Russian declension

Inflection in the Russian language

In Russian grammar, the system of declension is elaborate and complex. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, demonstratives, most numerals and other particles are declined for two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and six grammatical cases (see below); some of these parts of speech in the singular are also declined by three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). This gives many spelling combinations for most of the words, which is needed for grammatical agreement within and (often) outside the proposition. Also, there are several paradigms for each declension with numerous irregular forms.

Russian has retained more declensions than many other modern Indo-European languages (English, for example, has almost no declensions remaining in the language).

## Nouns

[edit]

Nominal declension is subject to six cases – nominative, accusative, genitive, prepositional, dative, instrumental – in two numbers (singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten additional cases are identified in linguistics textbooks,[1][2][3] although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the six simple cases). The most recognized additional cases are locative (в лесу́, на мосту́, в крови́ — in the forest, on the bridge, in (the) blood), partitive (ча́ю, са́хару, коньяку́ — (some) tea, sugar, cognac), and several forms of vocative (Го́споди, Бо́же, о́тче — (O) Lord, God, father). The adjectives, pronouns, and the first two cardinal numbers further vary by gender. Old Russian also had a third number, the dual, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three and four (e.g. два стула [dvɐ ˈstulə], "two chairs", now reanalyzed as genitive singular).

Russian noun cases often replace the usage of prepositions in other Indo-European languages.[4] Their usage can be summarised as:

* Nominative – the “subject” case
* Accusative – the “direct object” case
* Genitive – corresponding to the possessive case or “of + (noun)”
* Prepositional – used with certain prepositions, such as “in”, “on” etc.
* Dative – corresponding to “to + (noun)" or the indirect object
* Instrumental – denoting an instrument used in an action

There are no articles, neither definite nor indefinite (such as the, a, an in English), in the Russian language. The sense of a noun is determined from the context in which it appears. That said, there are some means of expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite. They are:

* The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: "Я не ви́жу кни́ги" ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and "Я не ви́жу кни́гу" ("I don't see the book").
* The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: "Почему́ ты так до́лго?" – "Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть" ("Why did it take you so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and had to talk").
* Word order may also be used for this purpose, compare "В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик" ("Into the room rushed a boy") and "Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату" ("The boy rushed into the room").
* The plural form may signify indefiniteness: "Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́нах" ("You can buy this in shops") vs. "Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́не" ("You can buy this in the shop").

The category of animacy is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.[5][6] Specifically, the accusative has two possible forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (sentient species, professions and occupations, human-like toys, most animals), the accusative form is generally identical to the genitive form (genitive-accusative syncretism). For inanimate referents (simple lifeforms, objects, states, notions), the accusative form is identical to the nominative form (nominative-accusative syncretism). This principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns of the second declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms (with no gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation N or G in the row corresponding to the accusative case.

In Russian there are three declensions:

* The first declension is used for feminine nouns ending with -а/-я and some masculine nouns having the same form as those of feminine gender, such as па́па "papa" or дя́дя "uncle"; also there are common-gender nouns like зади́ра "teaser" which are masculine or feminine depending on the person they refer to.
* The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns.
* The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in ь.

There is also a group of several irregular "different-declension nouns" (Russian: разносклоня́емые существи́тельные), consisting of a few neuter nouns ending in -мя (e.g. вре́мя "time") and one masculine noun путь "way". However, these nouns and their forms have sufficient similarity with feminine third declension nouns that some scholars such as Litnevskaya[7] consider them to be non-feminine forms of this declension, as written in the tables below.

Nouns ending with -ий, -ия, -ие (not to be confused with substantivated adjectives) are written with -ии instead of -ие in Prepositional: тече́ние – в ни́жнем тече́нии реки́ "streaming – in lower streaming of a river". (As none of these endings are ever stressed, due to vowel reduction the pronunciation difference between -ие and -ии may be hardly noticeable in fluent speech.) But if the words в течение and в продолжение are representing compound prepositions meaning "while, during the time of", they are written with -е: в тече́ние ча́са "in the course of an hour". For nouns ending in -ья, -ье, or -ьё, using -ьи in the Prepositional (where endings of some of them are stressed) is usually erroneous, but in poetic speech it may be acceptable (as we replace -ии with -ьи for metric or rhyming purposes): Весь день она́ лежа́ла в забытьи́ (F. Tyutchev).

### First declension

[edit]

The first declension group belongs to nouns with the ending -а and -я. These nouns are typically feminine, but include masculine nouns that have a feminine ending as well.[8]

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | -а | -я | -ия | -ы1 | -и | -ии
Accusative | -у | -ю | -ию | N or G
Genitive | -ы1 | -и | -ии | – | -ь | -ий
Prepositional | -е | -ах | -ях | -иях
Dative | -ам | -ям | -иям
Instrumental | -ой2 | -ей3 | -ией | -ами | -ями | -иями

1. After a sibilant (ж, ч, ш, щ) or a velar (г, к, or х) consonant, и is written.
2. After a sibilant, о is written when stressed; е when unstressed.
3. After a soft consonant, ё is written when stressed; е when unstressed.

Examples: рабо́та – a work/job, ба́ня – a bathhouse, кни́га – a book, ли́ния – a line

Note: In the instrumental case, -ою and -ею instead of -ой and -ей endings may be encountered in the singular.

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | рабо́та | ба́ня | кни́га | ли́ния | рабо́ты | ба́ни | кни́ги | ли́нии
Accusative | рабо́ту | ба́ню | кни́гу | ли́нию
Genitive | рабо́ты | ба́ни | кни́ги | ли́нии | рабо́т | ба́нь | книг | ли́ний
Prepositional | рабо́те | ба́не | кни́ге | рабо́тах | ба́нях | кни́гах | ли́ниях
Dative | рабо́там | ба́ням | кни́гам | ли́ниям
Instrumental | рабо́той | ба́ней | кни́гой | ли́нией | рабо́тами | ба́нями | кни́гами | ли́ниями

### Second declension – masculine nouns

[edit]

Nouns ending in a consonant are marked in the following table with – (thus no ending).

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | – | -ь | -й | -ий | -ы1 | -и | -ии
Accusative | N or G | N or G
Genitive | -а | -я | -ия | -ов2 | -ей | -ев3 | -иев
Prepositional | -е | -ии | -ах | -ях | -иях
Dative | -у | -ю | -ию | -ам | -ям | -иям
Instrumental | -ом4 | -ем3 | -ием | -ами | -ями | -иями

Notes:

1. After a sibilant (ж, ч, ш, щ)[9] or a velar (г, к, or х) consonant, и is written, or, for some words, а (глаз — глаза, доктор — доктора, etc.).
2. After a sibilant, ей is written.
3. After a soft consonant, ё is written when stressed; е when unstressed.
4. After a sibilant, о is written when stressed; е when unstressed.

