatima Faloye (1995)
* No Award (1996)
* Lynn Whitfield (1997)
* Ruby Dee (1998)
* Rosa Parks (1999)

2000s|

* Loretta Devine (2000)
* Debbi Morgan (2001)
* Loretta Devine (2002)
* Loretta Devine (2003)
* Khandi Alexander (2004)
* S. Epatha Merkerson (2005)
* Chandra Wilson (2006)
* Chandra Wilson (2007)
* Angela Bassett (2008)
* S. Epatha Merkerson (2009)

2010s|

* S. Epatha Merkerson (2010)
* Archie Panjabi (2011)
* Loretta Devine (2012)
* Taraji P. Henson (2013)
* Khandi Alexander (2014)
* Regina King (2015)
* Naturi Naughton (2016)
* Naturi Naughton (2017)
* Lynn Whitfield (2018)
* Lynn Whitfield (2019)

2020s|

* Mary J. Blige (2020)
* Mary J. Blige (2021)
* Loretta Devine (2022)
* Gail Bean (2023)
* Lynn Whitfield (2024)

* v
* t
* e

Spingarn Medal winners

* 1915: Ernest Everett Just
* 1916: Charles Young
* 1917: Harry Burleigh
* 1918: William Stanley Braithwaite
* 1919: Archibald Grimké
* 1920: W. E. B. Du Bois
* 1921: Charles Sidney Gilpin
* 1922: Mary Burnett Talbert
* 1923: George Washington Carver
* 1924: Roland Hayes
* 1925: James Weldon Johnson
* 1926: Carter G. Woodson
* 1927: Anthony Overton
* 1928: Charles W. Chesnutt
* 1929: Mordecai Wyatt Johnson
* 1930: Henry A. Hunt
* 1931: Richard Berry Harrison
* 1932: Robert Russa Moton
* 1933: Max Yergan
* 1934: William T. B. Williams
* 1935: Mary McLeod Bethune
* 1936: John Hope
* 1937: Walter Francis White
* 1938: no award
* 1939: Marian Anderson
* 1940: Louis T. Wright
* 1941: Richard Wright
* 1942: A. Philip Randolph
* 1943: William H. Hastie
* 1944: Charles R. Drew
* 1945: Paul Robeson
* 1946: Thurgood Marshall
* 1947: Percy Lavon Julian
* 1948: Channing Heggie Tobias
* 1949: Ralph Bunche
* 1950: Charles Hamilton Houston
* 1951: Mabel Keaton Staupers
* 1952: Harry T. Moore
* 1953: Paul R. Williams
* 1954: Theodore K. Lawless
* 1955: Carl J. Murphy
* 1956: Jackie Robinson
* 1957: Martin Luther King Jr.
* 1958: Daisy Bates and the Little Rock Nine
* 1959: Duke Ellington
* 1960: Langston Hughes
* 1961: Kenneth B. Clark
* 1962: Robert C. Weaver
* 1963: Medgar Evers
* 1964: Roy Wilkins
* 1965: Leontyne Price
* 1966: John H. Johnson
* 1967: Edward Brooke
* 1968: Sammy Davis Jr.
* 1969: Clarence Mitchell Jr.
* 1970: Jacob Lawrence
* 1971: Leon Sullivan
* 1972: Gordon Parks
* 1973: Wilson Riles
* 1974: Damon Keith
* 1975: no award
* 1976: Hank Aaron
* 1977: Alvin Ailey and Alex Haley
* 1978: no award
* 1979: Andrew Young and Rosa Parks
* 1980: Rayford Logan
* 1981: Coleman Young
* 1982: Benjamin Elijah Mays
* 1983: Lena Horne
* 1984: no award
* 1985: Tom Bradley and Bill Cosby
* 1986: Benjamin Hooks
* 1987: Percy Sutton
* 1988: Frederick D. Patterson
* 1989: Jesse Jackson
* 1990: Douglas Wilder
* 1991: Colin Powell
* 1992: Barbara Jordan
* 1993: Dorothy Height
* 1994: Maya Angelou
* 1995: John Hope Franklin
* 1996: A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.
* 1997: Carl Rowan
* 1998: Myrlie Evers-Williams
* 1999: Earl G. Graves Sr.
* 2000: Oprah Winfrey
* 2001: Vernon Jordan
* 2002: John Lewis
* 2003: Constance Baker Motley
* 2004: Robert L. Carter
* 2005: Oliver Hill
* 2006: Ben Carson
* 2007: John Conyers
* 2008: Ruby Dee
* 2009: Julian Bond
* 2010: Cicely Tyson
* 2011: Frankie Muse Freeman
* 2012: Harry Belafonte
* 2013: Jessye Norman
* 2014: Quincy Jones
* 2015: Sidney Poitier
* 2016: Nathaniel R. Jones
* 2017: no award
* 2018: Willie Brown
* 2019: Patrick Gaspard
* 2020: no award
* 2021: Cato T. Laurencin
* 2022: Jim Clyburn

