Seleucid Empire

Hellenistic state in West Asia (312–63 BC)

Seleucid Empire

312–63 BC

Inscribed tetradrachm of Seleucus I with symbols of the Seleucid monarchy[a]

Seleucid territory in 281 BC, on the eve of the murder of Seleucus I Nicator

Capital|

* Seleucia (305–240 BC)
* Antioch (240–63 BC)

Common languages|

* Greek (official)[3]
* Old Persian
* Middle Aramaic[3]

Religion

* Olympianism / Hellenism
* Babylonian religion[4]
* Hellenistic Judaism
* Zoroastrianism
* Hinduism[5]
* Greco-Buddhism

Government| Monarchy
List of Seleucid rulers|

• 305–281 BC

| Seleucus I (first)

• 65–63 BC

| Philip II (last)
Historical era| Hellenistic period

• Wars of the Diadochi

| 312 BC

• Battle of Ipsus

| 301 BC

• Roman–Seleucid war

| 192–188 BC

• Treaty of Apamea

| 188 BC

• Maccabean Revolt

| 167–160 BC

• Seleucia taken by Parthians

| 141 BC

• Battle of Ecbatana

| 129 BC

• Annexed by Rome

| 63 BC
Area
303 BC[6]| 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi)
301 BC[6]| 3,900,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi)
240 BC[6]| 2,600,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi)
175 BC[6]| 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi)
100 BC[6]| 100,000 km2 (39,000 sq mi)
Population

• 301 BC[7]

| 30,000,000+

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Macedonian Empire

|

| Parthian Empire |

|

Maurya Empire |
Province of Syria |
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom |
Hasmonean kingdom |
Osroene |

The Seleucid Empire (/sɪˈljuːsɪd/ sih-LEW-sid[8]) was a Greek state[9][10] in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great,[11][12][13][14] and ruled by the Seleucid dynasty until its annexation by the Roman Republic under Pompey in 63 BC.

After receiving the Mesopotamian regions of Babylonia and Assyria in 321 BC, Seleucus I began expanding his dominions to include the Near Eastern territories that encompass modern-day Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Syria, and Lebanon, all of which had been under Macedonian control after the fall of the former Achaemenid Empire. At the Seleucid Empire's height, it had consisted of territory that covered Anatolia, Persia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and what are now modern Kuwait, Afghanistan, and parts of Turkmenistan.

The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture. Greek customs and language were privileged; the wide variety of local traditions had been generally tolerated, while an urban Greek elite had formed the dominant political class and was reinforced by steady immigration from Greece.[14][15][16] The empire's western territories were repeatedly contested with Ptolemaic Egypt—a rival Hellenistic state. To the east, conflict with the Indian ruler Chandragupta of the Maurya Empire in 305 BC led to the cession of vast territory west of the Indus and a political alliance.

In the early second century BC, Antiochus III the Great attempted to project Seleucid power and authority into Hellenistic Greece, but his attempts were thwarted by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies. The Seleucids were forced to pay costly war reparations and had to relinquish territorial claims west of the Taurus Mountains in southern Anatolia, marking the gradual decline of their empire. Mithridates I of Parthia conquered much of the remaining eastern lands of the Seleucid Empire in the mid-second century BC, including Assyria and what had been Babylonia, while the independent Greco-Bactrian Kingdom continued to flourish in the northeast. The Seleucid kings were thereafter reduced to a rump state in Syria after a civil war, until their conquest by Tigranes the Great of Armenia in 83 BC, and ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BC.

## Name

[edit]

Contemporary sources, such as a loyalist decree honoring Antiochus I from Ilium, in Greek language define the Seleucid state both as an empire (ἀρχή, archḗ) and as a kingdom (βασιλεία, basileía). Similarly, Seleucid rulers were described as kings in Babylonia.[17]

The rulers did not describe themselves as being of any particular territory or people, but starting from the 2nd century BC, ancient writers referred to them as the Syrian kings, the kings of Syria or of the Syrians, the kings descended from Seleucus Nicator, the kings of Asia, and other designations.[18]

## History

[edit]

### Partition of Alexander's empire

[edit]

History of Greater Iran

Pre-Islamic

BCE / BC |  Prehistory|

|

Kura–Araxes culture|  c. 3400 – c. 2000
Helmand culture/Jiroft culture|  3300-2200
Proto-Elamite civilization|  3200–2800
Elamite dynasties|  2800–550
Lullubi/Zamua|  3100-675
Marhaši|  2550-2020
Bactria–Margiana Complex|  2400–1700
Gutian Dynasty|  2141-2050
Avestan period|  c. 1500 BCE – 500 BCE
Kingdom of Mannai|  10th–7th century
Neo-Assyrian Empire|  911–609
Urartu|  860–590
Median Empire|  728–550
Scythian Kingdom|  652–625
Achaemenid Empire|  550–330
Ancient kingdom of Armenia|  331 BCE – 428 CE
Seleucid Empire|  330–150
Caucasian Iberia|  c. 302 BCE – 580 CE
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|  250–125
Parthian Empire|  248 BCE–224 CE
Caucasian Albania|  2nd century BCE –
8th century CE
Roman Empire|  27 BCE – 330 CE
CE / AD

* * *

Kushan Empire|  30–275

|

Sasanian Empire|  224–651
Afrighid dynasty|  305–995
Hephthalite Empire|  425–557
Kabul Shahi kingdom|  565–879
Dabuyid dynasty|  642–760
Bagratid Armenia|  880s – 1045
Alania|  8th/9th century – 1238 / 9
Kingdom of Georgia|  1008–1490

Islamic

|  Rashidun Caliphate|  637–651

|

Umayyad Caliphate|  661–750
Abbasid Caliphate|  750–1258
Shirvanshah|  799–1607
Tahirid dynasty|  821–873
Dulafid dynasty|  840–897
Zaydis of Tabaristan|  864–928
Saffarid dynasty|  861–1003
Samanid Empire|  819–999
Sajid dynasty|  889/90–929
Ziyarid dynasty|  928–1043
Buyid dynasty|  934–1055
Sallarid dynasty|  941–1062
Ghaznavid Empire|  975–1187
Ghurid dynasty|  pre-879 – 1215
Seljuk Empire|  1037–1194
Khwarazmian dynasty|  1077–1231
Sultanate of Rum|  1077–1307
Salghurids|  1148–1282
Ilkhanate|  1256–1353
Kart dynasty|  1231–1389
Ottoman Empire|  1299–1923
Muzaffarid dynasty|  1314–1393
Chupanid dynasty|  1337–1357
Jalairid Sultanate|  1339–1432
Timurid Empire|  1370–1507
Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans|  1407–1468
Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans|  1378–1508
Safavid Empire|  1501–1722
Mughal Empire|  1526–1857
Hotak dynasty|  1722–1729
Afsharid Iran|  1736–1750
Zand dynasty|  1750–1794
Durrani Empire|  1794–1826
Qajar Iran|  1794–1925

* v
* t
* e

Main article: Diadochi

Alexander, who quickly conquered the Persian Empire under its last Achaemenid dynast, Darius III, died young in 323 BC, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenised culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent, Perdiccas, and the vast territories were divided among Alexander's generals, who thereby became satraps at the Partition of Babylon, all in that same year.

### Rise of Seleucus

[edit]

Bronze bust of Seleucus I Nicator.

Alexander's generals, known as diadochi, jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire following his death. Ptolemy I Soter, a former general and then current satrap of Egypt, was the first to challenge the new system, which eventually led to the demise of Perdiccas. Ptolemy's revolt created a new subdivision of the empire with the Partition of Triparadisus in 320 BC. Seleucus, who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the Companion cavalry" (hetairoi) and appointed first or court chiliarch (which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas since 323 BC, though he helped to assassinate him later) received Babylonia and, from that point, continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BC, the year later used as the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire.

### Babylonian War (311–309 BC)

[edit]

Main article: Babylonian War

The rise of Seleucus in Babylon threatened the eastern extent of the territory of Antigonus I Monophthalmus in Asia. Antigonus, along with his son Demetrius I Poliorcetes, unsuccessfully led a campaign to annex Babylon. The victory of Seleucus ensured his claim of Babylon and legitimacy. He ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire, as described by the historian Appian:

> Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.[19]

### Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BC)

[edit]

Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war

Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrokottos) founded the Maurya Empire in 321 BC after the conquest of the Nanda Empire and their capital Pataliputra in Magadha. Chandragupta then redirected his attention to the Indus River region, and by 317 BC, he conquered the remaining Greek satraps left by Alexander. Expecting a confrontation, Seleucus gathered his army and marched to the Indus. It is said that Chandragupta could have fielded a conscript army of 600,000 men and 9,000 war elephants.[20]

Chandragupta received, formalized through a treaty, territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and the eastern part of Balochistan province of Pakistan, bordering on the Indus.[21][22] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan. According to Appian:

> He [Seleucus] crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship.[19]

"Chandra Gupta Maurya entertains his bride from Babylon": a conjectural interpretation of the "marriage agreement" between the Seleucids and Chandragupta Maurya, related by Appian.[19]

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants,[23][24][25][26][27] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign, which have been partly preserved to us through Diodorus Siculus. Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[28]

> The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta Maurya) in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.[29]

Other territories ceded before Seleucus' death were Gedrosia in the south-east of the Iranian plateau, and, to the north of this, Arachosia on the west bank of the Indus River.