Examples: фильм – a film/movie, писа́тель – a writer, геро́й – a hero, коммента́рий – a comment

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | фи́льм | писа́тель | геро́й | коммента́рий | фи́льмы | писа́тели | геро́и | коммента́рии
Accusative | писа́теля | геро́я | писа́телей | геро́ев
Genitive | фи́льма | коммента́рия | фи́льмов | коммента́риев
Prepositional | фи́льме | писа́теле | геро́е | коммента́рии | фи́льмах | писа́телях | геро́ях | коммента́риях
Dative | фи́льму | писа́телю | геро́ю | коммента́рию | фи́льмам | писа́телям | геро́ям | коммента́риям
Instrumental | фи́льмом | писа́телем | геро́ем | коммента́рием | фи́льмами | писа́телями | геро́ями | коммента́риями

### Second declension – neuter nouns

[edit]

Nouns ending in -о and -е are neuter.[10]

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | -о1 | -е2 | -а | -я
Accusative | N or G
Genitive | -а | -я | – | -й / -ей4
Prepositional | -е | -е3 | -ах | -ях
Dative | -у | -ю | -ам | -ям
Instrumental | -ом1 | -ем2 | -ами | -ями

1. After a sibilant, о is written when stressed; е when unstressed.
2. After a soft consonant, ё is written when stressed; е when unstressed.
3. For nouns ending in ие in the nominative singular, и is written (but е when stressed — for the word остриё).
4. After a consonant use ей otherwise use й.
5. Also: some masculine nouns ending in -о in the nominative singular (доми́шко, diminutive from дом 'house'); there is only one masculine noun ending in -е in this declension: подмасте́рье.

Examples ме́сто – a place, мо́ре – a sea, зда́ние – a building

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative | ме́сто | мо́ре | зда́ние | места́ | моря́ | зда́ния
Accusative
Genitive | ме́ста | мо́ря | зда́ния | мест | море́й | зда́ний
Prepositional | ме́сте | мо́ре | зда́нии | места́х | моря́х | зда́ниях
Dative | ме́сту | мо́рю | зда́нию | места́м | моря́м | зда́ниям
Instrumental | ме́стом | мо́рем | зда́нием | места́ми | моря́ми | зда́ниями

### Third declension

[edit]

The third declension is for predominantly feminine nouns, or with a non-standard termination as shown with exceptional words: дитя ('child', archaic) and путь ('path').

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine
Nominative | -ь | -мя | дитя́ | путь | -и | -мена | де́ти | пути́
Accusative | N or G | дете́й
Genitive | -и | -мени | дитя́ти | пути́ | -ей | -мён(-мян) | путе́й
Prepositional | -ях1 | -менах | де́тях | путя́х
Dative | -ям1 | -менам | де́тям | путя́м
Instrumental | -ью | -менем | дитя́тей | путём | -я́ми1 (ьми́) | -менами | детьми́ | путя́ми

1. After a sibilant, а is written.

Examples: кость (f) – a bone, мышь (f) – a mouse, и́мя (n) – a name

| Singular |  | Plural

|
|
|

Nominative  | ко́сть | мы́шь | и́мя | ко́сти | мы́ши | имена́
Accusative  | мыше́й
Genitive  | ко́сти | мы́ши | и́мени | косте́й | имён
Prepositional  | костя́х | мыша́х | имена́х
Dative  | костя́м | мыша́м | имена́м
Instrumental  | ко́стью | мы́шью | и́менем | костя́ми | мыша́ми | имена́ми

### Irregular plural forms

[edit]

There are various kinds of irregularities in forming plurals. Some words have an irregular plural form, but a few use suppletion, being substituted by a different root altogether. Historically, some of these irregularities come from older declensional patterns that have become mostly obsolete in modern Russian.

Singular  | Plural

|

Change of root/ suppletion
ребёнок (m) – child | де́ти
челове́к (m) – human | лю́ди
ёнок → я́та for animals' children
ребёнок (m) – child | ребя́та
телёнок (m) – calf | теля́та
волчо́нок (m) – wolf cub | волча́та
Old imparisyllabic nouns (suffix is added)
чу́до (n) – miracle | чудеса́
не́бо (n) – sky | небеса́
мать (f) – mother | ма́тери
дочь (f) – daughter | до́чери
сын (m) – son | сыновья́ (also сыны́ in certain cases)
кум (m) – godfather | кумовья́
Remnants of the dual number
коле́но (n) – knee | коле́ни
плечо́ (n) – shoulder | пле́чи
у́хо (n) – ear | у́ши
ве́ко (n) – eyelid | ве́ки
я́блоко (n) – apple | я́блоки
Plural in -ья/ья́
брат (m) – brother | бра́тья
брус (m) – baulk, timber | бру́сья
граф (m) – count | гра́фы/графья́ (depreciative)
гроздь (f) – bunch | гро́здья
де́верь (m) – brother-in-law | деверья́
де́рево (n) – tree | дере́вья
дно (n) – bottom | до́нья
друг (m) – friend | друзья́
звено́ (n) – link | зве́нья
зять (m) – son-in-law | зятья́
клин (m) – wedge | кли́нья
клок (m) – shred, scrap | кло́чья
князь (m) – prince | князья́
кол (m) – stake | ко́лья
ко́лос (m) – ear of a plant | коло́сья
крыло́ (n) – wing | кры́лья
лист (m) – leaf | ли́стья1
муж (m) – husband | мужья́
перо́ (n) – feather | пе́рья
поле́но (n) – log | поле́нья
по́лоз (m) – runner, coluber | поло́зья/по́лозы
помело́ (n) – broom | поме́лья
прут (m) – twig | пру́тья
собра́т (m) – confrere, fellow | собра́тья
струп (m) – scab | стру́пья
стул (m) – chair | сту́лья
сук (m) – branch | су́чья (branches, as a collective noun)
суки́ (several individual branches)
ши́ло (m) – awl | ши́лья
шу́рин (m) – brother-in-law | шурья́/шу́рины
-но / -а́
су́дно (n) – ship | суда́
Loses a suffix
цвето́к (m) – flower | цветы́ (flowers, as a collective noun)
цветки́ (several individual flowers)
Others
хозя́ин (m) – owner, host | хозя́ева
сосе́д (m) – neighbor | сосе́ди

1. If the word лист has the lexical meaning "sheet (of paper, metal, etc)", then its declension is normal (лист → листы). If it has lexical meaning "leaf (of a tree)", its declension is лист → листья.

### Undeclined nouns

[edit]

Some nouns (such as borrowings from other languages, abbreviations, etc.) are not modified when they change number and case. This appears mostly when their gender appears to have no ending in any declension which suits the final part of the word: these are masculine names on vowels different from -а/-я, female names on hard consonants (names like Триш "Trish" won't take the soft sign to go into third declension like native мышь "mouse"). Most borrowed words ending in Russian in э/е, и, о, у and stressed а are not declined:[11] кафе, пальто (French: paletot), Дюма etc. Most abbreviations are undeclined (one exception is вуз). The name Бангладеш is also undeclined, despite ending on a consonant.

