Schneour Zalman Schneersohn

Not to be confused with Shneur Zalman of Liadi.

Rabbi

Schneour Zalman Schneersohn

Rabbi Schneour Zalman Schneersohn

Title| Chief Rabbi
Personal
Born| 1898

Gomel, Russian Empire (now Belarus)

Died| 1980

New York, USA

Nationality| French
Spouse| Sara Schneersohn
Children| Hadassah Carlebach
Parent(s)| Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (father), Liba Leah Schneersohn (mother)
Movement| Lubavitch Hasidism
Known for| Jewish resistance during WWII, aiding Jewish children
Occupation| Rabbi
Relatives| Descendant of Tzemach Tzedek, Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev
Part of a series on

Chabad
(Rebbes and Chasidim)

Rebbes of Chabad

* Shneur Zalman of Liadi (Alter Rebbe)
* Dovber Schneuri (Mitteler Rebbe)
* Menachem M. Schneersohn (Tzemach Tzedek)
* Shmuel Schneersohn (Rebbe Maharash)
* Sholom Dovber Schneersohn (Rebbe Rashab)
* Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (Rebbe Rayatz)
* Menachem M. Schneerson (the Rebbe)

Schneersohn family

* Chaim S. Z. of Liadi (1814–1880)
* Yitzchak Dovber of Liadi (1833–1910)
* Chana Schneerson (1880–1964)
* Chaya M. Schneersohn (d. 1860)
* Chaya M. Schneerson (1901–1988)
* Levi Y. Schneerson (1878–1944)
* Moshe Schneersohn (ca. 1784–before 1853)
* Sheina Horenstein (d. 1942)
* Shlomo Zalman Schneersohn (1830–1900)
* Shmaryahu Noah Schneersohn (1842–1924)
* Yehuda Leib Schneersohn (1808–1866)

Rabbonim

* Avraham Osdoba
* Chaim Gutnick
* Avraham Chaim Naeh
* Meir Ashkenazi
* Mordechai Ashkenazi
* Mordechai Gutnick
* Moshe Gutnick
* Pinhas Hirschprung
* Shneur Z. Fradkin
* Yaakov Schwei
* Yehuda K. Marlow
* Abraham Hecht
* Yitzchak Hendel
* Yosef Heller
* Yosef Y. Braun
* Zalman Dworkin
* Zelig Sharfstein
* Shmuel L. Medalia
* Shmarya Y. L. Medalia
* Sholom Rivkin

Mashpiim and scholars

* Aaron of Staroselye
* Herman Branover
* Yehuda Chitrik
* Manis Friedman
* Mendel Futerfas
* Yitzchak Ginsburgh
* Menachem Z. Greenglass
* Moshe Gutnick
* Moshe Havlin
* Zalman M. HaYitzchaki
* Aizel Homiler
* Simon Jacobson
* Yisroel Jacobson
* Yosef Y. Jacobson
* Yoel Kahn
* Abraham Y. Khein
* Yehoshua Mondshine
* Avraham C. Naeh
* Nissan Neminov
* Hillel Paritcher
* Ezra Schochet
* Adin Steinsaltz
* Shais Taub
* Shlomo Y. Zevin

Mazkirus and other leaders

* Leib Groner
* Jacob J. Hecht
* Chaim M. A. Hodakov
* Yehuda Krinsky
* Nissan Mindel
* Dovid Raskin
* Abraham Shemtov

Shluchim

* Menachem Brod
* Azriel Chaikin
* Shlomo Cunin
* Pinchus Feldman
* Gershon Garelik
* Yitzchok D. Groner
* Hanoch Hecht
* Gavriel Holtzberg
* Berel Lazar
* Shimon Lazaroff
* Chezki Lifshitz
* David Masinter
* Zalman I. Posner
* Menachem S. D. Raichik
* Aaron Raskin
* Arie Z. Raskin
* Shlomo Sawilowsky
* Mordechai Scheiner
* Abraham Shemtov
* Levi Shemtov
* Yehudah Teichtal
* Simcha Weinstein
* Manis Friedman