### Westward expansion

[edit]

Coin of Seleucus I Nicator, showing the king wearing a helmet decorated with leopard skin and bull's horn and ear.

Following his and Lysimachus' decisive victory over Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Seleucus took control over eastern Anatolia and northern Syria.

In the latter area, he founded a new capital at Antioch on the Orontes, a city he named after his father. An alternative capital was established at Seleucia on the Tigris, north of Babylon. Seleucus's empire reached its greatest extent following his defeat of his erstwhile ally, Lysimachus, at Corupedion in 281 BC, after which Seleucus expanded his control to encompass western Anatolia. He hoped further to take control of Lysimachus's lands in Europe – primarily Thrace and even Macedonia itself, but was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus on landing in Europe.

His son and successor, Antiochus I Soter, was left with an enormous realm consisting of nearly all of the Asian portions of the Empire, but faced with Antigonus II Gonatas in Macedonia and Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Egypt, he proved unable to pick up where his father had left off in conquering the European portions of Alexander's empire.

### Breakup of Central Asian territories

[edit]

Gold coin of Diodotus, who asserted independence to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom c. 245 BC. Greek legend reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΟΔΟΤΟΥ, Basileōs Diodotou, "of King Diodotus."  Drachm of the Frataraka ruler Vahbarz (Oborzos), thought to have initiated the independence of Persis from the Seleucid Empire. The coin shows on the reverse an Achaemenid king slaying an armoured, possibly Greek, soldier.[30][31] This possibly refers to the events related by Polyainos (Strat. 7.40), in which Vahbarz (Oborzos) is said to have killed 3000 Seleucid settlers.[32][30][31]

Antiochus I (reigned 281–261 BC) and his son and successor Antiochus II Theos (reigned 261–246 BC) were faced with challenges in the west, including repeated wars with Ptolemy II and a Celtic invasion of Asia Minor—distracting attention from holding the eastern portions of the Empire together. Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign, various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as Bactria and Sogdiana under Diodotus, Cappadocia under Ariarathes III, and Parthia under Andragoras. A few years later, the last was defeated and killed by the invading Parni of Arsaces—the region would then become the core of the Parthian Empire.

Diodotus, the Seleucid governor for the Bactrian territory, asserted independence in around 245 BC, although the exact date is far from certain, to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. This kingdom was characterized by a rich Hellenistic culture and was to continue its domination of Bactria until around 125 BC when it was overrun by the invasion of northern nomads. One of the Greco-Bactrian kings, Demetrius I of Bactria, invaded India around 180 BC to form the Indo-Greek Kingdoms.

The rulers of Persis, called Fratarakas, also seem to have established some level of independence from the Seleucids during the 3rd century BC, especially from the time of Vahbarz. They would later overtly take the title of Kings of Persis, before becoming vassals to the newly formed Parthian Empire.[30][31]

The Seleucid satrap of Parthia, named Andragoras, first claimed independence, in a parallel to the secession of his Bactrian neighbour. Soon after, however, a Parthian tribal chief called Arsaces invaded the Parthian territory around 238 BC to form the Arsacid dynasty, from which the Parthian Empire originated.

Antiochus II's son Seleucus II Callinicus came to the throne around 246 BC. Seleucus II was soon dramatically defeated in the Third Syrian War against Ptolemy III of Egypt and then had to fight a civil war against his own brother Antiochus Hierax. Taking advantage of this distraction, Bactria and Parthia seceded from the empire. In Asia Minor too, the Seleucid dynasty seemed to be losing control: the Gauls had fully established themselves in Galatia, semi-independent semi-Hellenized kingdoms had sprung up in Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and the city of Pergamum in the west was asserting its independence under the Attalid dynasty.[citation needed] The Seleucid economy started to show the first signs of weakness, as Galatians gained independence and Pergamum took control of coastal cities in Anatolia. Consequently, they managed to partially block contact with the West.[33]

### Revival (223–191 BC)

[edit]

Silver coin of Antiochus III the Great. Reverse shows Apollo seated on omphalos holding bow and arrow. Greek legend reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ, Basileōs Antiochou, "of King Antiochus." The Seleucid Empire in 200 BC (before expansion into Anatolia and Greece).

A revival would begin when Seleucus II's younger son, Antiochus III the Great, took the throne in 223 BC. Although initially unsuccessful in the Fourth Syrian War against Egypt, which led to a defeat at the Battle of Raphia (217 BC), Antiochus would prove himself to be the greatest of the Seleucid rulers after Seleucus I himself. He spent the next ten years on his anabasis (journey) through the eastern parts of his domain and restoring rebellious vassals like Parthia and Greco-Bactria to at least nominal obedience. He gained many victories such as the Battle of Mount Labus and Battle of the Arius and besieged the Bactrian capital. He even emulated Seleucus with an expedition into India where he met with King Sophagasenus (Sanskrit: Subhagasena) receiving war elephants, perhaps in accordance of the existing treaty and alliance set after the Seleucid-Mauryan War.

Actual translation of Polybius 11.34 (No other source except Polybius makes any reference to Sophagasenus):

> He [Antiochus] crossed the Caucasus Indicus (Paropamisus) (Hindu Kush) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him.[34] Having traversed Arachosia and crossed the river Enymanthus, he came through Drangene to Carmania; and as it was now winter, he put his men into winter quarters there.[35]

When he returned to the west in 205 BC, Antiochus found that with the death of Ptolemy IV, the situation now looked propitious for another western campaign. Antiochus and Philip V of Macedon then made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions outside of Egypt, and in the Fifth Syrian War, the Seleucids ousted Ptolemy V from control of Coele-Syria. The Battle of Panium (200 BC) definitively transferred these holdings from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus appeared, at the least, to have restored the Seleucid Kingdom to glory.

#### Expansion into Greece and war with Rome

[edit]

Further information: Roman–Seleucid War

The reduced empire (titled: Syria, Kingdom of the Seleucids) and the expanded states of Pergamum and Rhodes, after the defeat of Antiochus III by Rome. Circa 188 BC.

Following the defeat of his erstwhile ally Philip by Rome in 197 BC, Antiochus saw the opportunity for expansion into Greece itself. Encouraged by the exiled Carthaginian general Hannibal, and making an alliance with the disgruntled Aetolian League, Antiochus launched an invasion across the Hellespont. With his huge army he aimed to establish the Seleucid empire as the foremost power in the Hellenic world, but these plans put the empire on a collision course with the new rising power of the Mediterranean, the Roman Republic. At the battles of Thermopylae (191 BC) and Magnesia (190 BC), Antiochus's forces suffered resounding defeats, and he was compelled to make peace and sign the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC), the main clause of which saw the Seleucids agree to pay a large indemnity, to retreat from Anatolia and to never again attempt to expand Seleucid territory west of the Taurus Mountains. The Kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes, Rome's allies in the war, gained the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Antiochus died in 187 BC on another expedition to the east, where he sought to extract money to pay the indemnity.

### Roman power, Parthia and Judea

[edit]

Further information: Seleucid–Parthian Wars and Maccabean Revolt

The Hellenistic Prince, a bronze statue originally thought to be a Seleucid, or Attalus II of Pergamon, now considered a portrait of a Roman general, made by a Greek artist working in Rome in the 2nd century BC.

The reign of his son and successor Seleucus IV Philopator (187–175 BC) was largely spent in attempts to pay the large indemnity, and Seleucus was ultimately assassinated by his minister Heliodorus.