Many people also think that Georgian surnames on -ия like Данелия (Georgian: დანელია) shouldn't be declined since they are originally something like Russian possessive genitives.[citation needed]

### Personal names

[edit]

Traditionally, a full Russian name consists of a person name (и́мя – given name or first name), patronym (о́тчество – father's name as middle name) and a family name (фами́лия – surname or last name). All of these words have the same grammatical gender as biological one. Slavic, as well as Greek, Roman, Jewish and other person names of European or Semitic origin loaned centuries ago, have gender-specific versions of respective patronyms. To produce a patronym, suffixes -вич- and -вн- are used with final vowel addition or modification: -о for hard consonant (Петро́вич/Петро́вна ⇐ son/daughter of Пётр), -ье for -ий (Григо́рьевич/Григо́рьевна ⇐ Григо́рий), and -е for other cases (Матве́евич/Матве́евна ⇐ Матве́й, И́горевич/И́горевна ⇐ И́горь). Some person names also have versions for both males and females (Алекса́ндр – Алекса́ндра, Евге́ний – Евге́ния).

Additionally, Slavic names have short forms, usually meant for affectionate calls (Ива́н – Ва́ня, А́нна – А́ня; equivalent of Johnny, Annie, etc.). Short forms by themselves can form "reemerging" vocative case (sometimes called neo-vocative); it is used for calling a familiar person, substituting nominative singular by removing last vowel (Артём – Тёма – Тём, О́льга – О́ля – Оль). For this reason, neo-vocative is not possible for male names that can't produce short forms with a final vowel (including some popular ones: Влади́мир, Вита́лий, И́горь). Likewise, there is a neo-vocative form for close relatives: мать – ма́ма – мам (mother – mommy – mom), оте́ц – па́па – пап (father – daddy – dad). When replacing nominative plural (used for always plural nouns), it can be used for collective calls: ребя́та ("guys, lads") – ребя́т, девча́та ("gals") – девча́т.

Most family names in Russia are also gender-specific (shown below in male/female pairs) and declinable like most words (including plural form to denote a married couple or a whole family, as "The Smiths"). They can be divided in these categories (sorted by occurrence):

* Russian origin, gender-specific, declinable as nouns: -о́в/-о́ва (unstressed for names four of more syllables long), -ев/-ева, -ёв/ёва, -и́н/-ина́ (sometimes stressed for names two syllables long);
* Russian origin, gender-agnostic, indeclinable:[12] -ы́х, -и́х;
* Ukrainian origin, gender-specific, declinable as adjectives: -ый/-ая, -о́й/-а́я;
* Ukrainian or Belarusian origin, gender-agnostic, indeclinable: -е́нко (mostly stressed), -ко́;
* Ukrainian or Belarusian origin, gender-agnostic, declinable as masculine nouns for males and indeclinable for females: -у́к, -ю́к, -и́к, -е́ц, etc.;
* Other Slavic origin, gender-specific, declinable as adjectives: -ский/-ская, -цкий/-цкая;
* Other Slavic or non-Slavic origin, gender-agnostic, declinable as masculine nouns for males and indeclinable for females: -о́вич, -е́вич, -ер, -ман, -берг, etc.

Examples:

| male  | female  | family or couple

|
|
|

Nominative | Ю́рий Алексе́евич Гага́рин | Валенти́на Ива́новна Гага́рина | Гага́рины
Accusative | Юрия Алексеевича Гагарина | Валентину Ивановну Гагарину | Гагариных
Genitive | Валентины Ивановны Гагариной
Prepositional | Юрии Алексеевиче Гагарине | Валентине Ивановне Гагариной
Dative | Юрию Алексеевичу Гагарину | Гагариным
Instrumental | Юрием Алексеевичем Гагариным | Валентиной Ивановной Гагариной | Гагариными

Here male name is composed of 2nd declension nouns, but there are exceptional endings for Instrumental (patronym: -ем, not -ом; family name: -ым, not -ом). Female name is in 1st declension, but ending -ой is used for a family name in all oblique cases. Plural follows adjectival declension, except that Nominative is short -ы.

## Adjectives

[edit]

A Russian adjective (и́мя прилага́тельное) is usually placed before the noun it qualifies, and it agrees with the noun in case, gender, and number. With the exception of a few invariant forms borrowed from other languages, such as беж 'beige' or ха́ки 'khaki',[note 1] most adjectives follow one of a small number of regular declension patterns, except for some which provide difficulty in forming the short form. In modern Russian, the short form appears only in the nominative and is used when the adjective is in a predicative role; formerly (as in the bylinas) short adjectives appeared in all other forms and roles, which are not used in modern language, but are nonetheless understandable to Russian speakers as they are declined exactly like nouns of the corresponding gender.[13]

Adjectives may be divided into three general groups:

* Qualitative (ка́чественные) — denote quality of the object; only adjectives in this group generally have degrees of comparison.
* Relational (относи́тельные) — denote some sort of relationship; unlikely to act as a predicate or have a short form.
* Possessive (притяжа́тельные) — denote belonging to a specific subject; have some declensional peculiarities.

### Adjectival declension

[edit]

The pattern described below matches the full forms of most adjectives, except possessive ones; it is also used for substantivated adjectives as учёный and for adjectival participles.

| Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | -ый | -ое | -ая | -ые
Accusative | N or G | -ую | N or G
Genitive | -ого | -ой | -ых
Prepositional | -ом
Dative | -ому | -ым
Instrumental | -ым | -ыми

1. After a sibilant or velar consonant, и, instead of ы, is written.
2. When a masculine adjective ends in -ой, the -ой is stressed.
3. After a sibilant consonant, neuter adjectives end in ее. This is sometimes called the хорошее rule.
4. Accusative in the masculine singular, and in the plural for all genders, depends on animacy, as for nouns.
5. Instrumental feminine ending -ой/ей for all adjectives has alternative form -ою/ею, which differs only stylistically from the standard form.

Russian differentiates between hard-stem (as above) and soft-stem adjectives. Note the following:

* Masculine adjectives ending in the nominative in ий and neuters in ее are declined as follows: его (read: ево), ему, им, and ем.
* Feminine adjectives in яя are declined ей and юю.
* Plural adjectives in ие are declined их, им, ими and их.
* Case endings -ого/-его are to be read as -ово/ево.

