Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

Period of ancient Egyptian history (1700–1550 BC)

The Second Intermediate Period

c. 1700–1550 BC

The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1650 – c. 1550 BC)

Capital|

* Itjtawy
c.1803 – 1677 BC
13th Dynasty
* Avaris
c.1725 – 1535 BC
14th and 15th Dynasties
* Thebes
c.1677 – 1600 BC
13th, 16th and 17th Dynasties
* Abydos
c.1650 – 1600 BC
Abydos Dynasty

Religion

| Ancient Egyptian religion
Demonym(s)| Egyptians and Hyksos
Government| Monarchy
Pharaoh|

• c. 1701 – c. 1677 BC

| Merneferre Ay (first)

• c. 1555 – c. 1550 BC

| Kamose (last)
History|

• approximately around the late 13th Dynasty

| c. 1700

• The end of the 17th Dynasty of Egypt

| 1550 BC

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Middle Kingdom of Egypt

|

| New Kingdom of Egypt |

|

Part of a series on the

History of Egypt

Prehistoric Egypt

|  Paleolithic| 300,000–17,000 BC

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Mesolithic| 17,000–9000 BC
Predynastic Period| 6000–3000 BC

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|  Early Dynastic Period| 3150–2686 BC

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Old Kingdom| 2686–2181 BC
1st Intermediate Period| 2181–2055 BC
Middle Kingdom| 2055–1650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period| 1650–1550 BC
New Kingdom| 1550–1069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period| 1069–664 BC
Late Period| 664–332 BC

Greco-Roman Egypt

|  Argead dynasty| 332–310 BC

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Ptolemaic dynasties| 310–30 BC
Roman and Byzantine Egypt| 30 BC–641 AD
Sasanian Egypt| 619–629

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|  Rashidun caliphate| 641–661

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Umayyad caliphate| 661–750
Abbasid dynasty| 750–935
Tulunid dynasty| 868–905
Ikhshidid dynasty| 935–969
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Ayyubid dynasty| 1171–1250
Mamluk dynasty| 1250–1517

Early modern Egypt

|  Ottoman Egypt| 1517–1867

|

French occupation| 1798–1801
Muhammad Ali dynasty| 1805–1953
Khedivate of Egypt| 1867–1914

Late Modern Egypt

|  British occupation| 1882–1922

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Sultanate of Egypt| 1914–1922
Kingdom of Egypt| 1922–1953
Republic| 1953–present

Egypt portal

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Periods and dynasties of ancient Egypt

All years are BC

Predynastic

|  Protodynastic|  0|  c. 3300–3150

|
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Early Dynastic

|  First Dynasty|  I|  c. 3150–2890

|
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Second Dynasty|  II|  2890–2686

Old Kingdom

|  Third Dynasty|  III|  2686–2613

|
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Fourth Dynasty|  IV|  2613–2498
Fifth Dynasty|  V|  2498–2345
Sixth Dynasty|  VI|  2345–2181

First Intermediate

|  Seventh Dynasty|  VII|  spurious

|
|

Eighth Dynasty|  VIII|  2181–2160
Ninth Dynasty|  IX|  2160–2130
Tenth Dynasty|  X|  2130–2040
Early Eleventh Dynasty|  XI|  2134–2061

Middle Kingdom

|  Late Eleventh Dynasty|  XI|  2061–1991

|
|

Twelfth Dynasty|  XII|  1991–1803
Thirteenth Dynasty|  XIII|  1803–1649

Second Intermediate

|  Fourteenth Dynasty|  XIV|  1705–1690

|
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Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos)|  XV|  1674–1535
Sixteenth Dynasty|  XVI|  1660–1600
Abydos Dynasty| |  1650–1600
Seventeenth Dynasty|  XVII|  1580–1549