Seleucus' younger brother, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, now seized the throne. He attempted to restore Seleucid power and prestige with a successful war against the old enemy, Ptolemaic Egypt, which met with initial success as the Seleucids defeated and drove the Egyptian army back to Alexandria itself. As the king planned on how to conclude the war, he was informed that Roman commissioners, led by the Proconsul Gaius Popillius Laenas, were near and requesting a meeting with the Seleucid king. Antiochus agreed, but when they met and Antiochus held out his hand in friendship, Popilius placed in his hand the tablets on which was written the decree of the senate and told him to read it. The decree demanded that he should abort his attack on Alexandria and immediately stop waging the war on Ptolemy. When the king said that he would call his friends into council and consider what he ought to do, Popilius drew a circle in the sand around the king's feet with the stick he was carrying and said, "Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate." For a few moments he hesitated, astounded at such a peremptory order, and at last replied, "I will do what the senate thinks right." He then chose to withdraw rather than set the empire to war with Rome again.[36]

On his return journey, according to Josephus, he made an expedition to Judea, took Jerusalem by force, slew a great many who had favored Ptolemy, sent his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and interrupted the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation, for three years and six months.[37]

The latter part of his reign saw a further disintegration of the Empire despite his best efforts. Weakened economically, militarily and by loss of prestige, the Empire became vulnerable to rebels in the eastern areas of the empire, who began to further undermine the empire while the Parthians moved into the power vacuum to take over the old Persian lands. Antiochus' aggressive Hellenizing (or de-Judaizing) activities provoked a full scale armed rebellion in Judea—the Maccabean Revolt.[38] Efforts to deal with both the Parthians and the Jews as well as retain control of the provinces at the same time proved beyond the weakened empire's power. Antiochus orchestrated a military campaign, capturing Artaxias I, King of Armenia, and reoccupying Armenia.[39] His offensive ventured as far as Persepolis, but he was forced from the city by the populace.[40] On his return home, Antiochus died in Isfahan in 164 BC.[41]

### Civil war and further decay

[edit]

Further information: Seleucid Dynastic Wars

Coin of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Reverse with the Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ ΘΕΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΟΥ, Basileōs Antiochou Theou Epiphanous Nikēphorou, "of Victorious God Manifest King Antiochus." Seleucid Syria in early 124 BC under Alexander II Zabinas, who ruled the country with the exception of the city of Ptolemais

After the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Seleucid Empire became increasingly unstable. Frequent civil wars made central authority tenuous at best. Epiphanes' young son, Antiochus V Eupator, was first overthrown by Seleucus IV's son, Demetrius I Soter in 161 BC. Demetrius I attempted to restore Seleucid power in Judea particularly, but was overthrown in 150 BC by Alexander Balas—an impostor who (with Egyptian backing) claimed to be the son of Epiphanes. Alexander Balas reigned until 145 BC when he was overthrown by Demetrius I's son, Demetrius II Nicator. Demetrius II proved unable to control the whole of the kingdom, however. While he ruled Babylonia and eastern Syria from Damascus, the remnants of Balas' supporters—first supporting Balas' son Antiochus VI, then the usurping general Diodotus Tryphon—held out in Antioch.

Meanwhile, the decay of the Empire's territorial possessions continued apace. By 143 BC, the Jews in the form of the Maccabees had fully established their independence. Parthian expansion continued as well. In 139 BC, Demetrius II was defeated in battle by the Parthians and was captured. By this time, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control.

Demetrius Nicator's brother, Antiochus VII Sidetes, took the throne after his brother's capture. He faced the enormous task of restoring a rapidly crumbling empire, one facing threats on multiple fronts. Hard-won control of Coele-Syria was threatened by the Jewish Maccabee rebels. Once-vassal dynasties in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Pontus were threatening Syria and northern Mesopotamia; the nomadic Parthians, brilliantly led by Mithridates I of Parthia, had overrun upland Media (home of the famed Nisean horse herd); and Roman intervention was an ever-present threat. Sidetes managed to bring the Maccabees to heel and frighten the Anatolian dynasts into a temporary submission; then, in 133, he turned east with the full might of the Royal Army (supported by a body of Jews under the Hasmonean prince, John Hyrcanus) to drive back the Parthians.

Coin of Antiochus VII Sidetes from the Sidon mint. With the Eagle of Zeus on the reverse.

Sidetes' campaign initially met with spectacular success, recapturing Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Media. In the winter of 130/129 BC, his army was scattered in winter quarters throughout Media and Persis when the Parthian king, Phraates II, counter-attacked. Moving to intercept the Parthians with only the troops at his immediate disposal, he was ambushed and killed at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. Antiochus Sidetes is sometimes called the last great Seleucid king.

After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes, all of the recovered eastern territories were recaptured by the Parthians. The Maccabees again rebelled, civil war soon tore the empire to pieces, and the Armenians began to encroach on Syria from the north.

### Collapse (100–63 BC)

[edit]

-100

INDO-
GREEKS

SAKAS

Sargat

Shule

SABEANS

MEROË

AKSUM

KUCHA

Tesinsky

WUSUN

Khotan

LOULAN

Ordos
culture

JIN

DONGHU

YUEZHI

KANGJU

Dinglings

Sarmatians

SELEU-
CIDS

PTOLE-
MIES

PARTHIAN
EMPIRE

SUNGAS

SATAVA-
HANAS

HAN
DYNASTY

XIONGNU

class=notpageimage|

Main polities in Asia, circa -100.[42][43][44][45]

Seleucid Kingdom in 87 BC

By 100 BC, the once-formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than Antioch and some Syrian cities. Despite the clear collapse of their power, and the decline of their kingdom around them, nobles continued to play kingmakers on a regular basis, with occasional intervention from Ptolemaic Egypt and other outside powers. The Seleucids existed solely because no other nation wished to absorb them—seeing as they constituted a useful buffer between their other neighbours. In the wars in Anatolia between Mithridates VI of Pontus and Sulla of Rome, the Seleucids were largely left alone by both major combatants.

Mithridates' ambitious son-in-law, Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, however, saw opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he invaded Syria and soon established himself as ruler of Syria, putting the Seleucid Empire virtually at an end.

Seleucid rule was not entirely over, however. Following the Roman general Lucullus' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under Antiochus XIII. Even so, civil wars could not be prevented, as another Seleucid, Philip II, contested rule with Antiochus. After the Roman conquest of Pontus, the Romans became increasingly alarmed at the constant source of instability in Syria under the Seleucids. Once Mithridates was defeated by Pompey in 63 BC, Pompey set about the task of remaking the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces. While client nations like Armenia and Judea were allowed to continue with some degree of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue; doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made Syria into a Roman province.

## Culture

[edit]

Further information: Seleucid coinage

The Antiochus Cylinder written in Akkadian cuneiform c. 250 BC, mentioning Antiochus I, son of Seleucus I "the Macedonian", who restored the temples of Esagila and Ezida in Babylon.[46]

The domain of the Seleucids stretched from the Aegean Sea to what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan, therefore including a diverse array of cultures and ethnic groups. Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Persians, Medes, Mesopotamians, Jews, and more all lived within its bounds. The immense size of the empire gave the Seleucid rulers a difficult balancing act to maintain order, resulting in a mixture of concessions to local cultures to maintain their own practices while also firmly controlling and unifying local elites under the Seleucid banner.

The government established Greek cities and settlements throughout the empire via a program of colonization that encouraged immigration from Greece; both city settlements as well as rural ones were created that were inhabited by ethnic Greeks. These Greeks were given good land and privileges, and in exchange were expected to serve in military service for the state. Despite being a tiny minority of the overall population, these Greeks were the backbone of the empire: loyal and committed to a cause that gave them vast territory to rule, they overwhelmingly served in the military and government. Unlike Ptolemaic Egypt, Greeks in the Seleucid Empire seem to rarely have engaged in mixed marriages with non-Greeks; they kept to their own cities.

The various non-Greek peoples of the empire were still influenced by the spread of Greek thought and culture, a phenomenon referred to as Hellenization. Historically significant towns and cities, such as Antioch, were created or renamed with Greek names, and hundreds of new cities were established for trade purposes and built in Greek style from the start.[47] Local educated elites who needed to work with the government learned the Greek language, wrote in Greek, absorbed Greek philosophical ideas, and took on Greek names; some of these practices then slowly filtered down to the lower classes. Hellenic ideas began an almost 250-year expansion into the Near East, Middle East, and Central Asian cultures.

Statue of Heracles Callinicus at Behistun, made for a Seleucid governor named Cleomenes in about 148 BC.

Synthesizing Hellenic and indigenous cultural, religious, and philosophical ideas – an ethnic unity framework established by Alexander – met with varying degrees of success. The result was times of simultaneous peace and rebellion in various parts of the empire. In general, the Seleucids allowed local religions to operate undisturbed, such as incorporating Babylonian religious tenets, to gain support.[48] Tensions around the integration of Judaism were present during the reign of the Seleucid governments. Though previous governments had managed a relatively seamless integration of Judean religious and cultural practices, the rule of Antiochus IV introduced significant changes. Antiochus IV instigated a bidding process for the High Priest position—this led to Menelaus, a radical Hellenist, outbidding Jason, a moderate Hellenist who upheld many traditional Judean practices.[49] The shift from Jason to Menelaus unsettled the Jewish populace due to Menelaus's more extreme Hellenistic leanings.[50] Aggravating the situation, Antiochus IV initiated a series of religious persecutions. This cumulated in a localized revolt in Jerusalem. Antiochus IV's violent retaking of the city and the banning of traditional Judean practices led to the eventual loss of control of Judea by the Seleucid government, paving the way for the rise of an independent Hasmonean kingdom.