Examples:

но́вый – new  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | но́вый | но́вое | но́вая | но́вые
Accusative | N or G | но́вую | N or G
Genitive | но́вого | но́вой | но́вых
Prepositional | но́вом
Dative | но́вому | но́вым
Instrumental | но́вым | но́выми
си́ний – blue  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | си́ний | си́нее | си́няя | си́ние
Accusative | N or G | си́нюю | N or G
Genitive | си́него | си́ней | си́них
Prepositional | си́нем
Dative | си́нему | си́ним
Instrumental | си́ним | си́ними
высо́кий – tall  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | высо́кий | высо́кое | высо́кая | высо́кие
Accusative | N or G | высо́кую | N or G
Genitive | высо́кого | высо́кой | высо́ких
Prepositional | высо́ком
Dative | высо́кому | высо́ким
Instrumental | высо́ким | высо́кими
хоро́ший – good  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | хоро́ший | хоро́шее | хоро́шая | хоро́шие
Accusative | N or G | хоро́шую | N or G
Genitive | хоро́шего | хоро́шей | хоро́ших
Prepositional | хоро́шем
Dative | хоро́шему | хоро́шим
Instrumental | хоро́шим | хоро́шими
большо́й – big  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | большо́й | большо́е | больша́я | больши́е
Accusative | N or G | большу́ю | N or G
Genitive | большо́го | большо́й | больши́х
Prepositional | большо́м
Dative | большо́му | больши́м
Instrumental | больши́м | больши́ми

Before 1917, adjectival declension looked quite different, at least in writing; for example, there were special feminine plural forms, as in French. In modern editions of classical poetry some elements of this system are still used if they are important for rhyme or metrics. A notable example is ending -ыя (bisyllabic) instead of -ой (monosyllabic) for genitive single female adjectives, which were considered bookish and deprecated even in the times of Alexander Pushkin but were still used by him in lines such as «тайна брачныя постели» («Евгений Онегин», IV, L).[14]

### Comparison of adjectives

[edit]

Comparison forms are usual only for qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Comparative and superlative synthetic forms are not part of the paradigm of original adjectives but are different lexical items, since not all qualitative adjectives have them. A few adjectives have irregular forms that are declined like ordinary adjectives: большо́й 'big' — бо́льший 'bigger', хоро́ший 'good' — лу́чший 'better'. Most synthetically derived comparative forms are derived by adding -ее or -ей to the adjective stem: кра́сный 'red' — красне́е 'more red'; distinguishing such adjectives from the comparative adverbs whose forms they share is at best difficult, if not impossible.[13] Superlative synthetic forms are derived by adding suffix -ейш- or -айш- and additionally sometimes prefix наи-, or using a special comparative form with наи-: до́брый 'kind' — добре́йший 'the kindest', большо́й 'big' — наибо́льший 'the biggest'.

Another method of indicating comparison uses analytical forms with adverbs бо́лее 'more' / ме́нее 'less' and са́мый 'most' / наибо́лее 'most' / наиме́нее 'least': до́брый 'kind' — бо́лее до́брый 'kinder' — са́мый до́брый 'the kindest'. This pattern is rarely used if special comparative forms exist.

### Possessive adjectives

[edit]

Possessive adjectives are used in Russian to a lesser extent than in most other Slavic languages,[15] but are still in use. They answer the questions чей? чья? чьё? чьи? (whose?) and denote only animated possessors. Alternative for possessive adjectives are possessive genitives which are used much more commonly.[16] There are three suffixes to form them: -ов/ев, -ын/ин and -ий.

Suffix -ов/ев is used to form adjective from a word denoting single human which is masculine and ends on consonant; selection depends on if the stem is hard or soft. Suffix -ын/ин is similar but is attached to feminine words or masculine ending in -а/я. Both types are more common in spoken language than in literary (though being acceptable in both styles) and generally are forms of kinship terms, given names and their diminutives:[15] ма́ма — ма́мин 'mom's', оте́ц — отцо́в 'father's', Са́ша — Са́шин 'Sasha's' /for diminutives from both Alexandr and Alexandra/. Words of this type also are common as Russian surnames, like Пушкин (derived from пу́шка 'gun' which used to be a nickname).

Adjectives on -ов and -ин are declined via mixed declension: some of their forms are nominal, some are adjectival, and some are ambivalent.

ма́мин – mom's  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | ма́мин | ма́мино | ма́мина | ма́мины
Accusative | N or G | ма́мину | N or G
Genitive | ма́миного, ма́мина | ма́миной | ма́миных
Prepositional | ма́мином
Dative | ма́миному, ма́мину | ма́миным
Instrumental | ма́миным | ма́миными

Adjectives on -ий (speaking about suffix, not case ending; before vowels, this suffix deceases to single sound /j/ and is written as ь) are used for deriving adjectives mostly from animal species (in Old Russian language, this suffix derived possessive adjectives from plural possessors[16]): лиса 'fox' — лисий 'of a fox', 'likely for a fox'. Declension of such adjectives is nominal in nominative and accusative (except masculine and plural animated accusative) and adjectival for other forms.

ли́сий – fox's  | Singular | Plural

|
|

Masc. | Neut. | Fem.
Nominative | ли́сий | ли́сье | ли́сья | ли́сьи
Accusative | N or G | ли́сью | N or G
Genitive | ли́сьего | ли́сьей | ли́сьих
Prepositional | ли́сьем
Dative | ли́сьему | ли́сьим
Instrumental | ли́сьим | ли́сьими

There exist many stable expressions which include possessive adjectives following either of the two declensions shown above: но́ев ковче́г (Noah's Ark, from Ной "Noah"), эвкли́дова геоме́трия (Euclidean geometry, from Эвкли́д "Euclides"), ма́рсово по́ле (the Field of Mars), а́вгиевы коню́шни (the Augean stables, from А́вгий "Augeas"), во́лчий аппети́т (a wolfish appetite, from волк "wolf"), крокоди́ловы слёзы (crocodile tears, from крокоди́л "crocodile"), ка́ждый бо́жий день (every God-given day, from Бог "God"), etc. Notice how the latter two differ from the general rule: крокоди́лов has -ов ending as if a crocodile were a male human, and бо́жий has -ий ending as if God is treated as an animal or (in Old Russian) a crowd (perhaps, symbolizing Holy Trinity).

## Pronouns

[edit]

### Personal pronouns

[edit]

| Singular  | Plural  | Reflexive

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|
|

1st  | 2nd  | 3rd  | 1st  | 2nd  | 3rd
Neut.  | Masc.  | Fem.
English | I / me | you | it | he / him | she / her | we / us | you | they / them | -self
Nominative | я | ты | оно́ | он | она́ | мы | вы | они́ | сам
Accusative | меня́ | тебя́ | (н)его́ | (н)её | нас | вас | (н)их | себя́
Genitive
Prepositional | мне | тебе́ | нём | ней | них | себе́
Dative | (н)ему́ | (н)ей | нам | вам | (н)им
Instrumental | мной
(мно́ю) | тобо́й
(тобо́ю) | (н)им | (н)ей
((н)ею) | на́ми | ва́ми | (н)и́ми | собо́й
(собо́ю)

* Russian is subject to T-V distinction. The respectful form of the singular you is the same as the plural form. It begins with a capital letter: Вы, Вас, Вам etc. in following situations: personal letters and official papers (addressee is definite), and questionnaires (addressee is indefinite), otherwise it begins with minuscule. Compare the distinction between du and Sie in German or tu and vous in French.
* When a preposition is used directly before a 3rd-person pronoun in oblique cases, н- is prefixed: у него (read: у нево), с неё, etc. Because the prepositional case always occurs after a preposition, the third person prepositional always starts with an н-.
* Like adjectives and numerals, letter г (g) in genitive and accusative form is pronounced as в (v) его/него ево/нево.