Other notable figures

* Shmuley Boteach
* Avraham Fried
* Benny Friedman
* Aharon Gurevich
* Joseph Gutnick
* Moshe Hecht
* Shea Hecht
* Bernard Levy
* Hendel Lieberman
* Michoel Muchnik
* Mendy Pellin
* Zvi Yair

Controversies

* Chabad messianism
* Chabad offshoot groups
* Barry Gurary
* Public menorah
* The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference

*     * Category
* Media on Commons

* v
* t
* e

Schneour Zalman Schneersohn[1][2] (1898–1980) was a Lubavitch Hasidic Chief Rabbi who was active in France during World War II. During the Nazi occupation of France, he ran homes for children who had been separated from their families, providing them with food, shelter, and a Jewish education. Later, as the situation in France worsened, he smuggled many of them to safety.

## Biography

[edit]

Schneour Zalman Schneersohn was born in Gomel, Russian Empire (currently in Belarus) in 1898.[3] He belonged to the Lubavitch hassidic dynasty.

Schneersohn was descended on both sides from prestigious Hasidic families. He was the son of Menachem Mendel Schneersohn, grandson of Levi Yitzchak Schneersohn, great grandson of Baruch Shalom Schneersohn, the oldest son of the Tzemach Tzedek (Menachem Mendel Schneersohn, the third Rebbe of the Lubavitch dynasty). His mother, Liba Leah, was the granddaughter of Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev, one of the main disciples of Dov Ber of Mezeritch, himself one of the main disciples and successor of the Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism.[4] His daughter, Hadassah, married Eli Chaim Carlebach in 1949.

Schneersohn was active in the Jewish religious resistance in the USSR, distributing funds and prayer books with the help of the Political Red Cross.[3] In 1935, after receiving his semikhah from the Lubavitch yeshiva in Russia, he immigrated to Mandatory Palestine but after a few months, left for France on his way to the United States. In the end, he remained in France.[5]

In 1936, he created the Association des Israélites Pratiquants (AIP) (also Kehillat Haharedim), an association of Orthodox Jews promoting religious and educational activities throughout France.[6][7] The organization "provided material relief to needy Jewish refugees...founded Hebrew schools and synagogues, set up kosher soup kitchens and distributed clothing and money."[8]

Léon Poliakov, a French historian close with Rabbi Schneersohn, claims that "his orthodoxy, of an absolute intransigence, or his working methods, as flexible as they were, were disconcerting, not to mention his manners and his dress which did not appeal to his French colleagues."[3] He thus focused his attention on teaching children, opening eight Talmud Torah schools attended by several hundreds of children.

## Jewish children's homes

[edit]

When the Nazis invaded France in May 1940, Schneersohn was forced to leave Paris. Wherever he went, he relocated the AIP with him. From February 1940 to March 1944, he opened a series of homes for children in cooperation with the AIP and the OSE (Œuvre de Secours aux Enfants). The first was established in Chateau des Morelles in Brout-Vernet.

In 1941, he traveled to Marseilles. In the wooded and hilly east of the city, he rented la Maison de Beaupin as a home for children whose parents had been arrested. After the arrest of several children in Marseilles on 12 August 1942, he moved the children to a property in Dému, in the southwest of France.

In 1943, when the Germans expanded their territory in France., Schneersohn moved the children to Voiron, near Saint-Etienne-de-Crosse, in the Italian-occupied zone of l'Isere.

On 6 September 1943, the children were taken to Nice in the belief it would be safer since the Italians had changed sides to the Allies. But the Germans were waiting and on 10 September, invaded, rounding up and deporting 6,000 people. The children were smuggled back to Isère. Two members of the party were caught and the rabbi and his family were forced into hiding.

That winter, the children who remained were hidden in five locations in the area. On the l night of 22 March, one of these locations, La Martelliere, was raided. Sixteen boys and one woman, the mother of two brothers in the group, were arrested and deported. Only one of the boys survived the war. The same afternoon, Sara Schneerson, the rabbi's wife, was arrested in La Manche, close to Voiron, where the rabbi and some of his students had found a hiding place. She was taken to the French Millice headquarters, interrogated and tortured, but she maintained that the rabbi had escaped to Switzerland, not giving away his true hiding place. After her release, she walked around for miles instead of going straight to her husband's hideaway in order to mislead her torturers. Her ploy worked and the hiding place was not discovered.