## Military

[edit]

Main article: Seleucid army

Bagadates I (Minted 290–280 BC) was the first native Seleucid satrap to be appointed.[51]

As with the other major Hellenistic armies, the Seleucid army fought primarily in the Greco-Macedonian style, with its main body being the phalanx. The phalanx was a large, dense formation of men armed with small shields and a long pike called the sarissa. This form of fighting had been developed by the Macedonian army in the reign of Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great. Alongside the phalanx, the Seleucid armies used numerous native and mercenary troops to supplement their Greek forces, which were limited due to the distance from the Seleucid rulers' Macedonian homeland. The size of the Seleucid army usually varied between 70,000 and 200,000 in manpower.

The distance from Greece put a strain on the Seleucid military system, as it was primarily based around the recruitment of Greeks as the key segment of the army. In order to increase the population of Greeks in their kingdom, the Seleucid rulers created military settlements. There were two main periods in the establishment of settlements, firstly under Seleucus I Nicator and Antiochus I Soter and then under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The military settlers were given land, "varying in size according to rank and arm of service'.[52] They were settled in 'colonies of an urban character, which at some point could acquire the status of a polis".[53] The settler-soldiers were called katoikoi; they would maintain the land as their own and in return, they would serve in the Seleucid army when called. The majority of settlements were concentrated in Lydia, northern Syria, the upper Euphrates and Media. Antiochus III brought Greeks from Euboea, Crete and Aetolia and settled them in Antioch.[54]

These Greek settlers would be used to form the Seleucid phalanx and cavalry units, with picked men put into the kingdom's guards' regiments. The rest of the Seleucid army would consist of native and mercenary troops, who would serve as light auxiliary troops. While the Seleucids were happy to recruit from less populated and outlying parts of the Empire such as the Arabs and Jews, Iranian peoples in the east, and inhabitants of Asia Minor to the north, they generally eschewed recruiting native Syrians and native Mesopotamians (Babylonians). This was presumably mostly from a desire not to train and arm the people who were an overwhelming majority in the trade and governmental centers of the Empire in Antioch and Babylon, risking revolt. While a revolt in a remote place could be put down by resolute action from the center, an uprising in Syria-Coele would have undermined the kingdom's very existence.[55]

Following losses of territory in Asia Minor during the Roman-Seleucid War, King Antiochus IV sponsored a new wave of immigration and settlements to replace them and maintain enough Greeks to staff the phalanxes seen at the military parade at Daphne in 166–165 BC. Antiochus IV built 15 new cities "and their association with the increased phalanx... at Daphne is too obvious to be ignored".[56]

## Economy

[edit]

As a hegemonic empire, much of the state's wealth accumulation centered around maintaining its sizable military.[57][58][59][60] While the motive is simple enough, the Seleucid Empire boasts of a sophisticated political economy that extracts wealth from local temples, cities (or poleis), and royal estates; much of which was inherited from their Achaemenid predecessors. Recent discussion indicates a market-oriented economy under the Seleucids.[60] However, evidencing limits our understanding of the Seleucid economy to the Hellenistic Near-East; that is, through their holdings in Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. Little is known about the economy of the Upper Satrapies.

### Monetization

[edit]

Gold octodrachm of Antiochus III; Antioch mint 204-197 BC.

Currency plays an increasingly central role under the Seleucids; however, monetization was nothing new in their newly acquired lands.[60] Rather, the introduction and widespread implementation of currency is attributed to Darius I's tax reforms centuries prior;[60] hence, the Seleucids see a continuation rather than shift in this practice, i.e. the payment of taxation in silver or, if necessary, in kind.[57] In this regard, the Seleucids are notable for paying their sizeable armies exclusively in silver.[59] Nevertheless, there are two significant developments of currency during the Seleucid period: the adoption of the "Attic Standard" in certain regions,[60] and the popularization of bronze coinage.[59]

The adoption of the Attic standard was not uniform across the realm. The Attic standard was already the common currency of the Mediterranean prior to Alexander's conquest; that is, it was the preferred currency for foreign transactions.[59] As a result, coastal regions under the Seleucids—Syria and Asia Minor—were quick to adopt the new standard.[59] In Mesopotamia, however, the millennia-old shekel (weighing 8.33 g silver) prevailed over the Attic standard.[59] According to Historian R. J. van der Spek, this is due to their particular method in recording price, which favored bartering over monetary transactions.[60] The Mesopotamians used the value of one shekel as a fixed reference point, against which the amount of a good is given.[60][61] Prices themselves are accounted in terms of their weight in silver per ton, e.g., 60 g silver, barley, June 242 BC.[61] The minute difference in weight between a shekel and didrachm (weighing 8.6 g silver) could not be expressed in this barter system, and a Greek tetradrachm would be "a far too heavy denomination...in daily trade."[60]

Bronze coinage, dating from the late fifth and fourth century, was popularized as a "fiduciary" currency facilitating "small-scale exchanges" in the Hellenistic period.[60][59] It was principally a legal tender which circulated only around its locales of production; however, the great Seleucid mint at Antioch during Antiochus III's reign (which Numismatist Arthur Houghton dubs "The Syrian and Coele-Syrian Experiment") began minting bronze coins (weighing 1.25–1.5g) to serve a "regional purpose."[62] The reasons behind this remain unclear. However, Spek notes a chronic shortage of silver in the Seleucid empire.[60] In fact, Antiochus I's heavy withdrawal of silver from a satrap is noted by the Babylonian astronomical diaries (AD No. – 273 B 'Rev. 33'): "purchases in Babylon and other cities were made in Greek bronze coins."[60] This was unprecedented because "in official documents [bronze coins] played no part";[60] it was a sign of "hardship" for the Seleucids.[60] Nevertheless, the low denomination of bronze coinage meant it was used in tandem with bartering; making it a popular and successful medium of exchange.[59]

### Agriculture

[edit]

Main article: Seleucid agriculture

Agriculture, like most pre-modern economies, constituted a vast majority of the Seleucid economy. Somewhere between 80 and 90% of the Seleucid population was employed,[57] in some form, within the prevailing agricultural structures inherited from their Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid predecessors.[59] These included temples, poleis, and royal estates. We should clarify that the term poleis, according to Spek, did not confer any special status to cities in the Seleucid sources; it was simply the term for "city"—Greek or otherwise.[57] Regardless, agricultural produce varied from region to region. But in general, Greek poleis produced: "grain, olives and their oil, wine...figs, cheese from sheep and goats, [and] meat."[59] Whereas Mesopotamian production from temple land consisted of: "barley, dates, mustard (or cascuta/dodder), cress (cardamom), sesame and wool"; which, as the core region of the Seleucid empire, was also the most productive.[60][57] Recent evidence indicates that Mesopotamian grain production, under the Seleucids, was subject to market forces of supply and demand.[60] Traditional "primitivist" narratives of the ancient economy argue that it was "marketless"; however, the Babylonian astronomical diaries show a high degree of market integration of barley and date prices—to name a few—in Seleucid Babylonia.[61] Prices exceeding 370g silver per ton in Seleucid Mesopotamia was considered a sign of famine. Therefore, during periods of war, heavy taxation, and crop failure, prices increase drastically. In an extreme example, Spek believes tribal Arab raiding into Babylonia caused barley prices to skyrocket to 1493 grams of silver per ton from 5–8 May, 124 BC.[61] The average Mesopotamian peasant, if working for a wage at a temple, would receive 1 shekel; it "was a reasonable monthly wage for which one could buy one kor of grain= 180 [liters]."[61] While this appears dire, we should be reminded that Mesopotamia under the Seleucids was largely stable and prices remained low.[60] With encouraged Greek colonization and land reclamation increasing the supply of grain production, however, the question of whether this artificially kept prices stable is uncertain.[60]

The Seleucids also continued the tradition of actively maintaining the Mesopotamian waterways. As the greatest source of state income, the Seleucid kings actively managed the irrigation, reclamation, and population of Mesopotamia.[60] In fact, canals were often dug by royal decrees, to which "some were called the King's Canal for that reason."[57] For example, the construction of the Pallacottas canal was able to control the water level of the Euphrates which, as Arrian notes in his Anabasis 7.21.5, required: "over two months of work by more than 10,000 Assyrians."[57]

### Role of the state–political economy

[edit]

Portrait of a young Seleucid prince. Marble, 2nd century BC.

As a hegemonic empire, the state's primary focus was maintaining its sizable army via wealth extraction from three major sources:[59] tribute from autonomous poleis and temples, and proportional land-tax from royal land.[63][64] The definition of "royal land" remains contested. While all agree poleis do not constitute royal land, some remain uncertain over the status of temple land.[65][63] Yet, they commanded notable economic power and functioned almost independently from the state.[58] Nevertheless, the Seleucid manner of extraction, in contrast to earlier regimes, is considered more "aggressive" and "predatory".[64][58] In theory, the Seleucid state was an absolute monarchy that did not recognize private property in our modern sense.[65] Any land that was not delegated to the poleis or temples was considered private property of the sovereign;[65] thus, considered as Royal Land and liable to direct tax by the state. Here, a "proportional land-tax", that is, a tax based on the size of one's plot, is collected by the local governor (or Satrap) and sent to the capital.[63] However, there is no evidence for the amount that was taxed on any given region.