### Demonstrative pronouns

[edit]

этот (this)  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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|
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Nominative | э́тот | э́то | э́та | э́ти
Accusative | N or G | э́ту | N or G
Genitive | э́того | э́той | э́тих
Prepositional | э́том
Dative | э́тому | э́тим
Instrumental | э́тим | э́тими
тот (that)  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

|
|
|
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Nominative | тот | то | та | те
Accusative | N or G | ту | N or G
Genitive | того́ | той | тех
Prepositional | том
Dative | тому́ | тем
Instrumental | тем | те́ми

### Possessive adjectives and pronouns

[edit]

Unlike English, Russian uses the same form for a possessive adjective and the corresponding possessive pronoun. In Russian grammar they are called possessive pronouns притяжа́тельные местоиме́ния (compare with possessive adjectives like Peter's = пе́тин above). The following rules apply:

* Possessive pronouns agree with possessed noun in case, gender, and number: Где мои́ очки́? (plural) "Where are my glasses?"; Ви́дел ли ты мою́ дочь? (feminine accusative) Have you seen my daughter?, even if her father is talking. As in English, they also depend on the person and number of the possessor.
* The reflexive pronoun свой is used when the possessor is the subject of the clause, whatever the person, gender, and number of that subject.
* In literary Russian non-reflexive pronouns are not used for the 3rd person; the genitive of the personal pronoun is used instead: его́ (masc./neut. sing. possessor), её (fem. sing. possessor) and их (pl. possessor). Unlike other genitives used with a possessive meaning, in modern Russian these words are usually placed before the object of possession. In colloquial speech, however, sometimes "adjectived" forms are used: его́нный (masc./neut. sing. possessor, rare), и́хний (pl. possessor); they are declined as adjectives.
* Example of the difference between reflexive and non-reflexive pronouns:
* “Он лю́бит свою́ жену́ = He loves his (own) wife”;
* “Он лю́бит его́ жену́ = He loves his (someone else's) wife” (for literary Russian);
* “Он лю́бит его́ = He loves him/it”.
* Unlike Latin where a similar rule applies for the 3rd person only, Russian accepts using reflexives for all persons:
* “Я люблю́ свою́ жену́ = I love my wife”;
* “Я люблю́ себя́ = I love myself”.
* The ending -его is pronounced as -ево.

мой (my, mine) | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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Nominative | мой | моё | моя́ | мои́
Accusative | N or G | мою́ | N or G
Genitive | моего́ | мое́й | мои́х
Prepositional | моём
Dative | моему́ | мои́м
Instrumental | мои́м | мои́ми
твой (your, yours) for a singular possessor  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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Nominative | твой | твоё | твоя́ | твои́
Accusative | N or G | твою́ | N or G
Genitive | твоего́ | твое́й | твои́х
Prepositional | твоём
Dative | твоему́ | твои́м
Instrumental | твои́м | твои́ми
свой (one's own) for a subject possessor  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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Nominative | свой | своё | своя́ | свои́
Accusative | N or G | свою́ | N or G
Genitive | своего́ | свое́й | свои́х
Prepositional | своём
Dative | своему́ | свои́м
Instrumental | свои́м | свои́ми
наш (our, ours) | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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Nominative | наш | на́ше | на́ша | на́ши
Accusative | N or G | на́шу | N or G
Genitive | на́шего | на́шей | на́ших
Prepositional | на́шем
Dative | на́шему | на́шим
Instrumental | на́шим | на́шими
ваш (your, yours) for a plural possessor  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plur.

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Nominative | ваш | ва́ше | ва́ша | ва́ши
Accusative | N or G | ва́шу | N or G
Genitive | ва́шего | ва́шей | ва́ших
Prepositional | ва́шем
Dative | ва́шему | ва́шим
Instrumental | ва́шим | ва́шими

### Interrogative pronouns

[edit]

кто ('who') and что ('what') | кто | что

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|

Nominative | кто | что (read: што)
Accusative | кого́ (read: каво́)
Genitive | чего́ (read: чиво́)
Prepositional | ком | чём
Dative | кому́ | чему́
Instrumental | кем | чем
чей ('whose') | masculine  | neuter  | feminine  | plural

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Nominative | чей | чьё | чья | чьи
Accusative | N or G | чью | N or G
Genitive | чьего́ | чьей | чьих
Prepositional | чьём
Dative | чьему́ | чьим
Instrumental | чьим | чьи́ми

* The ending -его is pronounced as -ево.

## Numerals

[edit]

Russian has several main classes of numerals (числи́тельные): cardinal, ordinal, collective, and fractional constructions. It also has other types of words, relative to numbers:

* multiplicative adjectives and compound nouns: еди́нственный – single (sole, unique), двойно́й – double, учетверённый – quadrupled, трёхкра́тный – three-times (also as repetition adjective), пятицили́ндровый – five-cylinder; однообра́зие – monotony, тро́йственность – triplicity, семибо́рье – heptathlon;
* multiplicative verbs: утро́ить/утра́ивать – triple, уполови́ни(ва)ть – halve (imp./perf. with/without -ва- suffix);
* multiplicative adverbs: вдвойне́ – doubly, впя́теро – five times (for compound adverbs: впя́теро быстре́е – 5 times faster), вполови́ну – half as;
* collective and repetition adverbs: втроём – three together; четы́режды – four times (with a verb for repeated action or a noun for repeatedly acquired state or title);
* two interrogative and negative adverbs: ско́лько? – how much/many?; ниско́лько – none (at all);
* counting-system, ordinal and partitive adjectives: двои́чный – binary, шестнадцатери́чный – hexadecimal; перви́чный – primary; тро́йственный (трёхча́стный) – three-sided (tripartite);
* two dual numerals: о́ба – both (masculine/neuter), о́бе – both (feminine); but no single word for "neither";
* numeric-pronominal, indefinite quantity words: ско́лько-то, ско́лько-нибудь – some, as much; не́сколько – few; (не)мно́го – (not) much/many; (не)ма́ло – (not a) little; много and мало are also used for compound words: малозна́чимость – small significance, многоу́ровневый – multilevel, малопоня́тно – vaguely (lit.: little clear);
* nouns for a number itself or an object defined by it (symbol, playing cards, banknote, transport route, etc.): едини́ца – number "1", unit; пятисо́тка – number "500" (all feminine); noun for masculine ноль (zero) is но́лик.
* multiple loaned numerals (also used as prefixes and first roots for compound words) from Greek, Latin and (for musical terminology) Italian;

Here are the numerals from 0 to 10:

Nouns are used in the nominative case after "one" (один рубль, 'one ruble'). After certain other numbers (following Grammatical number rules in Russian) nouns must be declined to genitive plural (десять рублей, 'ten rubles'). | Cardinal Numbers  | Ordinal Numbers
(Nominative case, masculine)  | Collective Numbers

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0  | ноль or нуль (m.) | нулево́й | —
1  | оди́н (m.), одна́ (f.), одно́ (n.), одни (pl.)

