Ruby Bridges

American civil rights activist (born 1954)

For the 1998 television film, see Ruby Bridges (film).

Ruby Bridges

Bridges speaking at Texas A&M University–Commerce in February 2015

Born|

Ruby Nell Bridges

(1954-09-08) September 8, 1954 (age 70)

Tylertown, Mississippi, U.S.

Occupation(s)| Philanthropist, activist
Spouse| Malcolm Hall
Children| 4
Website| www.rubybridges.com

Ruby Nell Bridges Hall (born September 8, 1954) is an American civil rights activist. She was the first African American child to attend formerly whites-only William Frantz Elementary School in Louisiana during the New Orleans school desegregation crisis on November 14, 1960.[1][2][3] She is the subject of a 1964 painting, The Problem We All Live With, by Norman Rockwell.

## Early life

[edit]

Bridges was the eldest of five children born to Abon and Lucille Bridges.[4] As a child, she spent much time taking care of her younger siblings,[5] though she also enjoyed playing jump rope and softball and climbing trees.[6] When she was four years old, the family relocated from Tylertown, Mississippi, where Bridges was born, to New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1960, when she was six years old, her parents responded to a request from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and volunteered her to participate in the integration of the New Orleans school system, even though her father was hesitant.[7]

## Background

[edit]

Bridges was born during the middle of the Civil Rights Movement. Brown v. Board of Education was decided three months and twenty-two days before Bridges's birth.[8] The court ruling declared that the establishment of separate public schools for white children, which black children were barred from attending, was unconstitutional; accordingly, black students were permitted to attend such schools. Though the Brown v. Board of Education decision was finalized in 1954, southern states were extremely resistant to the decision that they must integrate within six years.[4] Many white people did not want schools to be integrated and, though it was a federal ruling, state governments were not doing their part in enforcing the new laws. In 1957, federal troops were ordered to Little Rock, Arkansas, to escort the Little Rock Nine students in combating violence that occurred following the decision.[8] Under significant pressure from the federal government, the Orleans Parish School Board administered an entrance exam to students at Bridges's school with the intention of keeping black children out of white schools.

## Integration

[edit]

William Frantz Elementary School building in 2010

Bridges attended a segregated kindergarten in 1959.[4] In early 1960, Bridges was one of six black children in New Orleans to pass the test that determined whether they could go to the all-white William Frantz Elementary School. Two of the six decided to stay at their old school, Bridges went to Frantz by herself, and three children (Gail Etienne, Leona Tate and Tessie Prevost) were transferred to the all-white McDonogh No. 19 Elementary School. All four 6-year-old girls were escorted to school by federal marshals during the first day they attended the two schools. In the following days of that year, federal marshals continued to escort them.

Bridges's father was initially reluctant, but her mother felt strongly that the move was needed not only to give her own daughter a better education, but to "take this step forward ... for all African-American children". Her mother finally convinced her father to let her go to the school.[9]

Judge J. Skelly Wright's court order for the first day of integrated schools in New Orleans on Monday, November 14, 1960, was commemorated by Norman Rockwell in the painting, The Problem We All Live With (published in Look magazine on January 14, 1964).[10] As Bridges describes it, "Driving up I could see the crowd, but living in New Orleans, I actually thought it was Mardi Gras. There was a large crowd of people outside of the school. They were throwing things and shouting, and that sort of goes on in New Orleans at Mardi Gras."[10] Former United States Deputy Marshal Charles Burks later recalled, "She showed a lot of courage. She never cried. She didn't whimper. She just marched along like a little soldier, and we're all very very proud of her."[11]

U.S. Marshals escorted Bridges to and from school in 1960

As soon as Bridges entered the school, white parents pulled their own children out; all the teachers except for one refused to teach while a black child was enrolled. Only one person agreed to teach Bridges, and that was Barbara Henry, from Boston, Massachusetts, and for over a year Henry taught her alone, "as if she were teaching a whole class."[attribution needed]

That first day, Bridges and her mother spent the entire day in the principal's office; the chaos of the school prevented their moving to the classroom until the second day. On the second day, however, a white student broke the boycott and entered the school when a 34-year-old Methodist minister, Lloyd Anderson Foreman, walked his five-year-old daughter Pam through the angry mob, saying, "I simply want the privilege of taking my child to school". A few days later, other white parents began bringing their children, and the protests began to subside.[2][12][13]

Yet Bridges remained the only child in her class, as she would until the following year. Every morning, as Bridges walked to school, one woman would threaten to poison her, while another held up a black baby doll in a coffin.[14] This led the U.S. Marshals dispatched to oversee her safety to only allow Bridges to eat the food that she brought from home,[15] and she was not allowed to participate in recess.[16]