Tribute was heavily levied on poleis and temples. Although tribute is paid annually, the amount demanded increases significantly during wartime. During a civil war in 149 BC, Demetrius II demanded the province of Judaea to pay 300 talents of silver, which was seen as "severe."[63] But this was far from an isolated case. In fact, the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries in 308/7 BC note a hefty 50% tax on harvest "from the lands of the temple of Shamash (in Sipprar or Larsa)."[65] Nevertheless, annual tribute was "a long-accepted and uncontroversial practice."[58] Also, royal land was regularly donated to the temples and poleis; albeit under the assumption that a greater share of revenue is given to the state in exchange.[65][64]

The controversial practice of temple "despoliation", however, was a regular occurrence under the Seleucids—in contrast to earlier times.[58] Although the Seleucid kings were aware and appreciated the sacrosanctity of religious treasures, their concentration in these places "proved irresistible" in the face of "short-term fiscal constraints."[58] As an example, Antiochus III's despoliation of the Anahit Temple in Ecbatana, wherein he procured 4000 silver talents, was used to fund his Great Eastern campaign.[58] According to historian Michael J. Taylor:[58]

> It is difficult to believe that these monarchs who knew enough to bow before Nabu, bake bricks for Esagil, and enforce kosher regulations in Jerusalem, would be blithely aware of the political hazards of removing Temple treasures. It is more likely that they knew the risks but took them anyway.

A rebellion in 169 BC during Antiochus III's campaign in Egypt demonstrates that these "risks" occasionally backfire.[64] The increasingly bold interference is due, in large part, to the appointment of provincial high-priests by the monarch himself.[64][57] Often they were his court "favorites",[57] whose prerogatives were purely administrative; essentially, they served to collect tribute for the state.[64] Unsurprisingly: "native elites profoundly feared that the arrival of a Seleucid official might quickly cascade into a wholesale removal of Temple treasures."[58]

### Academic discussion

[edit]

Interpretations on the Seleucid economy since the late 19th century traditionally fell between the "modernist" and "primitivist" camps.[60][59] On one hand, the modernist view—largely associated with Michael Rostovtzeff and Eduard Meyer—argues that the Hellenistic economies operated along price-setting markets with capitalist enterprises exported over long distances in "completely monetarized markets."[59] On the other hand, the primitivist view—associated with M.I. Finley, Karl Polanyi and Karl Bücher—interprets ancient economies as "autarchic" in nature with little to no interaction among each other. However, recent discussion has since criticized these models for their grounding on "Greco-centric" sources.[57][66]

Recent discussion has since rejected these traditional dichotomies.[60][59][66] According to Spek and Reger, the current view is that the Seleucid economy—and Hellenistic economies more broadly—were partially market-oriented, and partially monetarized.[60] While the market was subject to forces of supply and demand, a majority of produce was still consumed by their producers and was, hence, "invisible" to the observer.[60][59]

## Family tree of Seleucids

[edit]

Main articles: Seleucid dynasty and Seleucid dynasty Family tree

## See also

[edit]

* Ancient Greece portal

* Seleucid army
* Seleucid dynasty
* Hellenistic period
* Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
* Hasmonean dynasty
* Indo-Greek Kingdom
* Parthian Empire
* Cilician pirates

## References

[edit]

1. ^ The horned horse, the elephant, the anchor, and the goddesses Nike and Tyche were common Seleucid symbols.[1][2]

1. ^ Cohen, Getzel M; The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa, p. 13.
2. ^ Lynette G. Mitchell; Every Inch a King: Comparative Studies on Kings and Kingship in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, pp. 123–124.
3. ^ a b Richard N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, (Ballantyne, 1984), 164;"Greek was the official and dominant written language of the Seleucid empire, but Aramaic continued in use.."
4. ^ Julye Bidmead, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia, (Gorgias, 2004), 143.
5. ^ Primer of Hinduism, p. 81, J. N. Farquhar, Asian Educational Services
6. ^ a b c d e Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth–Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. JSTOR 1170959.
7. ^ Grant, Michael (1990). The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra. History of Civilisation. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 21–24, 48. ISBN 0-297-82057-5.
8. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "Seleucid, n. and adj." Oxford University Press, 1911.
9. ^ Niknami, Kamal-Aldin; Hozhabri, Ali (2020). Archaeology of Iran in the Historical Period. Springer. p. viii. ISBN 978-3-030-41776-5. "Most of the Asiatic occupations of Alexander, Iran as the core of them, were given to Seleucus I at first. Thus, Iran came under the ruling of the Seleucid. The Seleucid was a Greek state that commanded Western Asia between 312 and 64 BC. The Seleucid Empire was founded by Seleucus I."
10. ^ Eckstein, Arthur M. (2009). Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome. University of California Press. p. 106\. ISBN 978-0-520-25992-8. "By 201–200 it appeared that the old structure would be replaced by a expansion in the power of two already formidable Greek states–Antigonid Macedon and the Seleucid Empire–or perhaps even that one of these two formidable powers would emerge the sole victor."
11. ^ Jones, Kenneth Raymond (2006). Provincial reactions to Roman imperialism: the aftermath of the Jewish revolt, A.D. 66–70, Parts 66–70. University of California, Berkeley. p. 174\. ISBN 978-0-542-82473-9. "... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners."
12. ^ Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) (1993). The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113–114. Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. p. 211\. "The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander."
13. ^ Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 37\. ISBN 978-0-521-68974-8. "The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel...As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids."
14. ^ a b Glubb, John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34\. OCLC 585939. "In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population."
15. ^ Hause, Steven C.; Maltby, William S. (2004). Western civilization: a history of European society. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-534-62164-3. "The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite."
16. ^ Victor, Royce M. (2010). Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading. Continuum. p. 55\. ISBN 978-0-567-24719-3. "Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed."
17. ^ Sherwin-White & Kuhrt 1993, p. 40.
18. ^ Nigel Wilson (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 652\. ISBN 9781136788000.
19. ^ a b c Appian, History of Rome, "The Syrian Wars" Archived 4 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine 55
20. ^ Pliny, Natural History VI, 22.4
21. ^ Vincent A. Smith (1972). Aśoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1303-1.
22. ^ Clark, Walter Eugene (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology". Classical Philology. 14 (4): 297–313\. doi:10.1086/360246. S2CID 161613588.
23. ^ Vijay Katchroo. Ancient India, p. 196
24. ^ William Hunter. The Imperial Gazetteer of India. p. 167
25. ^ C. D. Darlington. The evolution of man and society. p. 223
26. ^ Tarn, W. W. (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 60: 84–94\. doi:10.2307/626263. JSTOR 626263. S2CID 163980490.
27. ^ Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Gotham Books. ISBN 1-59240-053-1.
28. ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21 Archived 28 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
29. ^ "Strabo 15.2.1(9)".
30. ^ a b c Engels, David (201). "Iranian Identity and Seleucid Allegiance: Vahbarz, the Frataraka and Early Arsacid Coinage". In K. Erickson (ed.). The Seleukid Empire, 281–222 BC: War within the Family. Swansea. pp. 173–196.
31. ^ a b c Erickson, Kyle (2018). The Seleukid Empire 281–222 BC: War Within the Family. ISD LLC. p. 175\. ISBN 9781910589953.
32. ^ Kosmin, Paul J. (2018). Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. p. 207\. ISBN 9780674976931.
33. ^ Castrén, Paavo (2011). Uusi antiikin historia (in Finnish). Otava. p. 244\. ISBN 978-951-1-21594-3.
34. ^ Kosmin 2014, pp. 35–36.
35. ^ Polybius, Histories, Book 11, 1889, p. 78, trans. Friedrich Otto Hultsch, Evelyn Shirley Shuckburgh
36. ^ "Livy's History of Rome". mu.edu.
37. ^ Flavius Josephus, The War of the Jews 1.1§2 Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
38. ^ Chanukah, Shabbat 21b, Babylonian Talmud
39. ^ Debevoise 1938, p. 20.
40. ^ Debevoise 1938, pp. 20–21.
41. ^ Debevoise 1938, p. 21.
42. ^ Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 March 2015). Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 138\. ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3.
43. ^ Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. 2002. p. 51\. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
44. ^ Fauve, Jeroen (2021). The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies. Ibidem Press. p. 403\. ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1.
45. ^ Török, Tibor (July 2023). "Integrating Linguistic, Archaeological and Genetic Perspectives Unfold the Origin of Ugrians". Genes. 14 (7): Figure 1. doi:10.3390/genes14071345. ISSN 2073-4425. PMC 10379071. PMID 37510249.
46. ^ Haubold, Johannes (2013). Greece and Mesopotamia: Dialogues in Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 135\. ISBN 9781107010765.
47. ^ Kosmin 2014, pp. 106–107.
48. ^ Julye Bidmead, The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia, 143.
49. ^ Tcherikover, Victor (2004). Hellenistic civilization and the jews (Reprint ed., 2. print ed.). Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson. ISBN 978-1-56563-476-3.
50. ^ Brutti, Maria (1 January 2006). The Development of the High Priesthood during the pre-Hasmonean Period: History, Ideology, Theology. BRILL. doi:10.1163/9789047408758_006. ISBN 978-90-474-0875-8. S2CID 244761541.
51. ^ "History of Iran: Seleucid Empire". iranchamber.com.
52. ^ Head, 1982, p. 20
53. ^ Chaniotis, 2006, p. 86
54. ^ Chaniotis, 2006, p. 85
55. ^ Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (1989). Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–111\. ISBN 0521323525. . For the dismissive Greek attitudes toward Syrians, Bar-Kochva is citing Martin Hengel's 1976 work Juden, Griechen und Barbaren, p. 77.
56. ^ Griffith, 1935, p. 153
57. ^ a b c d e f g h i j van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2000). "The Seleucid State and the Economy" In Production and Public Powers in Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society Supplementary. pp. 27–36\. ISBN 978-0906014257.
58. ^ a b c d e f g h i Taylor, Michael J. (2014). "Sacred Plunder and the Seleucid Near East". Greece & Rome. 62 (2): 222–241\. doi:10.1017/S0017383514000175. JSTOR 43297500. S2CID 162810470.
59. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Reger, Gary (2003). "The Economy" in "A Companion to the Hellenistic World" by Andrew Erskine. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing Limited. pp. 331–353\. ISBN 978-1-4051-3278-7.
60. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2004). "Palace, Temple and Market in Seleucid Babylonia". Topoi: 303–332 - via Academia.[permanent dead link]
61. ^ a b c d e van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (2014). "The Volatility of Prices of Barley and Dates in Babylon in the Third and Second Centuries BC." In Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History, by Heather D. Baker and Michael Jursa. Oxford and Philadelphia: Oxbow Books. pp. 234–259\. doi:10.2307/j.ctvh1dn9m.15. ISBN 9781782977582.
62. ^ Houghton, Arthur (2003). "Some Observations on Coordinated Bronze Currency Systems in Seleucid Syria and Phoenicia". Israel Numismatic Journal. 15: 35–47 - via Academia.
63. ^ a b c d Mittwoch, A. (1955). "Tribute and Land-tax in Seleucid Judaea". Biblica. 36. No.3 (3): 352–361\. JSTOR 42619061.
64. ^ a b c d e f Gilles, Gorre; Honigman, Sylvie (January 2013). Egitto: Dai Faraoni Agli Arabi." Kings, Taxes and High Priests: Comparing the Ptolemaic and Seleukid Policies. Milan: Dipartimento di Studi letterari, filologicie linguistici dell'Università degli Studi di Milano. pp. 105–119\. ISBN 978-8862276412.
65. ^ a b c d e van der Spek, Robartus Johannes (1993). "New Evidence on Seleucid Land Policy". In De Agricultura: In Memoriam Pieter Willem de Neeve, by Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Pieter Willem de Neeve. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben. pp. 303–332\. ISBN 978-90-50-63070-2 - via Research Gate.
66. ^ a b Aphergis, Gerassmimos George (October 2008). "The Seleucid Economy". The Classical Review. 58 (2): 520–522\. JSTOR 20482569.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Debevoise, Neilson C. (1938). A Political History of Parthia. University of Chicago Press.
* Grainger, John D. (2020) [1st pub. 2015]. The Seleucid Empire of Antiochus III. 223–187 BC (Paperback ed.). Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-52677-493-4.
* Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
* Sherwin-White, Susan; Kuhrt, Amelie (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-520-08183-3.