(раз is used for counting; един- is used in some compound words)

| пе́рвый | —
2  | два (m., n.), две (f.) | второ́й | дво́е
3  | три | тре́тий | тро́е
4  | четы́ре | четвёртый | че́тверо
5  | пять | пя́тый | пя́теро
6  | шесть | шесто́й | ше́стеро
7  | семь | седьмо́й | се́меро
8  | во́семь | восьмо́й | (во́сьмеро)[note 2]
9  | де́вять | девя́тый | (де́вятеро)
10  | де́сять | деся́тый | (де́сятеро)

### Declension of cardinal numerals

[edit]

Different Russian numerals have very different types of declension. The word оди́н (one) is declined by number, gender (in the singular), and case. The word два (two) is declined by gender and case, all other numbers have only case to decline by. The words for 50, 60, 70, 80, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 are unique for Russian, as they decline not only with ending in their end, but also with part of word in their middle (since they are originally composed from two words): Nom. пятьдеся́т (50) – Gen. пяти́десяти etc. (compare пять деся́тков – пяти́ деся́тков "five tens").

Compound number phrases are created without any unions: сто пятьдеся́т три ры́бы "153 fish". All numerals are declined concurrently, albeit not always in the spoken language. If numeral is in Nominative or Accusative, ending of the noun is defined by the last numeral word (the least order, see examples below), but this may not be true for an adjective attached to this noun.[17]

Most numbers ending with "1" (in any gender: оди́н, одна́, одно́) require Nominative singular for a noun: два́дцать одна́ маши́на (21 cars), сто пятьдеся́т оди́н челове́к (151 people). Most numbers ending with "2", "3", "4" (два/две, три, четы́ре) require Genitive singular: три соба́ки (3 dogs), со́рок два окна́ (42 windows). All other numbers (including 0 and those ending with it) require Genitive plural: пять я́блок (5 apples), де́сять рубле́й (10 rubles). Genitive plural is also used for numbers ending with 11 to 14 and with inexact numerals: сто оди́ннадцать ме́тров (111 meters); мно́го домо́в (many houses). Nominative plural is used only without numerals: э́ти дома́ (these houses); cf. три до́ма (3 houses; G. sg.). These rules apply only for integer numbers.[18] For rational numbers see below.

In oblique cases, noun and number take both this case, except that the numbers ending with "thousand", "million", "billion" etc. (nouns: ты́сяча (f.), миллио́н (m.), миллиа́рд (m.)) in singular or in plural are regarded as nouns and always require Genitive case in plural: пятью́ ты́сячами (Instr.) маши́н (Gen.); cf. пятью́ маши́нами and пятью́ ты́сячами тремяста́ми маши́нами (all Instr.). Initial (leftmost) numeral "1" can be omitted in combinations (одна́) ты́сяча (ты́сяча и одна́ ночь – 1001 nights), (оди́н) миллио́н, etc.

Nouns со́тня ("approximately 100", f.) and па́ра ("pair", f.) can be declined and can form compound numerals: три со́тни (≈300), пять пар носко́в (5 pair of socks). Approximate numbers are colloquially formed by reversing word order, exchanging numeral and noun: мину́ты три (≈3 minutes). Ranges (hyphenated) are also possible: пять-шесть дней (5–6 days), дней пять-шесть (probably 5–6 days). The word ми́нус (minus) declines if standalone, but does not for negative numbers: минус три гра́дуса – minus three degrees (wrong: *минуса три градуса); however: три минуса – three minuses.

один (one)  | Masc.  | Neut.  | Fem.  | Plural

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Nominative | оди́н | одно́ | одна́ | одни́
Accusative | N or G  | одну́ | N or G
Genitive | одного́ | одно́й | одни́х
Dative | одному́ | одни́м
Instrumental | одни́м | одни́ми
Prepositional | одно́м | одни́х
два (two), три (three), четы́ре (four)  | two  | three  | four

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|
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Nominative | два (m./n.), две (f.)  | три | четы́ре
Accusative | N or G
Genitive | двух | трёх | четырёх
Dative | двум | трём | четырём
Instrumental | двумя́ | тремя́ | четырьмя́
Prepositional | двух | трёх | четырёх
пять (five), шесть (six), семь (seven), во́семь (eight), де́вять (nine), де́сять (ten);  | five  | six  | seven  | eight  | nine  | ten

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Nominative | пять | шесть | семь | во́семь | де́вять | де́сять
Accusative | N or G
Genitive | пяти́ | шести́ | семи́ | восьми́ | девяти́ | десяти́
Dative
Instrumental | пятью́ | шестью́ | семью́ | восемью́ | девятью́ | десятью́
Prepositional | пяти́ | шести́ | семи́ | восьми́ | девяти́ | десяти́
special cases: ноль/нуль (zero), о́ба (both, m./n.), о́бе (both, f.)  | zero  | both

|
|

m./n.  | f.
Nominative | ноль | о́ба | о́бе
Accusative | N or G
Genitive | ноля́ | обо́их | обе́их
Dative | нолю́ | обо́им | обе́им
Instrumental | нолём | обо́ими | обе́ими
Prepositional | ноле́ | обо́их | обе́их

Dative, Instrumental and Prepositional cases for "zero" more often use нул- root instead of нол-. The numbers from 11 to 19 are: оди́ннадцать, двена́дцать, трина́дцать, четы́рнадцать, пятна́дцать, шестна́дцать, семна́дцать, восемна́дцать, девятна́дцать. They decline in the same way as 20 (два́дцать).

20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100  | 20  | 30  | 40  | 50  | 60  | 70  | 80  | 90  | 100

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Nominative | два́дцать | три́дцать | со́рок | пятьдеся́т | шестьдеся́т | се́мьдесят | во́семьдесят | девяно́сто | сто
Accusative
Genitive | двадцати́ | тридцати́ | сорока́ | пяти́десяти | шести́десяти | семи́десяти | восьми́десяти | девяно́ста | ста
Dative
Instrumental | двадцатью́ | тридцатью́ | пятью́десятью | шестью́десятью | семью́десятью | восемью́десятью
or восьмью́десятью
Prepositional | двадцати́ | тридцати́ | пяти́десяти | шести́десяти | семи́десяти | восьми́десяти
200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900  | 200  | 300  | 400  | 500  | 600  | 700  | 800  | 900

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Nominative | две́сти | три́ста | четы́реста | пятьсо́т | шестьсо́т | семьсо́т | восемьсо́т | девятьсо́т
Accusative
Genitive | двухсо́т | трёхсо́т | четырёхсо́т | пятисо́т | шестисо́т | семисо́т | восьмисо́т | девятисо́т
Dative | двумста́м | трёмста́м | четырёмста́м | пятиста́м | шестиста́м | семиста́м | восьмиста́м | девятиста́м
Instrumental | двумяста́ми | трeмяста́ми | четырьмяста́ми | пятьюста́ми | шестьюста́ми | семьюста́ми | восьмьюста́ми | девятьюста́ми
Prepositional | двухста́х | трёхста́х | четырёхста́х | пятиста́х | шестиста́х | семиста́х | восьмиста́х | девятиста́х
ты́сяча (1,000), feminine  | Singular  | Plural