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Read's Drug Store sit-in
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Dockum Drug Store sit-in
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Powell v. Alabama
* Smith v. Allwright
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Jonathan Eig
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

* v
* t
* e

African Americans

History|

* Timeline
* Abolitionism
* African American founding fathers
* Afrocentrism
* American Civil War
* Atlantic slave trade
* Black Codes
* Black cowboys
* Black genocide
* Black Lives Matter
* Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
* Children of the plantation
* Civil Rights Acts
* 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* 1968
* Civil rights movement 1865–1896
* Civil right movement 1896–1954
* Civil rights movement 1954–1968
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle (1956)
* Sit-in movement
* Freedom Riders
* Birmingham movement
* March on Washington
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Chicago Freedom Movement
* Post–civil rights era
* Cornerstone Speech
* COVID-19 impact
* Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
* Free Negro
* Free people of color
* George Floyd protests
* Great Migration
* Second
* New
* Exodusters
* Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching
* Military history
* Million Man March
* Nadir of American race relations
* The Negro Motorist Green Book
* Partus sequitur ventrem
* Plantations
* Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
* Reconstruction Amendments
* Reconstruction era
* Redlining
* Separate but equal
* Silent Parade
* Slavery
* Treatment of slaves
* Tulsa race massacre
* Underground Railroad
* Women's suffrage movement

Culture|

* Afrofuturism
* Art
* Black mecca
* Businesses
* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Hair
* Harlem Renaissance
* New Negro
* Hoodoo
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa
* LGBTQ community
* Literature
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Negro National Anthem
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food
* Stereotypes
* Middle class
* Upper class

Notable people|

* Ralph Abernathy
* Maya Angelou
* Crispus Attucks
* James Baldwin
* James Bevel
* Julian Bond
* Amelia Boynton
* James Bradley
* Carol Moseley Braun
* Edward Brooke
* Blanche Bruce
* Ralph Bunche
* George Washington Carver
* Shirley Chisholm
* Claudette Colvin
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Medgar Evers
* James Farmer
* Henry Highland Garnet
* Marcus Garvey
* Fred Gray
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Kamala Harris
* Jimi Hendrix
* Jesse Jackson
* Ketanji Brown Jackson
* Michael Jackson
* Harriet Jacobs
* Barbara Jordan
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Huddie Ledbetter
* John Lewis
* Joseph Lowery
* Malcolm X
* Thurgood Marshall
* Toni Morrison
* Bob Moses
* Diane Nash
* Barack Obama
* Michelle Obama
* Rosa Parks
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Colin Powell
* Gabriel Prosser
* Joseph Rainey
* A. Philip Randolph
* Hiram Revels
* Paul Robeson
* Al Sharpton
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Clarence Thomas
* Emmett Till
* Sojourner Truth
* Harriet Tubman
* Nat Turner
* Denmark Vesey
* C. T. Vivian
* David Walker
* Booker T. Washington
* Ida B. Wells
* Roy Wilkins
* Oprah Winfrey
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young

Education, science
and technology|

* Black studies
* Black schools
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Inventors and scientists
* Museums
* Women
* in computer science
* in medicine
* in STEM fields

Religion|

* African-American Jews
* Islam
* American Society of Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Black church
* Azusa Street Revival
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Black theology
* Doctrine of Father Divine

Political movements|

* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Movement
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Leftism
* Pan-Africanism
* Populism
* Raised fist
* Self-determination
* Nationalism
* Socialism

Civic and economic
groups

* Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
* Black Panther Party
* Committee to Eliminate Media Offensive to African People (CEMOTAP)
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Nashville Student Movement
* National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
* National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
* National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
* National Urban League (NUL)
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* Thurgood Marshall College Fund
* United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