## Further reading

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* Overtoom, Nikolaus (2020). Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197680223.
* Chrubasik, Boris (2016). Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire: The Men who would be King. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198786924.
* G. G. Aperghis, The Seleukid Royal Economy. The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire, Cambridge, 2004.
* Laurent Capdetrey, Le pouvoir séleucide. Territoire, administration, finances d'un royaume hellénistique (312–129 avant J.C.). (Collection "Histoire"). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2007.
* D. Engels, Benefactors, Kings, Rulers. Studies on the Seleukid Empire between East and West, Leuven, 2017 (Studia Hellenistica 57).
* A. Houghton, C. Lorber, Seleucid Coins. A Comprehensive Catalogue, Part I, Seleucus I through Antiochus III, With Metrological Tables by B. Kritt, I-II, New York – Lancaster – London, 2002.
* R. Oetjen (ed.), New Perspectives in Seleucid History, Archaeology and Numismatics: Studies in Honor of Getzel M. Cohen, Berlin – Boston: De Gruyter, 2020
* Michael J. Taylor, Antiochus the Great (Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2013).
* Wünsch, Julian (2022). Großmacht gegen lokale Machthaber: die Herrschaftspraxis der Seleukiden an den Rändern ihres Reiches. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 9783447119054.

## External links

[edit]

Library resources about
Seleucid Empire

* * *

* Online books
* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Livius, The Seleucid Empire Archived 19 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine by Jona Lendering
* Genealogy of the Seleucids
* Seleucid Research Bibliography, compiled and maintained by the Seleucid Study Group Archived 24 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
* "Persia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 187–252.

* v
* t
* e

Timeline of Mesopotamia

|  | Northwestern Mesopotamia | Northern Mesopotamia | Southern Mesopotamia

|
|
|

c. 3500–2350 BCE  | Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3  | Uruk period / Jemdet Nasr period / Early Dynastic period
c. 2350–2200 BCE  | Akkadian Empire
c. 2200–2100 BCE  | Gutians
c. 2100–2000 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Ur
c. 2000–1800 BCE  | Mari and other Amorite city-states | Old Assyrian period | Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states
c. 1800–1600 BCE  | Old Hittite Kingdom | Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians)
c. 1600–1400 BCE  | Mitanni (Hurrians)  | Karduniaš (Kassites)
c. 1400–1200 BCE  | Hittite Empire |  | Middle Assyria
c. 1200–1150 BCE  | Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples")  | Arameans
c. 1150–911 BCE  | Phoenicia | Neo-Hittite
city-states | Aram-
Damascus | Arameans | Middle Babylonia | Chal-
de-
ans
911–729 BCE  | Neo-Assyrian Empire
729–609 BCE  |  |
626–539 BCE  | Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldeans)
539–331 BCE  | Achaemenid Empire
336–301 BCE  | Macedonian Empire (Ancient Greeks and Macedonians)
311–129 BCE  | Seleucid Empire
129–63 BCE  | Seleucid Empire | Parthian Empire
63 BCE–224 CE  | Ancient Rome \- Byzantine Empire (Syria)
224–mid 7C  | Sassanid Empire

* v
* t
* e

Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography|

| Modern|

* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Mesopotamian Marshes
* Persian Gulf
* Syrian Desert
* Taurus Mountains
* Tigris–Euphrates river system
* Euphrates
* Tigris
* Zagros Mountains
* Hamrin Mountains
* Sinjar Mountains

|

Ancient|

* Fertile Crescent
* Adiabene
* Akkad
* Armani
* Assyria
* Babylonia
* Chaldea
* Elam
* Gutium
* Hamazi
* Hittites
* Kassites
* Media
* Mitanni
* Simurrum
* Subartu
* Suhum
* Sumer
* Tukri
* Urartu
* Cities

(Pre)history|

| Prehistory|

* Acheulean
* Mousterian
* Trialetian
* Zarzian
* Natufian
* Nemrik
* Khiamian
* Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
* Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
* Hassuna/Samarra
* Halaf
* Ubaid
* Uruk
* Jemdet Nasr
* Kish civilization

|

History|

* Early Dynastic
* Akkadian
* Gutians
* Simurrum
* Ur III
* Isin-Larsa
* Old Babylonian
* Kassite
* Middle Babylonian
* Neo-Assyrian
* Neo-Babylonian
* Fall of Babylon
* Achaemenid
* Seleucid
* Parthian
* Roman
* Sasanian
* Muslim conquest

Languages|

* Akkadian
* Amorite
* Aramaic
* Eblaite
* Elamite
* Gutian
* Hittite
* Hurrian
* Kassite
* Luwian
* Median
* Middle Persian
* Old Persian
* Parthian
* Proto-Armenian
* Sutean
* Sumerian
* Urartian

Culture/society|

* Agriculture
* Architecture
* Art
* Akitu
* Cuneiform
* Babylonian astronomy
* Babylonian mathematics
* Akkadian literature
* Economy of Sumer
* Warfare in Sumer
* Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Sumerian cuisine
* Sumerian literature
* Music
* Indus-Mesopotamia relations
* Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
* Royal titles
* List of rulers

Archaeology|

* Looting
* Destruction by ISIL
* Tell

Religion|

* Sumerian religion
* Babylonian religion
* Deities
* Mesopotamian myths
* Divination
* Prayers
* Ziggurat (Temple)

Academia|

* Assyriology
* Assyriologists
* Hittitology
* Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
* Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
* Chicago Hittite Dictionary