New Kingdom

|  Eighteenth Dynasty|  XVIII|  1549–1292

|
|

Nineteenth Dynasty|  XIX|  1292–1189
Twentieth Dynasty|  XX|  1189–1077

Third Intermediate

|  Twenty-first Dynasty|  XXI|  1069–945

|
|

Twenty-second Dynasty|  XXII|  945–720
Twenty-third Dynasty|  XXIII|  837–728
Twenty-fourth Dynasty|  XXIV|  732–720
Twenty-fifth Dynasty (Nubian)|  XXV|  732–653

Late Period

|  Twenty-sixth Dynasty|  XXVI|  672–525

|
|

Twenty-seventh Dynasty
(1st Persian Period)

|  XXVII|  525–404
Twenty-eighth Dynasty|  XXVIII|  404–398
Twenty-ninth Dynasty|  XXIX|  398–380
Thirtieth Dynasty|  XXX|  380–343

Thirty-first Dynasty
(2nd Persian Period)

|  XXXI|  343–332

Hellenistic Egypt

|  Thirty-second Dynasty|  XXXII|  332–305

|
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Thirty-third Dynasty|  XXXIII|  305–30

Roman Egypt

Thirty-fourth Dynasty
(Roman Pharaohs)

|  XXXIV|  30 BC – 313 AD

|
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Byzantine Egypt

Thirty-fifth Dynasty
(speculated)

|  XXXV|  379 AD – 641 AD

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See also: List of pharaohs by period and dynasty
Periodization of ancient Egypt

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The Second Intermediate Period dates from 1782 to 1550 BC.[1]: 123  It marks a period when ancient Egypt was divided into smaller dynasties for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The concept of a Second Intermediate Period generally includes the 13th through to the 17th dynasties, however there is no universal agreement in Egyptology about how to define the period.[2]

It is best known as the period when the Hyksos people of West Asia established the 15th Dynasty and ruled from Avaris, which, according to Manetho's Aegyptiaca, was founded by a king by the name of Salitis.[3] The settling of these people may have occurred peacefully, although later recounts of Manetho portray the Hyksos "as violent conquerors and oppressors of Egypt".[4]

The Turin King List from the time of Ramesses II remains the primary source for understanding the chronology and political history of the Second Intermediate Period, along with studying the typology of scarabs, beetle-shaped amulets mass-produced in ancient Egypt and often inscribed with the names of rulers.[5]

## Collapse of the Middle Kingdom

[edit]

The 12th Dynasty of Egypt ended in the late 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu.[6] She had no heirs, causing the dynasty to come to an abrupt end, and with it, the most prosperous era of the Middle Kingdom; it was succeeded by the much weaker 13th Dynasty. According to the Byzantine chronicler George Syncellus, all three sources of the translated king list of Africanus, Eusebius, and the Armenian of Eusebius state that the 13th Dynasty had sixty kings that ruled and lived in Dioplus for roughly 453 years.[7] Retaining the seat of the 12th Dynasty, the 13th Dynasty (c. 1773 – 1650 BC) ruled from Itjtawy ("Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands") for most of its existence.

The pyramid of Khendjer is the only pyramid known to have been completed during the 13th Dynasty

Upper part of a statue of pharaoh Khendjer from his pyramid complex

### Migration to Thebes

[edit]

The 13th Dynasty switched to Thebes in the far south possibly in the reign of Merneferre Ay.[1]: 123  Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers, who had their own culture, a variant of the contemporary late Palestinian Middle Bronze Age culture of the southern Levant.[8] For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.[9] This analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis. The stele is of unknown provenance.[10][11]

Though the 13th Dynasty may have controlled Upper Egypt, the 14th Dynasty ruled Lower Egypt, and both houses agreed to co-exist allowing trade.[12] Evidently the rulers had trouble with securing power within their territory, being replaced in rapid fashion, but other factors like famine may have played a part.[13] The eventual collapse of the 13th Dynasty became an opening for two smaller dynasties to take control of Egypt.[13]

## Transitional period

[edit]

Similar to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, the Second Intermediate Period was dynamic time in which rule of Egypt was roughly divided between rival power bases in Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, each controlling a portion of land.