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Nominative | ты́сяча | ты́сячи
Accusative | ты́сячу
Genitive | ты́сячи | ты́сяч
Dative | ты́сяче | ты́сячам
Instrumental | ты́сячью, ты́сячей | ты́сячами
Prepositional | ты́сяче | ты́сячах
миллио́н (1,000,000), masculine  | Singular  | Plural

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Nominative | миллио́н | миллио́ны
Accusative
Genitive | миллио́на | миллио́нов
Dative | миллио́ну | миллио́нам
Instrumental | миллио́ном | миллио́нами
Prepositional | миллио́не | миллио́нах

For numbers above 1,000 Russian uses a modified short scale with the following loanwords: миллио́н (106, million; as for both long and short scales), миллиа́рд (109, milliard; as for long scale – an exception), триллио́н (1012, trillion), квадриллио́н (1015, quadrillion), квинтиллио́н (1018, quintillion), etc. (continued as short scale). They decline in the same way as миллио́н. Russian uses words биллио́н (billion) and numerals with -ard endings only in historical texts or literal translations. Also, биллиа́рд (billiard) is a noun meaning a cue sport.

Examples  | 51 meters  | 6 944 meters  | 32 197 meters

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Nominative | пятьдеся́тn=a оди́нn=a метрn=a | шестьn=a ты́сячG девятьсо́тn=a со́рокn=a четы́реn=a ме́траg | три́дцатьn=a двеn=a ты́сячиg стоn=a девяно́стоn=a семьn=a ме́тровG
Accusative
Genitive | пяти́десяти́g одного́g ме́траg | шести́g тысячG девятисо́тg сорока́g четырёхg ме́тровG | тридцати́g двухg ты́сячG стаg девяно́стаg семи́g ме́тровG
Dative | пяти́десяти́d одному́d ме́труd | шести́d ты́сячамD девятиста́мd сорока́d четырёмd ме́трамD | тридцати́d двумd ты́сячамD стаd девяно́стаd семи́d ме́трамD
Instrumental | пятью́деся́тью́i одни́мi ме́тромi | шестью́i ты́сячамиI девятьюста́миi сорока́i четырьмя́i ме́трамиI | тридцатью́i двумя́i ты́сячамиI стаi девяно́стаi семью́i ме́трамиI
Prepositional | пяти́десяти́p одно́мp ме́треp | шести́p ты́сячахP девятиста́хp сорока́p четырёхp ме́трахP | тридцати́p двухp ты́сячахP стаp девяно́стаp семи́p ме́трахP

Note for superscript case notations: small letters denote singular forms, capitals denote plural. Метр is masculine (important for "51"); both метр and тысяча are inanimate (important for Accusative). Blue digits are indicatives of case endings, marked by blue letters.

### Collective numerals

[edit]

Collective numerals (Russian: собира́тельные числи́тельные) are used in Russian (and many other Slavic languages) instead of usual cardinal ones in specific lexical and semantic situations. Russian collective numerals are different from the cardinal numerals in that the former emphasize ‘the totality’ or ‘the aggregate as a whole’, while the latter – ‘the individuated quantity’.[19] Only numerals from 2 (двое) to 7 (семеро) are actively used nowadays, while 8 to 10 are seldom used and 11–13 are not normative;[20] word о́ба (both) is also considered to be collective numeral.[19] In nominative and accusative, they always force the noun into genitive plural form (while their own accusative form is dependent on the animacy of the noun): трое друзей на охоту пошли, вижу двоих мужчин, вижу двое саней. (Three friends went hunting [together], I see two men [together], I see two sleighs [together].) These numerals are seldom used in oblique cases, especially instrumental.[20] A brief table of usage situations follows:

Usage of Russian collective numerals  Usage | Number | Case | Example | Notes

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Mandatory | 2–4  | Pluralia tantum nouns in nominative case[21] | двое ножниц, трое похорон | With paired objects, construction with classifier пара are preferred: две пары ножниц
Normative | 5–7 | пятеро прений
Likely mandatory | 3, 4 | Masculine (and common-gender as masculine and mixed-gender) nouns in -а/-я[17] | трое мужчин, о четверых судьях |
Preferred | 2–7 | Masculine (and rarely neuter) personal nouns, including common-gender but excluding presumed female groups[21] | трое друзей, пятеро мальчиков, шестеро мужчин | Collective numerals are used to emphasize the cohesiveness of the group, while cardinal (пять мальчиков etc.) shows more individuality. In oblique cases, there is no preference to collective numerals.
Colloquial | Feminine nouns denoting people[21] | трое подруг
Unlikely used | Terms of high rank[21] | два министра (instead of *двое министров), два короля (instead of *двое королей)
Prohibited | First names[17][20] | три Коли, not *трое Коль
Preferred | 2–7 | With masculine[19] substantivated adjectives[20] | двое рабочих, пятеро учёных | Mostly in nominative
Preferred | 2–7 | With дети (children), especially about number in a family[21] | У неё двое детей | 8–10 are seldom used; in oblique cases is optional
Preferred | 2–7 | With ребята (children), внук[21] | пятеро ребят, трое внуков |
Colloquial | 2–7 | With animal's cubs in -ата/ята[21] | пятеро щенят |
Highly likely | 2–7
(2–10) | As noun denoting people group[21] or with personal pronoun[19] | Нас было четверо. Шестеро бились против десятерых |

Dobrushina and Panteleeva (2008),[20] having analyzed usage of два/двое in a Russian corpus, summarize cases of usage of collective numerals in the following common rules:

1. Collective numerals denote number of persons likely to have collective behaviour, i.e., existence in groups, not one by one: боевики́ 'militants', жи́тели 'inhabitants', пассажи́ры 'passengers', солда́ты 'soldiers'.
2. Collective numbers are used while denoting several persons to emphasize unity, cohesion of this group.
3. Contexts of nominal groups with collective numerals have properties showing their individualization and dedication: referentness, empathy, definiteness; they are unlikely to be out of focus.

### Ordinal numerals

[edit]

Ordinal numbers have grammatically no differences with adjectives. While forming them, upper three orders of numerals are agglutinated to nearest dividing power of 1000, which results in constructing some of the longest natural Russian words, e.g. стапятидесятитрёхты́сячный (153,000-th), while the next is сто пятьдеся́т три ты́сячи пе́рвый (153,001-st). In the latter example, only the last word is declined with noun.

### Fractions

[edit]

Fractions are formed as: (how much parts), expressed by cardinal number in case of the phrase, plus (of how numerous parts), expressed by ordinal number; the construction is formed as like it were related to word часть "part" (grammatically feminine), which is usually omitted. Noun to such construction always comes in Genitive single, also as like it belonged to word часть: девяно́сто две пятидеся́тых то́нны "92/50 tons". If an integer precedes a fraction, it is bound to it usually with the conjunction и, while the noun remains in Genitive: два и три восьмы́х оборо́та "2 3/8 turns" (оборо́т is masculine, so the numeral is два, not *две).