As Chana Arnon-Benninga describes, "From then on, until the liberation of Grenoble, on 22 August 1944, the children, the rabbi, his wife and the young adults, were hidden at different places in the Voiron area, some not seeing the light of day for weeks on end. At liberation, the Schneerson family returned to Paris, taking some of the survivors with them; others went back to La Manoir to take care of some of the orphans helped by students who wanted to stay on. In September 1946, the youth home closed its doors definitely, the last members relocating to Boissy-Saint-Leger, in the Paris area."[5]

Much of what is known about Rabbi Schneersohn is thanks to the historian Léon Poliakov, who was the rabbi's personal secretary, and became secretary of the AIP in 1943.[9][10][11] Poliakov would tell in 1997[12] that he became acquainted with of Chief Rabbi Schneersohn when he was looking for a rabbi to officiate at his father's funeral. Later, on the Canebière in Marseille, he met Chief Rabbi Schneersohn who offers him the position of secretary. Their collaboration lasted several months until Poliakov gave up following ideological differences – he opposed the idea to contact Joseph Goebbels[13] – and religious differences. Poliakov later went on to found, together with Rabbi Schneersohn's cousin, Isaac Schneersohn, the Shoah Memorial, Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation.

### Timeline of locations

[edit]

* February 1940 – January 1941:
* Château des Morelles, Brout-Vernet (Allier).
* April 1942:
* Villa Beaupin, in the Vieille Chapelle district of Marseilles
* November 1942:
* Domaine de Seignebon, at Dému (Gers).
* 1942–1944: successively :
* Grenoble.
* Château du Manoir, hameau de L'Étang-Dauphin, Saint-Étienne-de-Crossey (Isère),[14] Beginning in March 1943.
* pension Cavalier and Hôtel Rivoli, at Nice. 1943 (...-October 1943).
* Château du Manoir (return) from October 1943 to December 1943, then dispersal of the children in three hamlets close to Voiron (Isère):
* La Manche, hameau de Saint-Jean-de-Moirans (Isère), in December 1943.
* La Martellière, Voiron (Isère),[15][16][17][18][19] also in December 1943. 16 children, aged 7 to 21, and two adults are arrested there by the milice during the night of 23 March to March 1944, following a denunciation. The children are deported in the Convoi 71[20] of 13 April 1944[21][22] and the Convoi n° 73 of 15 May 1944.[23][24][25][26]
* hameau de Chirens (Isère) and Saint-Étienne-de-Crossey (a room), starting in October 1943.

## Descriptions of Schneersohn

[edit]

In his book on Jewish Résistance in France, Lucien Lazare[27] describes the role of Schneersohn:

> Having moved to Vichy, then to Marseille, the AIP had gathered together a community of sixty or so persons, composed of a Synagogue, a welfare office, a Yeshiva, a home for children and a workshop for vocational placement.[28] Chneerson intended his services to Orthodox Judaism. Placed in the marginality of the Jewish organizations, the AIP was the expression of a particular category of the Jewish identity. Very popular before the war in Central Europe and Eastern Europe as well as in Palestine, Hasidism counted fervent followers within the community of the Jewish immigrants in Paris. Rejecting at once emancipation, Zionism and Socialism, Chneerson only conceived Jewish existence in the jealous observance of rites and put up an impenetrable barrier against the influence of the environment and modernity. His experience of secular persecutions had taught him to respond by establishing a community with unfailing cohesion, devoting itself to the study of sacred texts and the observance of the Mitzvot in the enthusiastic atmosphere of the hassidic tradition. It is in this framework that he himself and his follower felt safe, leaving it to Providence. Chneerson had not discerned the novel and fatal character of the nazi threat, and the AIP was particularly vulnerable to the deportations.