Child psychiatrist Robert Coles volunteered to provide counseling to Bridges during her first year at Frantz. He met with her weekly in the Bridges home, and in 1995 wrote a children's book, The Story of Ruby Bridges, to acquaint other children with Bridges's story.[17] Coles donated the royalties from the sale of that book to the Ruby Bridges Foundation, to provide money for school supplies or other educational needs for impoverished New Orleans school children.[18]

The Bridges family suffered for their decision to send her to William Frantz Elementary: her father lost his job as a gas station attendant;[19] the grocery store the family shopped at would no longer let them shop there; her grandparents, who were sharecroppers in Mississippi, were turned off their land; and Abon and Lucille Bridges separated.[18]

Bridges has noted that many others in the community, both black and white, showed support in a variety of ways. Some white families continued to send their children to Frantz despite the protests, a neighbor provided her father with a new job, and local people babysat, watched the house as protectors, and walked behind the federal marshals' car on the trips to school.[10][20] It was not until Bridges was an adult that she learned that the immaculate clothing she wore to school in those first weeks at Frantz was sent to her family by a relative of Coles. Bridges says her family could never have afforded the dresses, socks, and shoes that are documented in photographs of her escort by U.S. Marshals to and from the school.[17]

## Adult life

[edit]

As of 2004, Bridges, now Ruby Bridges Hall, still lived in New Orleans with her husband, Malcolm Hall, and their four sons.[19][better source needed] After graduating from a desegregated high school, she worked as a travel agent for 15 years and later became a full-time parent.[4] She is now chair of the Ruby Bridges Foundation, which she formed in 1999 to promote "the values of tolerance, respect, and appreciation of all differences". Describing the mission of the group, she says, "racism is a grown-up disease and we must stop using our children to spread it."[21]

Bridges is the subject of the Lori McKenna song "Ruby's Shoes".[22] Her childhood struggle at William Frantz Elementary School was portrayed in the 1998 made-for-TV movie Ruby Bridges. The young Bridges was portrayed by actress Chaz Monet, and the movie also featured Lela Rochon as Bridges's mother, Lucille "Lucy" Bridges; Michael Beach as Bridges's father, Abon Bridges; Penelope Ann Miller as Bridges's teacher, Mrs. Henry; and Kevin Pollak as Dr. Robert Coles.[23]

Like hundreds of thousands of others in the greater New Orleans area, Bridges lost her home (in Eastern New Orleans) to catastrophic flooding from the failure of the levee system during Hurricane Katrina in 2005.[citation needed] Hurricane Katrina also greatly damaged William Frantz Elementary School,[24] and Bridges played a significant role in fighting for the school to remain open.[25]

In November 2007, the Children's Museum of Indianapolis unveiled a new permanent exhibit documenting her life, along with the lives of Anne Frank and Ryan White. The exhibit, called "The Power of Children: Making a Difference", cost $6 million to install and includes an authentic re-creation of Bridges's first grade classroom.[26]

In 2010, Bridges had a 50th year reunion at William Frantz Elementary with Pam Foreman Testroet, who had been, at the age of five, the first white child to break the boycott that ensued from Bridges's attendance at that school.[2]

Bridges and President Barack Obama view the painting by Rockwell in the White House. (video)

On July 15, 2011, Bridges met with President Barack Obama at the White House, and while viewing the Norman Rockwell painting of her on display he told her, "I think it's fair to say that if it hadn't been for you guys, I might not be here and we wouldn't be looking at this together".[27] The Rockwell painting was displayed in the West Wing of the White House, just outside the Oval Office, from June through October 2011.[28]

## Awards and honors

[edit]

In September 1995, Bridges and Robert Coles were awarded honorary degrees from Connecticut College and appeared together in public for the first time to accept the awards.[18]

Bridges's Through My Eyes won the Carter G. Woodson Book Award in 2000.[29]

On August 10, 2000, the 40 year anniversary of her walk into William Frantz Elementary School, Deputy Attorney General Eric Holder made Ruby Bridges an Honorary Deputy U.S. Marshal.[30][31]

On January 8, 2001, Bridges was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton.[32]

In November 2006, Bridges was honored as a "Hero Against Racism" at the 12th annual Anti-Defamation League "Concert Against Hate" with the National Symphony Orchestra, held at the Kennedy Center in Washington, DC.[33]

On May 19, 2012, Bridges received an honorary degree from Tulane University at the annual graduation ceremony at the Superdome.[34]