### 14th Dynasty

[edit]

Main article: Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The 13th Dynasty proved unable to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt, and a provincial ruling family, located in the Nile Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the 14th Dynasty (c. 1700–1650 BC). According to Syncellus, all three sources agree that the 14th Dynasty had seventy-six kings and their court was located in Xois, now modern day Sakha, although they provide different numbers of years ruled. Africanus stated the dynasty reigned for 184 years, while the Armenian version of Eusebius states 484 years. Eusebius states the same as Africanus, but in another copy the same number as the Armenian version.[7][14]

The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known, due to the general scarcity of its monuments. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile Delta, with borders located near Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.[15] Most modern Egyptologists share the view that Avaris – rather than Xois – was the 14th Dynasty's seat of power.[16]

Contested rulers proposed by Ryholt as the first five rulers of the dynasty are commonly identified as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent based on their names. His conclusions about their chronological position within the period are contested in Ben Tor's study.[17][18] Other sources don't refer to the dynasty as foreign or Hyksos and they were not referred to as "rulers of foreign lands" or "shepherd kings" in kings lists.[19][20][21][22]

The contested rulers (with the translation of their nomens) are:

* Yakbim Sekhaenre ("Yakbim" means "(the goddess) Aya is a rock")
* Ya'ammu Nubwoserre ("Ya'ammu" means "where is the uncle?")
* Qareh Khawoserre ("Qareh" means "the bald one")
* 'Ammu Aahotepre ("'Ammu" could mean "the Asiatic")
* Sheshi Maaibre ("Sheshi" is a Semitic name)[23][24][25]

The most attested, non-contested ruler of the dynasty, Nehesy Aasehre, left his name on two monuments at Avaris. His name means "the Nubian". According to Ryholt, he was the son and direct successor of the pharaoh Sheshi with a Nubian Queen named Tati.[18]

The 14th Dynasty saw great success during their early years, but like the late 13th Dynasty, the rulers were replaced in rapid succession. The 14th Dynasty was overthrown by the Hyksos.[14]

### 15th Dynasty

[edit]

Main articles: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt and Hyksos

The Hyksos established their own dynasty in Egypt, the 15th Dynasty (c.1650 to 1550 BC).[1]: 123  The first king of the 15th Dynasty, Salitis, described as a Hyksos (ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt, a "shepherd" according to Africanus), led his people into an occupation of the Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris. According to Manetho, Salitis is believed to have conquered the entirety of Egypt, however it is more likely that his rule did not extend beyond Lower Egypt. Salitis may be equated to a poorly known king named Sharek, and possibly even Sheshi, the most attested ruler of the Second Intermediate Period.[26][27] The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty.[28]

The 15th Dynasty of Egypt ruled from Avaris but did not control the entire land, leaving some of northern Upper Egypt under the control of both the Abydos Dynasty and the early 16th Dynasty. The 16th Dynasty was ruled not by the Hyksos themselves, but the Thebans.[28]

Fifteenth Dynasty Name  | Image  | Dates and comments

|
|

Salitis | Unattested  | Mentioned by Manetho as first king of the dynasty; currently unidentified with any known archaeologically attested person. Ruled for 19 years according to Manetho, as quoted by Josephus.
Semqen |  | Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the first king of the dynasty; von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[29]
Aperanat |  | Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the second king of the dynasty; von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[29]
Khyan |  | Ruled 10+ years.[30]
Yanassi |  | Khyan's eldest son, possibly at the origin of the mention of a king Iannas in Manetho's Aegyptiaca
Sakir-Har |  | Named as an Hyksos king on a doorjamb found at Avaris. Regnal order uncertain.
Apophis |  | c. 1590?–1550 BC

Ruled 40+ years.[30]

Khamudi |  | c. 1550–1540 BC

It is debated if the movement of the Hyksos was a military invasion or a mass migration of Asiatics from Palestine.[31][1]: 127–128  The settling of Canaanite populations may have occurred peacefully in the wake of the disintegration of the 14th Dynasty.[32][33][4] A recent Strontium isotope analysis also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study didn't find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion (77%) being non-locals.[34][35]