In "L'Auberge des musiciens",[29] Léon Poliakov describes Schneersohn ("red beard, limping slightly in his caftan according to the Polish custom") and his activities at Marseille:

> About a hundred or so persons prayed in the oratory of the rue Sylvabelle in a rich-looking building in of the most beautiful neighborhoods at Marseille [...] [There] two large rooms and a hall in the first floor, a kitchen and two rooms in the mezzanine [...]. The rabbi taking refuge with his family on the first floor. The kitchen doesn't stay empty either: furtive shadows appeared in the evening and vanished in the morning; these are escapees of the internment camps of Vichy to whom the rabbi gives refuge. One of the rooms of the first floor serves as an office and as a function room – a never-ending stream of Jewish miseries -, the other, the office of the rabbi, is at the same time a synagogue and a classroom; there weddings are celebrated and divorces are settled and even financial disputes.

In his private diary, Raymond-Raoul Lambert, who headed the UGIF-Sud, the Vichy government's Union of French Jews, writes on 17 August 1943:

> The 28 (28 July 1943) I go, with Simone and the children, to visit a home for children close to Voiron, headed by an orthodox rabbin who resembles Rasputin. In such a milieu I feel Christian and Latin.[30]

The Israeli historian Richard Cohen thus explains[31] Lambert's reaction:

> It's about rabbi Isaac Chneerson [sic][32] who was responsible of an ultra-orthodox charitable organization (Association des Israélites pratiquants de France, Kehillath Haharedim), affiliated to the 3e Direction de l'UGIF (Santé). The "assimilated" response by RRL [Raymond-Raoul Lambert] is not surprising, considering the content of the letter by the latter (2 August 1943, YIVO: RG 340, dossier 3) which deals into the details of his fantastic project to establish a Jewish State based on strictly orthodox principles.

In a recent book entitled Les enfants de la Martellière, Delphine Deroo reconstitues the life of this institution.[33] She is openly admiring of the rabbi's work:

> To each threat corresponds a defense. To the wish of physical and spiritual elimination of the "Jewish Race", these men and women opposed themselves as Jews, assuming with pride their endangered Jewishness. And this moral resistance, that on my part I encounter in the insistence of rabbi Chneerson [Schneour Zalman Schneersohn] to strictly observe the religious laws – showing for him the very essence of his directly threatened Judaism -, strikes me and dazzles me by its strength and by its heroism.

## After the war

[edit]

After the war, Schneersohn worked to promote non-consistorial Orthodox Judaism from his office at 10 rue Dieu, in the 10th arrondissement of Paris near Place de la République. He continued to direct the AIP, organizing religious services and Jewish schools, as well as locating and rehabilitating children hidden in Christian homes during the war.

Several personalities later attested to the influence of his teaching, including Olga Katunal,[34] according to whom Zalman Schneurson was her greatest teacher,[35]

In the 1960s, Schneour Zalman Schneersohn immigrated to the United States, and continued to work as a teacher in Brooklyn, New York.