On February 4, 2016, Bridges was the recipient of the John Steinbeck Award at San Jose State University.[35] The award is given to those who capture "Steinbeck’s empathy, commitment to democratic values, and belief in the dignity of people who by circumstance are pushed to the fringes.[36]

On November 9, 2023, Bridges was awarded the Robert Coles Call of Service Award by the Phillips Brooks House Association at Harvard University, and gave the corresponding lecture at Memorial Church.[37]

On March 5, 2024, Bridges was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. The induction ceremony honored Bridges alongside renowned tennis player Serena Williams. This recognition highlights Bridges's significant contributions to civil rights and education in the United States.[38]

Two elementary schools are named after Bridges: one in Alameda, California, and another in Woodinville, Washington.[39][40] A statue of Bridges stands in the courtyard of William Frantz Elementary School.[41] When asked what she hopes children will feel when seeing the statue, she responded:

> I think kids will look at it and think to themselves, 'I can do something great too.' Kids can do anything, and I want them to be able to see themselves in the statue. Hopefully that will remind [them that they] can change the world.[42]

## Published works

[edit]

* Bridges, Ruby (1999). Through My Eyes (1st ed.). New York: Scholastic Press. ISBN 0590189239. OCLC 40588556.
* Bridges, Ruby (2009). Ruby Bridges Goes to School: My True Story. New York: Scholastic Press. ISBN 9780545108553. OCLC 230915434.
* Bridges, Ruby (2020). This Is Your Time. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 9780593378526.
* Bridges, Ruby (2022). I Am Ruby Bridges: How One Six-Year-Old Girl's March to School Changed the World. Illustrator: Nikkolas Smith. New York: Orchard Books. ISBN 9781338753882. OCLC 1268545501.

## See also

[edit]

Portals:

* Louisiana
* Biography
* Schools

* New Orleans school desegregation crisis

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Anderson, James; Byrne, Dara N. (2004). The Unfinished Agenda of Brown v. Board of Education. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons. p. 169\. ISBN 9780471649267. OCLC 53038681.
2. ^ a b c Miller, Michelle (November 12, 2010). "Ruby Bridges, Rockwell Muse, Goes Back to School". CBS Evening News with Katie Couric. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved January 18, 2021.
3. ^ "60 years ago today, 6-year-old Ruby Bridges walked to school and showed how even first graders can be trailblazers". November 14, 2020.
4. ^ a b c d Michals, Debra (2015). "Ruby Bridges". National Women's History Museum. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
5. ^ Bridges Hall, Ruby (March 2000). "The Education of Ruby Nell". as published in Guideposts. Archived from the original on May 11, 2012. Retrieved November 16, 2018.
6. ^ "10 Facts about Ruby Bridges | The Children's Museum of Indianapolis". www.childrensmuseum.org. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
7. ^ Bridges, Ruby (1999). Through my eyes (1st ed.). New York: Scholastic Press. p. 11. ISBN 0545708036. OCLC 981760257.
8. ^ a b "The Aftermath – Brown v. Board at Fifty: "With an Even Hand" | Exhibitions – Library of Congress". Library of Congress. November 13, 2004. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
9. ^ Ruby Bridges Hall. "The Education of Ruby Nell," Guideposts, March 2000, pp. 3–4.
10. ^ a b c Charlayne Hunter-Gault. "A Class of One: A Conversation with Ruby Bridges Hall," Online NewsHour, February 18, 1997
11. ^ Susannah Abbey. Freedom Hero: Ruby Bridges
12. ^ Ellen Blue, St. Mark's and the Social Gospel: Methodist Women and Civil Rights in New Orleans, 1895–1965, pp. 161–162 (University of Tennessee Press, 2011).
13. ^ Holtz, Sarah (April 19, 2019). "The Longest Walk: How A Kindergartener Became A Civil Rights Ally". WWNO - New Orleans Public Radio. Archived from the original on March 27, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2024. "[Pam Foreman Testroet]: I had recess, even though it was just me. [...] I didn't understand why we couldn't play together, I mean we were the only two kids in school, but even then they kept us separate."
14. ^ Excerpts from Through My Eyes, at African American World for Kids
15. ^ "Ruby Bridges Biography". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks. August 28, 2019. Retrieved September 28, 2019.
16. ^ "Remember Them". www.remember-them.org. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
17. ^ a b Bennett, Lennie (April 22, 2015). "The Icon in the Image". Tampa Bay Times. Tampa Bay, FL. p. 1A. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
18. ^ a b c Judson, George (September 1, 1995). "Child of Courage Joins Her Biographer; Pioneer of Integration Is Honored With the Author She Inspired". The New York Times. Retrieved November 16, 2018.
19. ^ a b Mac, Toby; Tait, Michael. "In a Class of Only One: Ruby Bridges". www.cbn.com. Christian Broadcasting Network. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
20. ^ Bridges Hall, Guideposts p. 5.
21. ^ "The Ruby Bridges Foundation". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
22. ^ O'Neill, Bill (September 26, 2002). "Songs of kinfolk". Cape Cod Times. Hyannis, MA. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
23. ^ "Ruby Bridges". www.imdb.com. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
24. ^ "Desegregation Landmark in New Orleans Again Offers Education – and Healing | National Trust for Historic Preservation". National Trust for Historic Preservation. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
25. ^ "Whatever happened to Ruby Bridges?". msnbc.com. January 16, 2007. Archived from the original on January 27, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
26. ^ Pollack, Susan R. (October 31, 2007). "The 'Power of Children' opens in Indianapolis". The Detroit News. Detroit, MI. p. Features section, 3E.
27. ^ "Ruby Bridges visits with the President and her portrait". YouTube. July 15, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
28. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. (August 29, 2011). "Norman Rockwell painting of Bridges is on display at the White House". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 6, 2018.
29. ^ "Carter G. Woodson Book Award and Honor Winners". National Council for the Social Studies. June 3, 2008. Retrieved January 3, 2019.
30. ^ "Ruby Bridges: Honorary Deputy". United States Marshals Service (usmashals.gov). August 9, 2000. Retrieved September 26, 2022.
31. ^ "Deputy Attorney General Holder to Honor Civil Rights Pioneer Ruby Bridges at Ceremony at Corcoran Gallery of Art". United States Department of Justice (justice.gov). Retrieved September 26, 2022.
32. ^ "President Clinton Awards the Presidential Citizens Medals". Washington, D.C.: The White House (whitehouse.gov), archived by the National Archives and Records Administration (nara.gov). January 8, 2001. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
33. ^ "ADL Heroes Against Hate to Be Honored at Kennedy Center". U.S. Newswire. November 14, 2006.
34. ^ "Tulane distributes nearly 2,700 degrees today in Dome – EPA administrator will speak to grads". The Times-Picayune. New Orleans, LA. May 19, 2012. p. A05. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
35. ^ "Ruby Bridges". The John Steinbeck Award. Retrieved October 29, 2024.
36. ^ "The John Steinbeck Award". The John Steinbeck Award. Retrieved October 29, 2024.
37. ^ "17th Annual Robert Coles Call of Service Lecture, followed by Alumni Weekend". Phillips Brooks House Association Inc. November 2023. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
38. ^ "Serena Williams and Ruby Bridges will be inducted into National Women's Hall of Fame". NBC News. Associated Press. November 17, 2023. Retrieved March 7, 2024.
39. ^ Hegarty, Peter (October 31, 2006). "Civil rights icon attends dedication: Ruby Bridges, namesake of new Alameda elementary school, broke racial barrier as a 6-year-old in 1960". Alameda Journal. Alameda, CA. p. News section, A1.
40. ^ "Northshore's newest elementary school is named Ruby Bridges Elementary". Northshore School District. December 10, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2020.
41. ^ "New Ruby Bridges statue inspires students, community". NOLA.com. November 15, 2014. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
42. ^ Davis, Samuel (November 24, 2014). "A New Statue Honors a Civil Rights Hero". Scholastic Kids Press. Retrieved August 14, 2023.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Ruby Bridges

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

By Ruby Bridges

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Bridges Hall, Ruby (1999). Through My Eyes. Scholastic Press. ISBN 0590189239.
* Coles, Robert (1995). The Story of Ruby Bridges. Scholastic Press. ISBN 0590572814.
* Devlin, Rachel (2018). A Girl Stands at the Door: The Generation of Young Women Who Desegregated America's Schools. Basic Books. ISBN 9781541697331.
* Steinbeck, John (1962). Travels with Charley in Search of America. Viking Adult. ISBN 0670725080.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ruby Bridges.

* The Ruby Bridges Foundation
* The Problem We All Live With
* "Ruby's Shoes" at Songfacts.com
* Ruby Bridges (1998 TV movie)

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Read's Drug Store sit-in
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Powell v. Alabama
* Smith v. Allwright
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Jonathan Eig
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* United States
* Japan
* Norway
* Korea
* Israel

Artists|

* MusicBrainz

Other|

* IdRef
* Yale LUX

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