* v
* t
* e

The division of Alexander's empire

* v
* t
* e

Empires

Ancient
(colonies)|

* Akkadian
* Armenian
* Urartu
* Orontid
* Ancient
* Assyrian
* Middle Assyrian
* Neo-Assyrian
* Babylonian
* Old Babylonian
* Kassite
* Neo-Babylonian
* Chinese
* Qin
* Han
* Jin
* Dʿmt
* Egyptian
* Old Kingdom
* Middle Kingdom
* New Kingdom
* Goguryeo
* Harsha
* Hellenistic
* Macedonian
* Seleucid
* Ptolemaic
* Bactrian
* Indo-Greek
* Hittite
* Hunnic
* White
* Xiongnu
* Iranian
* Median
* Achaemenid
* Parthian
* Sasanian
* Kush
* Kushan
* Magadha
* Haryanka
* Shaishunaga
* Nanda
* Maurya
* Shunga
* Gupta
* Phoenician
* Carthaginian
* Roman
* Western
* Eastern
* Satavahana
* Neo-Sumerian
* Xianbei
* Rouran

Post-classical|

* Angevin
* Aragonese
* Armenian
* Bagratid
* Vaspurakan
* Artsakh
* Cilician
* Zakarid
* Ayyubid
* Aztec
* Benin
* Bornu
* Bruneian
* Bulgarian
* First
* Second
* Burmese
* First
* Calakmul
* Caliphate
* Rashidun
* Umayyad
* Abbasid
* Fatimid
* Chalukya
* Western
* Eastern
* Chinese
* Sui
* Tang
* Liao
* Song
* Jīn
* Yuan
* Chola
* Ethiopian
* Aksum
* Zagwe
* Solomonic
* Genoese
* Georgian
* Huetar
* Inca
* Kannauj
* Pala
* Gurjara-Pratihara
* Rashtrakuta
* Iranian
* Tahirid
* Saffarid
* Samanid
* Buyid
* Japanese
* Yamato
* Kamakura
* Muromachi
* Edo
* Kanem
* Khmer
* Latin
* Lithuanian
* Grand Duchy
* Commonwealth
* Majapahit
* Mali
* Mongol
* Yuan
* Golden Horde
* Chagatai Khanate
* Ilkhanate
* Moroccan
* Idrisid
* Almoravid
* Almohad
* Norwegian
* North Sea
* Oyo
* Polish
* Kingdom
* Commonwealth
* Roman
* Byzantine
* Nicaea
* Thessalonica
* Trebizond
* Epirus
* Morea
* Romano-Germanic
* Carolingian
* Holy Roman
* Serbian
* Singhasari
* Songhai
* Srivijaya
* Tibetan
* Tikal
* Tiwanaku
* Toltec
* Turco-Persian
* Ghaznavid
* Great Seljuk
* Khwarezmian
* Timurid
* Turkic
* First
* Western
* Eastern
* Second
* Türgesh
* Uighur
* Kyrgyz
* Venetian
* Vietnamese
* Dinh
* Early Le
* Ly
* Tran
* Ho
* Later Tran
* Later Le
* Vijayanagara
* Wagadou
* Wari

Modern|

* Afghan
* Ashanti
* Austro-Hungarian
* Brazilian
* Burmese
* Second
* Third
* Central African
* Chinese
* Ming
* Qing
* China
* Manchukuo
* Contemporary
* Ethiopian
* Haitian
* First
* Second
* French
* First
* Second
* German
* German Empire
* Nazi Germany
* Indian
* Indo-Persian
* Mughal
* Sikh
* Iranian
* Safavid
* Afsharid
* Zand
* Qajar
* Pahlavi
* Japanese
* Korean
* Maratha
* Mexican
* First
* Second
* Mongol
* Oirat
* Khoshut
* Dzungar
* Kalmyk
* Bogd
* Moroccan
* Saadi
* 'Alawi
* Polish
* Russian
* Tsarist
* Imperial
* Contemporary
* Sokoto
* Somali
* Isaaq
* Swedish
* Tongan
* Vietnamese
* Mạc
* Revival Lê
* Tay Sơn
* Dainam
* Vietnam

| Colonial|

* American
* Austrian
* attempts
* Belgian
* British
* English
* Scottish
* Chinese
* Danish
* Dutch
* French
* German
* attempts
* Italian
* Venetian
* Genoese
* Maltese
* attempts
* Japanese
* Mongol
* Norwegian
* Omani
* Ottoman
* Polish–Lithuanian
* Couronian
* attempts
* Portuguese
* Russian
* Spanish
* Catalan-Aragonese
* Basque
* Swedish

|

Lists|

* Empires
* largest
* Ancient great powers
* Medieval great powers
* Modern great powers
* European colonialism
* African empires

Miscellaneous|

* Academic
* Anti-imperialism
* Cultural
* Ecological
* Green
* Media
* Liberal
* Linguistic
* Social
* Soviet
* Theories
* U.S.

* v
* t
* e

Hellenistic rulers

Argeads|

* Philip II
* Alexander III the Great
* Philip III Arrhidaeus
* Alexander IV

Antipatrids|

* Cassander
* Philip IV
* Alexander V
* Antipater II
* Antipater Etesias
* Sosthenes

Antigonids|

* Antigonus I Monophthalmus
* Demetrius I Poliorcetes
* Antigonus II Gonatas
* Demetrius II Aetolicus
* Antigonus III Doson
* Philip V
* Perseus
* Philip VI (pretender)

Ptolemies|

* Ptolemy I Soter
* Ptolemy Keraunos
* Ptolemy II Philadelphus
* Ptolemy III Euergetes
* Ptolemy IV Philopator
* Ptolemy V Epiphanes
* Cleopatra I Syra (regent)
* Ptolemy VI Philometor
* Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
* Cleopatra II Philometor Soter
* Ptolemy VIII Physcon
* Cleopatra III
* Ptolemy IX Lathyros
* Ptolemy X Alexander
* Berenice III
* Ptolemy XI Alexander
* Ptolemy XII Auletes
* Cleopatra VI Tryphaena
* Berenice IV Epiphanea
* Ptolemy XIII
* Ptolemy XIV
* Cleopatra VII Philopator
* Ptolemy XV Caesarion

Monarchs of Cyrene|

* Magas
* Berenice II
* Demetrius the Fair
* Ptolemy VIII Physcon
* Ptolemy Apion
* Cleopatra Selene II

Seleucids|

* Seleucus I Nicator
* Antiochus I Soter
* Antiochus II Theos
* Seleucus II Callinicus
* Seleucus III Ceraunus
* Antiochus III the Great
* Seleucus IV Philopator
* Antiochus IV Epiphanes
* Antiochus V Eupator
* Demetrius I Soter
* Alexander I Balas
* Demetrius II Nicator
* Antiochus VI Dionysus
* Diodotus Tryphon
* Antiochus VII Sidetes
* Alexander II Zabinas
* Cleopatra Thea
* Seleucus V Philometor
* Antiochus VIII Grypus
* Antiochus IX Cyzicenus
* Seleucus VI Epiphanes
* Antiochus X Eusebes
* Antiochus XI Epiphanes
* Demetrius III Eucaerus
* Philip I Philadelphus
* Antiochus XII Dionysus
* Cleopatra Selene I
* Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
* Philip II Philoromaeus

Lysimachids|

* Lysimachus
* Ptolemy Epigonos

Attalids|

* Philetaerus
* Eumenes I
* Attalus I
* Eumenes II
* Attalus II
* Attalus III
* Eumenes III

Greco-Bactrians|

* Diodotus I
* Diodotus II
* Euthydemus I
* Demetrius I
* Euthydemus II
* Antimachus I
* Pantaleon
* Agathocles
* Demetrius II
* Eucratides I
* Plato
* Eucratides II
* Heliocles I

Indo-Greeks|

* Demetrius I
* Antimachus I
* Pantaleon
* Agathocles
* Apollodotus I
* Demetrius II
* Antimachus II
* Menander I
* Zoilos I
* Agathokleia
* Lysias
* Strato I
* Antialcidas
* Heliokles II
* Polyxenos
* Demetrius III
* Philoxenus
* Diomedes
* Amyntas
* Epander
* Theophilos
* Peukolaos
* Thraso
* Nicias
* Menander II
* Artemidoros
* Hermaeus
* Archebius
* Telephos
* Apollodotus II
* Hippostratos
* Dionysios
* Zoilos II
* Apollophanes
* Strato II
* Strato III

Monarchs of Bithynia|

* Boteiras
* Bas
* Zipoetes I
* Nicomedes I
* Zipoetes II
* Etazeta (regent)
* Ziaelas
* Prusias I
* Prusias II
* Nicomedes II
* Nicomedes III
* Nicomedes IV
* Socrates Chrestus