He died in New York at the age of 82.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ The name is also spelled Schneerson (Nathan, 2008), and according to the daughter of the rabbi, Hadassa Carlebach (ibid.) he was called Chneerson during World War II.
2. ^ Zuccotti (1993, p. 341, note 14) gives another version of the name. She writes: "The AIP was founded in Paris in 1936 by Grand Rabbi Zalman Chneersohn".
3. ^ a b c Le rav Schneor Zalman Schneerson en France (1936-19470 (extrait) Archived 20 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine, un article de Kountrass Online, Iyar 5763 / Mai 2003.
4. ^ genealogical inscriptions on his tomb (Kevarim of Tzadikim in North America. Photo of the tomb of Schneour Zalman Schneersohn, with its biographical data. Archived 4 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine), The Tsemah Tzedek Family Tree. Archived 25 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ a b Arnon-Benninga, Chana (September 2010). "SCHNEERSON, SCHNEUR ZALMAN 1898–1980" (PDF). World Federation of Jewish Child Survivors of the Holocaust and Descendants. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016.
6. ^ Lazare, 1987, p. 139.
7. ^ "Kehillat Haharedim". yivoarchives.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
8. ^ holocaustchild.org
9. ^ According to Lazare, 1987, p. 357, note 38, Poliakov was secretary of the AIP from November 1941 to August 1942.
10. ^ Lazare, ibid., underlines that "A voluminous collection of archives of the AIP was entrusted by Z. Chneerson to YIVO – collection 340."
11. ^ According to Poznansky, 1994, p. 203 : "All the Jewish organizations employed Jews who, before the war, hardly knew the existence of Jewish institutions. The most surprising example is may be the one of Léon Poliakov, an agnostic if there was one, who ended up, overnight, secretary of the Association des Israélites Pratiquants – an ultra-orthodox organization – headed at Marseille by the rabbi Zalman Chneerson."
12. ^ "Le Monde - World news, culture and opinion from the unique perspective of the leading French newspaper". Le Monde.fr. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
13. ^ Chief Rabbi Schneersohn doesn't grasp then that the separation of the Jews from the remainder of the population advocated by the Nazis is in fact the prelude to their extermination, the "Final Solution". He had known the communist regime and its limitations to the practice of religion. Mankind had not known yet a systematic genocide, country after country, this "Final Solution".
14. ^ Lazare, 1987, p. 227, writes: "There is on the other hand the refusal by Schneerson of the AIP to scatter individually, under cover of a full "aryanisation", the wards of the home of Saint-Étienne-de-Crossey." Note in passing, that in the index of his book (p.419), Lazare mixes up the names of the two cousins: Isaac Schneersohn and Schneour Zalman Schneersohn.
15. ^ Voiron dans la Shoah. Voiron en ligne. Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
16. ^ Benoit, Floriane (25 August 1997) "Rafle des enfants juifs: Voiron retourne son passé" Archived 25 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine. L'Humanité
17. ^ Deroo, Delphine Les enfants de la Martellière. Chapitre premier. Chronique de recherches Archived 24 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine
18. ^ "vous reprendrez bien quelques juifs... - Vacarme". vacarme.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
19. ^ Bakour, Manon (30 March 2009). "Hommage poignant hier à Voiron" Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Culture. mGrenoble.fr.
20. ^ This Convoi 71 includes Simone Jacob, aged 16 ans, who will be known later as Simone Veil. Serge Klarsfeld, 1978.
21. ^ "rafle de seize enfants juifs", L'Humanité, 23 August 1997
22. ^ See, L'histoire. Erwin Uhr, unique survivant de la rafle de Voiron, en 1944 Archived 27 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Libération, 15 September 1997.
23. ^ See,Eve Line Blum-Cherchevsky. Convoi 73. Abraham Rosenzweig. Archived 25 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
24. ^ Zuccotti, 1993, p. 193, talks about 18 children ; in reality, there are 16 children and two adults—cf. "La ville de Voiron découvre la rafle de seize enfants juifs" Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, L'Humanité, 23 August 1997
25. ^ "L'histoire" Archived 27 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Erwin Uhr, unique survivant de la rafle de Voiron, en 1944. Libération, 15 September 1997.
26. ^ "Abraham Rosenzweig". www.convoi73.org. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
27. ^ Lazare 1987, pp. 139–140.
28. ^ Regarding the activities of Schneour Zalman Schneersohn at Marseille, Renée Dray-Bensousan writes: "Furthermore workshops had been created by the ORT and the Association des Israélites Pratiquants (AIP) within the second department of the UGIF. The impetuous rabbi Zalman Chneerson [sic] had put up a vocational school at the headquarters of his association, meaning in the cellar of his apartment, rue Sylvabelle; it transformed into a «workers company» when Vichy decided to incorporate in it the foreign Juifs. He had integrated there for a while Joseph Bass, the future head of the Réseau Bass, as a teacher of draughtsmanship next to secretary Léon Poliakov. A course in electricity and radio was given there to forty two students by Dr Radzowitz, a famous Viennese physicist."
29. ^ Dray-Bensousan, Renée "L'éducation juive à Marseille sous Vichy (1940–1943): Une renaissance circonstancielle." Archived 14 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Jewish Archives, vol.35, 2002/2, p. 49-59.
30. ^ See, Lambert, 1985, p. 236.
31. ^ See, Lambert, 1985, p. 289, note 207.
32. ^ Cohen mixes up the two cousins: ‘’’Isaac Schneersohn’’’ and Schneour Zalman Schneersohn.
33. ^ See, Delphine Deroo, 1999, Chapitre premier.Chronique de recherches.
34. ^ On Olga Katunal, see Haddad, 2007. Jacques Lacan climbed the seven floors without elevator of her building in the 9th arrondissement of Paris to consult the books on Kabbalah that she owned. Olga Katunal introduces Oscar Goldberg (one of those saved by Varian Fry) to Chief Rabbi Schneersohn.
35. ^ See, Friedlander, 1990, p. 173-174: "The greatest teacher she ever had, she claimed was Zalman Schneurson, a man many expected to inherit the position of chief rabbi of the Lubavitcher Hassidim, but he never did. A formidable scholar, Schneurson attracted a large following of intellectual Jews in Paris during the early postwar years.".

