Rye

Species of grain

Not to be confused with ryegrass.

For other uses, see Rye (disambiguation).

Rye

Scientific classification
Kingdom:  | Plantae
Clade:  | Tracheophytes
Clade:  | Angiosperms
Clade:  | Monocots
Clade:  | Commelinids
Order:  | Poales
Family:  | Poaceae
Subfamily:  | Pooideae
Genus:  | Secale
Species:  |

S. cereale

Binomial name
Secale cereale

Synonyms

Secale fragile M.Bieb.

Rye (Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) and is closely related to both wheat and barley (genera Triticum and Hordeum).[1] Rye grain is used for flour, bread, beer, crispbread, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder. It can also be eaten whole, either as boiled rye berries or by being rolled, similar to rolled oats.

## Origins[edit]

Wild rye

The rye genus Secale is in the grass tribe Triticeae, which contains other cereals such as barley (Hordeum) and wheat (Triticum).[2]

Rye is one of several cereals that grow wild in the Levant, central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago.[3] However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff.[4]

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük,[5][6] but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.[7]

It is possible that rye traveled west from Asia Minor as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.[8] Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along the Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain.[9] Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation".[10] He said it was mixed with spelt "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".[11]

## Description[edit]

Rye is a tall stout grass grown for its seeds.

* Botanical illustration

* Seed in husk

* Different types of grains

* Grains of wheat, rye, triticale. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat.

## Cultivation[edit]

The seeds of rye are some 7 or 8 mm long, much larger and less round than wheat.

Since the Middle Ages, people have cultivated rye widely in Central and Eastern Europe. It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the France–Germany border and north of Hungary. In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands.[12]

Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil has sand or peat. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains do. Rye will survive with snow cover that would otherwise result in winter-kill for winter wheat. Most farmers grow winter ryes, which are planted and begin to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop and produce their crop.[13]

Autumn-planted rye shows fast growth; by the summer solstice, plants reach their maximum height of about a 120 centimetres (4 feet), while spring-planted wheat has only recently germinated. Vigorous growth suppresses even the most noxious weed competitors and rye can be grown without application of herbicides.[citation needed]

Physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size and surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time.[14] Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower amounts of porosity also have lower tendencies to lose water during the process of drying.[14]

Rye is harvested like wheat with a combine harvester, which cuts the plants, threshes and winnows the grain, and releases the straw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local silos or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of mechanised agriculture, rye harvesting was a manual task performed with scythes or sickles.[15][16]

### Agroecology[edit]

Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds,[17] and can either be harvested as a bonus crop or tilled directly into the ground in spring to provide more organic matter for the next summer's crop. It is sometimes used in winter gardens and is a common nurse crop.[citation needed]

Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy clay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils.[18]

Rye can thrive in subzero environments. The leaves of winter rye produce various antifreeze polypeptides (different from the antifreeze polypeptides produced by some fish and insects).[19]

Rye is a common, unwanted invader of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.[20]

### Pests and diseases[edit]

Further information: List of rye diseases

The nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci, and the insects leaf beetle, fruit fly, gout fly, cereal chafer, dart moth, cereal bug, Hessian fly, and rustic shoulder knot are among the rye pests which can seriously affect plant health.[21]

Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus.[22][23] Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as ergotism. Ergotism can cause both physical and mental harm, including convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that have depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics of this condition. Such epidemics have been found to correlate with periods of frequent witch trials, such as the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in 1692.[13] Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated the disease, but contaminated flour may end up in bread and other food products if the ergot is not removed before milling.[24]

After an absence of 60 years, stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici) has returned to Europe in the 2020s.[25] Areas affected include Germany, Russia (Western Siberia), Spain, and Sweden.[25] Races PTGBH, PTGFH, RKBBK, SKGBC, SKGBH, SKGBR, TKDLK, TKGBK, TKGBR, and TKGDH are now present on rye in Spain.[25]

## Production and consumption[edit]

Exports by country (2014)[26] Map of global production. Rye is grown mainly across Central and Northern Europe into Russia.

Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, and eastwards into central and northern Russia. Rye is also grown in North America, in South America including Argentina, in Oceania (Australia]] and New Zealand), in Turkey, and in northern China. Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, as of 2022[update]; for instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 Mt in 1992 to 2.2 Mt in 2022.[27][28]

Top rye producers (in metric tons)  Producer  | 2022[28] | 2020[28] | 2018[28] | 2016[28] | 2014[28]

|
|
|
|
|

European Union | 7,450,920 | 8,939,510 | 6,141,040 | 7,400,686 | 8,890,726
Germany | 3,132,300 | 3,513,400 | 2,201,400 | 3,173,800 | 3,854,400
Poland | 2,337,130 | 2,929,930 | 2,126,570 | 2,199,578 | 2,792,593
Russia | 2,178,808 | 2,377,629 | 1,916,056 | 2,547,878 | 3,280,759
Belarus | 750,000 | 1,050,702 | 502,505 | 650,908 | 867,075
Denmark | 691,470 | 699,370 | 476,590 | 577,200 | 677,800
Canada | 520,177 | 487,800 | 236,400 | 436,000 | 217,500
China | 500,767 | 512,591 | 504,698 | 545,657 | 520,000
Ukraine | 314,030 | 456,780 | 393,780 | 391,560 | 478,000
United States | 312,460 | 292,930 | 214,180 | 290,379 | 182,610
United Kingdom | 242,207 | 72,450 | 95,366 | 48,563 | 55,899
Argentina | 225,510 | 221,201 | 86,098 | 60,676 | 52,130
Spain | 188,880 | 407,620 | 404,280 | 377,355 | 290,970
World total | 13,143,055 | 15,036,812 | 10,702,482 | 12,999,144 | 15,204,158

World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016 was $186M[29] compared with $30.1B for wheat.[30]

Poland consumes the most rye per person at 32.4 kg (71 lb) per capita (2009). Nordic and Baltic countries are also very high. The EU in general is around 5.6 kg (12 lb) per capita. The entire world only consumes 0.9 kg (2 lb) per capita.[31]

## Uses[edit]

### Food and drink[edit]

Sultsina, a traditional Karelian dish made of unleavened rye dough and a farina filling

Rye grain is refined into a flour high in gliadin but low in glutenin and rich in soluble fiber. Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. pericarp, testa and aleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight).[32] Rye bread, including pumpernickel, is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe.[33][34] Rye is also used to make crisp bread.

Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer.

### Other uses[edit]

Other uses of rye grain include kvass and an herbal medicine known as rye extract. Rye straw is used as livestock bedding, as a cover crop and green manure for soil amendment, and to make crafts such as corn dollies.

Rye flour is used in the original way to make Falun red paint, when mixed with linseed oil and iron oxide, widely used as a house paint in Sweden.[35]

Rye grain (aka "Rye Berries") is a popular medium to use as a grain spawn when cultivating some varieties of edible mushrooms. The grain is cleaned, hydrated, and sterilized and then injected with mushroom spores and the mycelium grow using the grain to obtain water and nutrients.

### Production of hybrids[edit]

Rye has long been considered an inferior grain to wheat in quality and digestibility, but has far larger seeds and is hardier. In the 19th century, efforts were made to create a hybrid with the best qualities of both. This initially named triticosecale, but became known as triticale. Initially fraught with fertility and germination problems, triticale is becoming more common worldwide in the 21st century, with millions of acres/hectares being produced.[citation needed]

Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity,[36][37][38] which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example, the pollination abilities of wheat was improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increased the size of the wheat anther and the amount of pollen.[39] The 1R chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes.[40] Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat.[40] AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized fall variety rye that showed resistance to both lodging and shattering.[41] Rye was the gene donor of Sr31 – a stem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat.[42]

The characteristics of S. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye, S. montanum, to produce S. cereanum, which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein.[43]

## Nutritional value[edit]

RyeNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy| 1,414 kJ (338 kcal)

Carbohydrates

75.86 g

Sugars| 0.98 g
Dietary fiber| 15.1 g

Fat

1.63 g

Protein

10.34 g

Vitamins| Quantity

%DV†

Thiamine (B1)|

25%

0.3 mg
Riboflavin (B2)|

23%

0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)|

25%

4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)|

20%

1 mg
Vitamin B6|

18%

0.3 mg
Folate (B9)|

10%

38 μg
Choline|

30 mg
Vitamin E|

1 mg
Vitamin K|

6 μg
Minerals| Quantity

%DV†

Calcium|

24 mg
Iron|

17%

3 mg
Magnesium|

26%

110 mg
Manganese|

130%

3 mg
Phosphorus|

27%

332 mg
Potassium|

17%

510 mg
Sodium|

2 mg
Zinc|

27%

3 mg
Other constituents| Quantity
Water| 10.6 g
Selenium| 14 µg

* * *

Link to USDA Database Entry

†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[44] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[45]

A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of rye provides 1,410 kilojoules (338 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value [DV]) of essential nutrients, including protein, dietary fiber, the B vitamins, niacin (27% DV) and vitamin B6 (23% DV), and several dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents are for manganese (143% DV) and phosphorus (47% DV).