Fractions 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4 have proper names (nouns): полови́на, треть and че́тверть, which are used instead of ordinal numbers. They are also often added with preposition с, while form of noun appears to be related to the integer part rather than to the fraction: де́сять с че́твертью [Instr.] оборо́тов [Gen.] "10 1/4 turns". Prefixes пол- (with Genitive) and полу- (with Nominative) are used for "half" of something: пол-лимо́на (half of a lemon), полчаса́ (half an hour; but: полови́на ча́са); полуме́сяц (half moon, crescent). Words with пол- are not declined, and there is a set of rules for writing with or without dash.

For "1 1/2" there is a special word полтора́ (feminine полторы́; in oblique cases полу́тора; requires Genitive): полтора́ я́блока – 3/2 apples. It can be used with larger numbers (полторы́ ты́сячи – 1 500, полтора миллио́на – 1 500 000) and, for approximate values, with smaller numbers (полтора деся́тка – ≈15, полторы со́тни – ≈150). There was also now-outdated form полтора́ста for exactly 150. As with other single-word numerals, it's possible to form nouns and multiplicative adjectives, associated with "1.5": полу́торка (old truck with 1.5 tonnes of payload capacity), полтора́шка (1.5 liter plastic bottle for beverage); полу́торный (something of 150% amount). Also (colloquially): полтора́ челове́ка "almost nobody" (lit. one and a half men).

To read decimal fractions,[note 3] convert them to simple ones: 2,71828 = 2+71828/100000 \- два и се́мьдесят одна́ ты́сяча восемьсо́т два́дцать во́семь стоты́сячных. After integer in such cases is often used word це́лая (substantiated adjective "full, integer", which also refers to omitted word часть and thus is feminine): 3,14 – три це́лых (и) четы́рнадцать со́тых (union is often omitted); word це́лая can appear also in naming non-decimal simple fractions: 2 3/8 – две це́лых три восьмы́х. Zero before comma is often read: 0,01 = 0+1/100 – ноль це́лых одна́ со́тая (shortly: одна́ со́тая). Informally, decimal fractional part can be read more conveniently as sequence of simple digits and numbers: два и семь-восемна́дцать-два́дцать во́семь. Same method is used to read long numerals unrelated to a noun (phone numbers, address indexes, etc.), grouping two or three digits: 123406 – сто два́дцать три четы́реста шесть, двенадцать три́дцать четы́ре ноль шесть (forced ноль added to avoid missing digit).

### Count form

[edit]

Russian also has so-called "count form" (счётная фо́рма) for use by nouns in numerical phrases instead of genitive plural (for some words mandatory, for others optional), mainly with units of measure (especially derived from names): во́семь бит (8 bits; not *би́тов), шестна́дцать байт (16 bytes), две́сти два́дцать вольт (220 volts), пять килогра́мм(ов) (5 kilograms; optional). But: коли́чество ба́йтов (amount of bytes), изба́виться от ли́шних килогра́ммов (get rid of excess kilograms).

Count form also exists for paucal numbers (1.5, 2, 3 and 4); usually it coincides with genitive singular, but has notable exceptions with stressed endings: два часа́ (2 hours), but середи́на ча́са (middle of an hour); два́дцать два шара́ (22 balls), but объём ша́ра (volume of the ball); три ряда́ (3 rows/lines), but вы́йти из ря́да (step out of the line); четы́ре шага́ (4 steps), but полша́га (half a step). Полчаса́ (half an hour) is additional exception; other nouns with пол- prefix does not have stressed -а ending.

A few nouns have unrelated suppletive genitive plural forms: 4 го́да, but 5 лет (years); 3 челове́ка, but 30 люде́й/челове́к (people; optional). Count forms for adjectives and nouns with adjectival declension after numerals require genitive plural and nominative plural: два лу́чших (G. pl.) игрока́ (G. sg.) "2 best players"; три зелёные (N. pl.) прямы́е (N. pl.) lit. "3 green straight lines", but три зелёных (G. pl.) прямы́х (G. pl.) штриха́ (G. sg.) lit. "3 green straight strokes".

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ These are adjectives and not adverbs, since they can't modify verbs.
2. ^ Collective numerals for more than 7 are seldom used.
3. ^ In Russian, the comma is used as the decimal separator.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ (in Russian) Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow: Nauka, 1967
2. ^ (in Russian) Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н. Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957 online copy Archived 2012-04-23 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ (in Russian) Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке. (Введение в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.
4. ^ "The Cases of Russian Nouns". Master Russian. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
5. ^ Frarie, Susan E. (1992). Animacy in Czech and Russian. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
6. ^ Klenin, Emily (1983). Animacy in Russian: a new interpretation. Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers.
7. ^ Е. И. Литневская. Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников БСМП «ЭЛЕКС-Альфа», 2000
8. ^ masterrussian.com/aa052000a.shtml
9. ^ Le Fleming, Svetlana & Kay, Susan E. Colloquial Russian: the Complete Course for Beginners, Routledge, 2007 ISBN 978-0-415-42702-9, page25
10. ^ "Gender in Russian - Russian Grammar".
11. ^ Несклоняемые существительные // Словарь-справочник лингвистических терминов. Изд. 2-е. — М.: Просвещение. Розенталь Д. Э., Теленкова М. А.. 1976.
12. ^ Russian: Калакуцкая Л.П. Склонение фамилий и личных имен в русском литературном языке / Ред. Ф.П. Филин, В.В. Иванов. — М.: Наука, 1984
13. ^ a b Современный русский язык / Под ред. В. А. Белошапковой.
14. ^ Сорокин. "Значение Пушкина в развитии русского литературного языка". Retrieved 15 February 2014.
15. ^ a b Corbett, Greville G. (June 1987). "The Morphology/Syntax Interface: Evidence from Possessive Adjectives in Slavonic" (PDF). Language. 2. 63 (2): 299–345\. doi:10.2307/415658. JSTOR 415658. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
16. ^ a b Matasović, Ranko. Slavic Possessive Genitives and Adjectives from the Historical Point of View.
17. ^ a b c Янко, Т. Е. (2002). Русские числительные как классификаторы существительных (PDF). Русский язык в научном освещении (in Russian). 1. Москва: 168–181.
18. ^ Cubberley, Paul (2002). Russian: a linguistic introduction. p. 141.
19. ^ a b c d Kim, Hyongsup (August 2009). "The structure and use of collective numeral phrases in Slavic: Russian, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, and Polish" (pdf). University of Texas. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
20. ^ a b c d e Добрушина, Н. Р.; Пантелеева С. А. (2008). "Собирательные числительные: коллектив как индивидуализация множественности". Slavica Helsingiensia. Инструменты русистики: корпусные подходы. 34.
21. ^ a b c d e f g h Wade, Terence (2010). A Comprehensive Russian Grammar (3, revised ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 221–225\. ISBN 9781405136396.

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