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Serge Klarsfeld. Le Mémorial de la Déportation des Juifs de France. Beate et Serge Klarsfeld: Paris, 1978.
* Léon Poliakov. L'Auberge des musiciens. Mémoires. Paris, 1981.
* Lambert, Raymond-Raoul [in French] (1985). Cohen, Richard I. (ed.). Carnet d'un témoin: 1940–1943 (in French). Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-01549-1.

* Lambert, Raymond-Raoul [in French] (15 October 2007). Cohen, Richard I. (ed.). Diary of a witness 1940-1943: The experience of French Jews in The Holocaust. Translated by Best, Isabel. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 978-1-56663-740-4.

* Lucien Lazare (1987). La Résistance juive en France. Stock. ISBN 978-2-234-02080-1.
* Judith Friedlander (1990). Vilna on the Seine: Jewish Intellectuals in France Since 1968. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04703-5.
* Susan Zuccotti (1993). The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03034-3.
* Renée Poznanski (1994). Être juif en France pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Hachette Book Group USA. ISBN 978-2-01-013109-7.
* Donna F. Ryan (1996). The Holocaust & the Jews of Marseille: The Enforcement of Anti-Semitic Policies in Vichy France. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06530-9.
* Delphine Deroo (1999). Les enfants de La Martellière. Grasset & Fasquelle. ISBN 978-2-246-56921-3.
* Anne Grynberg (1999). Les camps de la honte: Les internés juifs des camps français (1939-1944). Editions La Découverte. ISBN 978-2-7071-3046-4.
* Claude Muller (2003). Les sentiers de la liberté: Dauphiné, 1939-1945 : les témoignages de nombreux résistants et déportés. Editions De Borée. ISBN 978-2-84494-195-4.
* Renée Dray-Bensousan (2004). Les juifs à Marseille pendant La Seconde Guerre mondiale: août 1939--août 1944. Belles Lettres. ISBN 978-2-251-38066-7.
* Limor Yagil (2005). Chrétiens et Juifs sous Vichy (1940-1944): Sauvetage et désobéissance civile. Cerf. ISBN 978-2-204-07585-5.
* Ḥanah Sheneʼursohn (April 2003). A mother in Israel: the life and memoirs of Rebbetzin Chana Schneerson of blessed memory : mother of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, z. ts. ṿe-ḳ. l.l.h.h.] Kehot Publication Society. ISBN 0-8266-0099-9.
* Gérard Haddad (2007). Le péché originel de la psychanalyse: Lacan et la question juive. Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-091253-2.
* Joan Nathan. Bread of Freedom in Times of Despair. The New York Times, 16 April 2008 (Section Dining & Wine).
* Samuel Heilman; Menachem Friedman (30 May 2010). The Rebbe: The Life and Afterlife of Menachem Mendel Schneerson. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13888-6.
* Elie Feuerwerker. "Further Corrections". Hamodia. New York. 13 October 2010.

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* United States

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template