Monarchs of Pontus|

* Mithridates I Ctistes
* Ariobarzanes
* Mithridates II
* Mithridates III
* Pharnaces I
* Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos with Laodice
* Mithridates V Euergetes
* Mithridates VI Eupator
* Pharnaces II
* Darius
* Arsaces
* Polemon I
* Pythodorida
* Polemon II

Monarchs of Commagene|

* Ptolemaeus
* Sames II
* Mithridates I
* Antiochus I
* Mithridates II
* Antiochus II
* Mithridates III
* Antiochus III
* Antiochus IV

Monarchs of Cappadocia|

* Ariarathes I
* Ariarathes II
* Ariamnes II
* Ariarathes III
* Ariarathes IV
* Ariarathes V
* Orophernes
* Ariarathes VI
* Ariarathes VII
* Ariarathes VIII
* Ariarathes IX
* Ariobarzanes I
* Ariobarzanes II
* Ariobarzanes III
* Ariarathes X
* Archelaus

Monarchs of the
Cimmerian Bosporus|

* Paerisades I
* Satyros II
* Prytanis
* Eumelos
* Spartokos III
* Hygiainon (regent)
* Paerisades II
* Spartokos IV
* Leukon II
* Spartokos V [ru]
* Kamasarye
* Paerisades III
* Paerisades IV
* Paerisades V
* Mithridates I
* Pharnaces
* Asander with Dynamis
* Mithridates II
* Asander with Dynamis
* Scribonius's attempted rule with Dynamis
* Dynamis with Polemon
* Polemon
* Aspurgus
* Gepaepyris
* Mithridates III
* Cotys I

Monarchs of Epirus|

* Admetus
* Tharrhypas
* Alcetas I
* Neoptolemus I
* Arybbas
* Alexander I
* Aeacides
* Neoptolemus II
* Alcetas II
* Pyrrhus I
* Alexander II
* Olympias II (regent)
* Pyrrhus II
* Ptolemy
* Pyrrhus III
* Deidamia

Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories.

* v
* t
* e

History of Anatolia

* v
* t
* e

Iran topics

History

Prehistory

Ancient|

| 3400–539 BC|

* Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC)
* Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC)
* Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC)
* Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)
* Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC)
* Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC)
* Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC)
* Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)
* Urartu (860 BC–590 BC)
* Median Empire (678–549 BC)
* Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC)
* Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)

|

550 BC–AD 224|

* Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
* Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226)
* Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)
* Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)
* Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)
* Frataraka (c.295–220 BC)
* Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)
* Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224)
* Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)

AD 224–651|

* Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651)

Medieval and
early modern|

| 632–1090|

* Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
* Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
* Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)
* Samanid dynasty (819–999)
* Tahirid dynasty (821–873)
* Alavid dynasty (864–928)
* Saffarid dynasty (861–1003)
* Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090)
* Buyid dynasty (934–1062)

|

977–1432|

* Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186)
* Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215)
* Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)
* Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231)
* Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225)
* Kart dynasty (1244–1381)
* Ilkhanate (1256–1335)
* Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)
* Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432)
* Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357)

1370–1925|

* Timurid Empire (1370–1507)
* Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)
* Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)
* Safavid Empire (1501–1736)
* Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)
* Zand Dynasty (1751–1794)
* Qajar Empire (1789–1925)
* Khanates of Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries)
* Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–19th centuries)
* Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)
* 1908 bombardment of the Majlis
* Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)
* 1921 Persian coup d'état
* Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)

Modern|

| 1925–1979|

* Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)
* Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)
* 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election
* 1953 coup d'état
* Iranian Revolution (1979)

|

Islamic Republic
1979–present|

* History (1979–)
* Interim Government (1979)
* March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum
* 1979 Khuzestan insurgency
* Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)
* December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum
* Iranian Embassy siege (1980)
* Nojeh coup plot (1980)
* Iran–Iraq War (1980–88)
* Interim Government of Iran (1981)
* 1987 Mecca incident
* Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988)
* KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)
* PJAK conflict (2004–)
* 2009 Iranian presidential election protests
* Syrian civil war (2011–)
* International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)
* Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)
* United States withdrawal (2018)
* 2017–2018 Iranian protests
* 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests
* COVID-19 pandemic
* 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
* 2019–2020 Iranian protests
* 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
* 2021–2022 Iranian protests
* 2024 Iran–Israel conflict

See also|

* Ancient Persians
* Greater Iran
* Persianization
* Persianate society
* Turco-Persian
* Indo-Persian
* Iranic peoples
* languages
* Jiroft culture
* Aryans
* Azerbaijanis
* Peoples of the Caucasus
* Persians
* Monarchs of Persia
* Heads of state of Iran
* History of democracy in classical Iran
* Military history
* Electric history
* Years in Iran

Geography

* Borders
* Cities
* largest
* twin towns and sister cities
* Earthquakes
* Environmental issues
* Climate change
* Iranian Azerbaijan
* Iranian Balochistan
* Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests
* Caucasus
* Iranian Kurdistan
* Iranian plateau
* Lake Urmia
* Islands
* Mountains
* Provinces
* Wildlife

Politics

| General|

* Censorship
* Constitution (Persian Constitutional Revolution)
* Corruption
* Elections (2009 presidential)
* Foreign relations
* Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
* Human rights
* Children's rights
* LGBT
* Women's rights
* Judicial system
* Military (Army
* Air Force
* Navy)
* Ministry of Intelligence
* Cyberwarfare
* Nuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)
* Political parties
* Principlists
* Propaganda
* Reformists
* Terrorism (state-sponsorship allegations)
* White Revolution (1963)
* Women's rights movement

|

Councils|

* Assembly (or Council) of Experts
* Expediency Discernment Council
* Guardian Council
* Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)
* Local councils
* Supreme National Security Council

Officials|

* Ambassadors
* President
* Provincial governors
* Supreme Leader

Economy

| General|

* Bonyad (charitable trust)
* Brain drain
* Companies (Automotive industry)
* Child labour
* Corruption
* Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
* Economic history
* Economic Reform Plan
* Energy
* Environmental issues
* Foreign direct investment
* Intellectual property
* International oil bourse
* International rankings
* Iran and the World Trade Organization
* Taxation
* Main economic laws
* Economy of the Middle East
* Milad Tower and complex
* Military equipment manufactured
* Nuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)
* Privatization
* Rial (currency)
* Space Agency
* Setad
* Supreme Audit Court
* Tehran Stock Exchange
* Venture capital (Technology start-ups)

|

Sectors|

* Agriculture (fruit)
* Banking and insurance
* Central Bank
* Shetab Banking System
* Construction
* Defense
* Health care (Pharmaceuticals)
* Industry
* Mining
* Petroleum (Anglo-Persian Oil Company)
* Telecommunications and IT (TCI)
* Transport (airlines
* metro
* railways
* shipping)
* Tourism

State-owned
companies|

* Defense Industries Organization (DIO)
* Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)
* Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)
* Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)
* National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)
* National Development Fund

Places|

* Asaluyeh industrial corridor
* Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone
* Kish Island Free Trade Zone
* Research centers

Society

| Demographics|

| Languages|

* Persian (Farsi)
* Armenian
* Azerbaijani
* Kurdish
* Hebrew
* Georgian
* Neo-Aramaic
* Iranian languages

|

Peoples|

* Iranian citizens (abroad)
* Ethnic minorities
* Armenians
* Assyrians
* Azerbaijanis
* Circassians
* Georgians
* Kurds
* Jews
* Turkmen

Religion|

* Islam
* Baháʼí Faith (persecution)
* Christianity
* Zoroastrians (persecution)
* Freedom of religion

Other|

* Corruption
* Crime
* Education (higher
* Intellectual movements
* scientists and scholars
* universities)
* International rankings
* Nationality
* Water supply and sanitation
* Women

Culture|

* Architecture (Achaemenid
* architects)
* Art (modern / contemporary)
* Astronomy
* Blogs
* Calendars (Persian New Year (Nowruz))
* Fashion
* Chicago Persian antiquities dispute
* Cinema
* Cuisine (wine)
* Folklore
* Intellectual movements
* Iranians
* Iranian studies
* Islam (Islamization)
* Literature
* Media (news agencies (student)
* newspapers)
* Mythology
* National Jewels
* National symbols (Imperial Anthem)
* Opium consumption
* Persian gardens
* Persian name
* Philosophy
* Public holidays
* Scouting
* Sport (football)

Music|

* Folk
* Jazz
* Pop
* Rap and hip-hop
* Rock
* Traditional
* Ey Iran

Other topics|

* Science and technology
* Anti-Iranian sentiment
* Tehrangeles

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

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4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt–Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Meshkiangasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indo-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mesh-he
Melem-ana
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi
Enna-Dagan | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-Tarana
Napi-Ilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kikku-Siwe-Temti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugal-Anne-Mundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugal-zage-si
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025–1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil An-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty of Egypt
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty of Egypt

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire (1450–1180 BCE)
Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II

Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states
Carchemish
Tabal | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Eight Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judaea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, William W.; Simpson, William Kelly (1971). The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49\. ISBN 978-0-15-502755-8.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy, eds. (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per the Sumerian King List.
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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