### Abydos Dynasty

[edit]

Main article: Abydos Dynasty

Possible extent of power of the Abydos Dynasty c. 1650 BC - 1600 BC, ruling from Abydos, Egypt

The Abydos Dynasty (c. 1640 to 1620 BC.)[36] may have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was contemporary with the 15th and 16th dynasties. The Abydos Dynasty stayed rather small with rulership over just Abydos or Thinis.[36] Very little is known about the Abydos dynasty, since it was very short-lived, though we do have some king names that appear in Turin king list, but not in any other sources.

The dynasty tentatively includes four rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib, and Senebkay.[36] The Abydos Dynasty ceased when the Hyksos expanded into Upper Egypt.

### 16th Dynasty

[edit]

Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt

The 16th Dynasty (c. 1650-1580 BC) ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt. Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, the 16th Dynasty is described by the more reliable Africanus (supported by Syncellus) as "shepherd [Hyksos] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban.[7]

The continuing war against the 15th Dynasty dominated the short-lived 16th Dynasty. The armies of the 15th Dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on 16th Dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th Dynasty and the 14th Dynasty, also blighted the 16th Dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.

The end of the 16th Dynasty came after relentless military pressure by the succeeding 15th Dynasty after many attempts, with evidence of Nebiryraw I's own personal seals being found in the Hyksos territory. Sometime around 1580 BC, the 16th Dynasty collapsed after being conquered by King Khyan of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty.[37]

### 17th Dynasty

[edit]

Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt

The 17th Dynasty (c.1571-1540 BC)[38] was established by the Thebans quickly after the fall of the 16th. The details of the overthrow of the Hyksos in Thebes are unclear.[38] Sources such as Africanus and Eusebius indicate that the 16th Dynasty comprised shepherd kings (like the 15th Dynasty), but also Theban kings too.[7]

The 17th Dynasty would also see four different ruling families whose last king did not have a male heir to the throne. Subsequently, other powerful families established kings having short reigns.[38] The 17th Dynasty maintained a short-lived peace with the 15th Dynasty, which ended with the start of the reign of Seqenenre (c. 1549-1545 BC), who started a series of wars against the Hyksos. King Kamose (c. 1545-1540 BC) continued the war against the Hyksos as a whole, but his brother Ahmose I would be the king to deal the final blow; he thus became the first king of the New Kingdom 18th Dynasty.[38]

Pharaoh Ahmose I (ruled c. 1549–1524 BC) slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen Ahhotep II. Inscription "Ahmose, beloved of (the War God) Montu". Luxor Museum[39][40][41][42]

### Reunification

[edit]

At the end of the Second Intermediate period, the 18th Dynasty came to power in Egypt. The first king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose, completed the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and consolidated his rule over the land, unifying Upper and Lower Egypt. With that, Ahmose ushered in a new period of prosperity, the New Kingdom.[43]

## Gallery

[edit]

Depiction of an Asiatic (Hyksos) official, with the distinctive "mushroom headed" hairstyle[44]

The 15th Dynasty ruled Lower Egypt from Avaris for a hundred years. It is believed that Avaris was the largest city in the world from 1670 to 1557 BC[45]

Front view of one of the "Hyksos sphinxes" of Amenemhat III, usurped by Hyksos king Apepi

## See also

[edit]