### Health effects[edit]

According to Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, consuming at least 4 grams (0.14 oz) per day of rye beta-glucan or 0.65 grams (0.023 oz) per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.[46][47]

Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).[48] Consuming breakfast cereals containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.[49]

### Health concerns[edit]

Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains glutens and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and wheat allergy, among others.[50] Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley.[51]

Ergotism is an illness that can result from eating rye and other grains infected by ergot fungi (which produce ergoline toxins in infected products). Although it is no longer a common illness because of modern food safety efforts, it was common before the 20th century, and remains a risk if food safety vigilance breaks down.[52]

## In human culture[edit]

1878 oil painting A Rye Field by Ivan Shishkin

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## Further reading[edit]

* Schlegel, Rolf (2006). "Rye (Secale cereale L.): A Younger Crop Plant with Bright Future". In Sing, R. J.; Jauhar, P. (eds.). Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement. Vol. II–Cereals. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 365–394. ISBN 978-0-8493-1430-8. Schlegel provides a 2011 updated version online.

## External links[edit]

* Schlegel, Rolf; Korzun, V. (2016). "Genes, Markers, and Linkage Data of Rye (Secale cereale L.)". 08.16. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
* Schlegel, Rolf (2016). "Current List of Wheats with Rye and Alien Introgression". Rye-Gene-Map.de. 05.16. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
* "Growing Rye". December 1959. Retrieved July 12, 2016 - via University of North Texas Library, Government Documents Department.
* " Multilingual taxonomic information". University of Melbourne.

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Cereals and pseudocereals

Cereals|

* Barley
* Fonio
* Job's tears
* Maize (Corn)
* Millets
* Oats
* Rice
* Rye
* Sorghum
* Teff
* Triticale
* Wild rice

| Wheat (Triticum)|

* Bread
* Durum
* Khorasan
* Red Fife
* Norin 10
* Winter

Farro|

* Einkorn
* Emmer
* Spelt

Pseudocereals|

| Polygonaceae|

* Buckwheat
* Tartary buckwheat

|

Amaranthaceae|

| Amaranth|

* A. caudatus
* A. cruentus
* A. hypochondriacus
* Celosia
* Quinoa
* Pitseed goosefoot
* Cañihua
* Djulis

|

Lamiaceae|

* Chia

Emerging grain crops|

* Canary grass
* Drinn
* Indian ricegrass
* Intermediate wheatgrass
* Kangaroo grass
* Nipa grass
* Porteresia

See also
Triticeae
Neolithic founder crops
Neolithic Revolution
History of agriculture
Natufian culture
Fertile Crescent
Tell Abu Hureyra
Tell Aswad
Domestication
Green Revolution
Genetic engineering
Selective breeding
Crop wild relative

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Lists of countries by agricultural output rankings

Cereals|

* Barley
* Buckwheat
* Corn/Maize (exports)
* Millet
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* Triticale
* Wheat
* exports

Fruit|

* Apple
* Apricot
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Vegetables|

* Artichoke
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Other|

* Cacao
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Related|

* Irrigated land
* Land use
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* List of international rankings
* Lists by country

Portal:

* Food

Taxon identifiers

Secale cereale|

* Wikidata: Q12099
* Wikispecies: Secale cereale
* AoFP: 1730
* APA: 5023
* APDB: 51920
* APNI: 61526
* BioLib: 42535
* BOLD: 121090
* Calflora: 7439
* CoL: 4W83N
* Ecocrop: 1929
* eFloraSA: Secale_cereale
* EoL: 1115159
* EPPO: SECCE
* EUNIS: 192376
* FloraBase: 603
* FoAO2: Secale cereale
* FoC: 200026257
* FoIO: SECCER
* GBIF: 2705966
* GrassBase: imp09295
* GRIN: 317600
* iNaturalist: 79021
* IPA: 6393
* IPNI: 421164-1
* IRMNG: 10202637
* ITIS: 42090
* MichiganFlora: 2216
* NatureServe: 2.131894
* NBN: NBNSYS0000014824
* NCBI: 4550
* NZOR: 6be45e8d-3526-4a82-8d9d-744ab27696c1
* NZPCN: 2667
* Observation.org: 7434
* Open Tree of Life: 553015
* PalDat: Secale_cereale
* Plant List: kew-441740
* PLANTS: SECE
* POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:421164-1
* Tropicos: 25509953
* VASCAN: 7947
* VicFlora: 3af816eb-eda1-4161-ab00-c9d7c8e1f434
* WisFlora: 5018
* WFO: wfo-0000898524

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* Israel
* United States
* Czech Republic

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland

*[%DV]: Percentage of Daily Value
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