Sports|

* Negro league baseball
* Baseball color line
* Black players in professional American football
* Black NFL quarterbacks
* Black players in ice hockey
* Muhammad Ali
* Arthur Ashe
* Jack Johnson
* Joe Louis
* Jesse Owens
* Jackie Robinson
* Serena Williams

Athletic associations
and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* By African descent
* Fula
* Gullah
* Igbo
* Yoruba
* Alabama Creole
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Cherokee Freedmen
* Choctaw Freedmen
* Creek Freedmen
* Black Southerners
* Blaxicans
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creole
* of color
* Melungeon

Demographics|

* Neighborhoods
* list
* U.S. cities with large populations
* 2000 majorities
* 2010 majorities
* Metropolitan areas
* States and territories

Languages|

* Afro-Seminole Creole
* American Sign
* Black American Sign
* English
* American English
* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* social context
* Gullah
* Louisiana Creole

By state/city|

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Florida
* Jacksonville
* Tallahassee
* Georgia
* Atlanta
* Hawaii
* Illinois
* Chicago
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Davenport
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Massachusetts
* Boston
* Michigan
* Detroit
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* Omaha
* New Jersey
* New York
* New York City
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Cleveland
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Austin
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* San Antonio
* Utah
* Virginia
* West Virginia

Diaspora|

* Africa
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* America
* Canada
* Dominican Republic
* Haiti
* Mexico
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Israel
* Europe
* France

Lists|

* African Americans
* Activists
* Actors
* Astronauts
* Billionaires
* Journalists
* Jurists
* Mathematicians
* Republicans
* Singers
* Sportspeople
* Spingarn Medal winners
* US cabinet members
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* Visual artists
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* African-American firsts
* Mayors
* Sports firsts
* US state firsts
* Historic places
* Index of related articles
* Landmark African-American legislation
* Lynching victims
* Monuments
* Neighborhoods
* Topics related to the African diaspora

* Category
* United States portal

* v
* t
* e

Individuals lain in state, in honor and in repose in the United States

State funerals in the United States

Lain in state|

| US Capitol rotunda|

* Clay (1852)
* Lincoln (1865, funeral)
* Stevens (1868)
* Sumner (1874)
* Wilson (1875)
* Garfield (1881)
* Logan (1886)
* McKinley (1901)
* L'Enfant (1909)
* Dewey (1917)
* Unknown Soldier for World War I (1921)
* Harding (1923)
* W. H. Taft (1930)
* Pershing (1948)
* R. A. Taft (1953)
* Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War (1958)
* Kennedy (1963, funeral)
* MacArthur (1964)
* H. Hoover (1964)
* Eisenhower (1969)
* Dirksen (1969)
* J. E. Hoover (1972)
* Johnson (1973)
* Humphrey (1978)
* Blassie / Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (1984)
* Pepper (1989)
* Reagan (2004, funeral)
* Ford (2006–07, funeral)
* Inouye (2012)
* McCain (2018)
* Bush (2018, funeral)
* Lewis (2020)
* Dole (2021)
* Reid (2022)
* Carter (2024–25, funeral)

|

National Statuary Hall|

* Cummings (2019)
* Ginsburg (2020, funeral)
* Young (2022)

House Chamber|

* Hooper (1875)

Herbert C. Hoover Building|

* Brown (1996)

Old Senate Chamber|

* Chase (1873)

Lain in honor|

| US Capitol rotunda|

* Chestnut and Gibson (1998)
* Parks (2005)
* Graham (2018)
* Sicknick (2021)
* Evans (2021)
* Williams (2022)

|

Lain in repose|

| East Room|

* Harrison (1841)
* Taylor (1850)
* Lincoln (1865, funeral)
* McKinley (1901)
* Harding (1923)
* Roosevelt (1945)
* Kennedy (1963, funeral)

|

Great Hall of the
US Supreme Court|

* Warren (1974)
* Marshall (1993)
* Burger (1995)
* Brennan (1997)
* Blackmun (1999)
* Rehnquist (2005)
* Scalia (2016)
* Stevens (2019)
* Ginsburg (2020, funeral)
* O'Connor (2023)

Senate Chamber|

* Byrd (2010)
* Lautenberg (2013)

Bold: Presidents and chief justices

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* 2
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Italy
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Greece
* Korea
* Sweden
* Poland
* Israel
* Catalonia

Academics|

* CiNii

Artists|

* MusicBrainz

People|

* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* NARA
* SNAC
* 2
* Yale LUX

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