* First Intermediate Period of Egypt
* Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Van de Mieroop, Marc (2021). A history of ancient Egypt. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-62087-7. OCLC 1200833162.
2. ^ Von Beckerath 1964, Ryholt 1997
3. ^ "LacusCurtius • Manetho's History of Egypt — Book II".
4. ^ a b Ilin-Tomich, Alexander. “Second Intermediate Period” (2016).
5. ^ "Second Intermediate Period". escholarship.org. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
6. ^ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. 1997, p.185
7. ^ a b c d "LacusCurtius • Manetho's History of Egypt — Book II".
8. ^ "Second Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-12-31.
9. ^ Daphna Ben Tor: Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant, in: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects edited by Marcel Maree, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 192, 2010, p. 91
10. ^ K.S.B. Ryholt. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C. Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. Copenhagen
11. ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008
12. ^ "14th Dynasty (1797-1640) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
13. ^ a b "13th Dynasty (1783-1640) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
14. ^ a b "14th Dynasty (1797-1640) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
15. ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997)
16. ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997)
17. ^ Ben-Tor, Daphna; Allen, Susan J.; Allen, James P. (August 1999). "Review: Seals and Kings: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B. C. by K. S. B. Ryholt". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 315: 47–74\. doi:10.2307/1357532. JSTOR 1357532. S2CID 155317877.
18. ^ a b Ryholt, Kim (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 101.
19. ^ Grimal, Nicolas (1994). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994). pp. 182–197.
20. ^ "Hyksos". Britannica. July 2024.
21. ^ Shaw, Ian (2004). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 172–206.
22. ^ Ilin-Tomich, Alexander (2016). "Second Intermediate Period". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology: 1–21.
23. ^ Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013-04-30). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 75\. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2.
24. ^ T. Schneider 1998 (sic), 126-127
25. ^ Conflicting with footnote, bibliography lists Schneider, Thomas. 1996. Lexikon der Pharaonen. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.
26. ^ Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Sollberger, E. (1973-05-03). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08230-3.
27. ^ "Salitis | Pharaoh, Hyksos, Dynasty | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
28. ^ a b "15th Dynasty (1640-1522) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
29. ^ a b Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 120–121.
30. ^ a b Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 119\. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.
31. ^ "Hyksos | History, Kings, & Significance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2023-10-27. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
32. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 131–132\. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.
33. ^ Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 5\. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.
34. ^ Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Nowell, Geoff M.; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (2020-07-15). "Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt". PLOS ONE. 15 (7): e0235414. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1535414S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235414. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7363063. PMID 32667937.
35. ^ Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Macpherson, Colin; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (2021-06-01). "Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 13 (6): 105. Bibcode:2021ArAnS..13..105S. doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x. ISSN 1866-9565. S2CID 235271929.
36. ^ a b c "Abydos Dynasty (1640-1620) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
37. ^ "16th Dynasty (1640-1580) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
38. ^ a b c d "17th Dynasty (1571-1540) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
39. ^ Daressy 1906, p. 117.
40. ^ Montet 1968, p. 80\. "Others were later added to them, things which came from the pharaoh Ahmose, like the axe decorated with a griffin and a likeness of the king slaying a Hyksos, with other axes and daggers."
41. ^ Morgan 2010, p. 308\. A color photograph.
42. ^ Baker & Baker 2001, p. 86.
43. ^ "17th Dynasty (1571-1540) | the Ancient Egypt Site".
44. ^ Bader, Bettina. "Cultural Mixing in Egyptian Archaeology:~The 'Hyksos' as a Case Study". Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW).
45. ^ "Tell-el-Daba - History".

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Baker, Rosalie F.; Baker, Charles F. (2001). Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512221-3.
* Daressy, Georges (1906). "Un poignard du temps des Rois Pasteurs". Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte. 7: 115–120.
* Montet, Pierre (1968). Lives of the pharaohs. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 9780600354529.
* Morgan, Lyvia (2010). "An Aegean Griffin in Egypt: The Hunt Frieze at Tell el-Dab´a". Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant. 20: 303–323\. doi:10.1553/AEundL20s303. JSTOR 23789943.

* Von Beckerath, Jürgen. "Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten," Ägyptologische Forschungen, Heft 23. Glückstadt, 1965.
* Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford, 1964, 1961.
* Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II." Chapter 2, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
* James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I." Chapter 8, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
* Kitchen, Kenneth A., "Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History," Chronique d'Égypte, 63 (1968), pp. 313–324.
* Oren, Eliezer D. The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives Philadelphia, 1997.
* Ryholt, Kim. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0
* Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven, 1966.

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