Sexual conflict in humans

In evolutionary psychology, sexual conflict in humans occurs as a result of men and women having diverging reproductive interests, creating tension and competition between the two sexes over mating strategies. Sexual conflict also arises in other species as a result of males and females having different optimal strategies for maximizing their reproductive success. In humans, as well as other species, males tend to seek strategies that increase their number of mating opportunities, while females tend to seek strategies that ensure high investment and quality from their mates.[1][2]

## Evolutionary basis

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The foundation of sexual conflict lies in the theory of sexual selection, first articulated by Charles Darwin and later expanded by other evolutionary theorists. Sexual selection suggests that traits evolve not only because they enhance survival but because they increase an individual's chances of reproducing.[citation needed]

In humans, as in many other species, there is a significant disparity in reproductive investment between the sexes. Typically, females invest more heavily due to pregnancy, childbirth, and often childcare, while males can potentially reproduce with minimal investment. This asymmetry gives rise to different reproductive strategies: males may seek to maximize their reproductive success by mating with multiple females, while females may be more selective in choosing mates who can provide resources or high-quality genes.[3]

## Forms of sexual conflict

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### Mating strategies

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Men and women often exhibit different preferences for mating strategies. Research shows that men, on average, prioritize short-term mating opportunities with multiple women. By contrast, women tend to be more selective in their mating choices, favoring long-term commitment with a man who possesses quality genetic and material resources that he is willing to provide. Women tend to favor a mating strategy that consists of delaying sexual intercourse until she can ensure the quality of the potential mate. This conflicts with the masculine strategy of pursuing sexual intercourse with as many women as possible.[3][4]

### Sexual coercion

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Humans display sexually coercive behaviors similar to those observed in other apes, such as forced copulation, aggressive mate guarding, and controlling a partner's movements. Sexual coercion is more likely to be used by men, often as a strategy for overcoming sexual conflict in existing relationships with women. Humans are unusual for the wide variety of tactics that they use for sexual coercion. Direct coercion tactics used by men including rape, sexual harassment, intimidation, and punishment. Indirect coercion refers to forceful tactics, sometimes referred to as coercive mate guarding, used by men to reduce the likelihood of partner extra-pair copulation. Indirect coercion includes herding, sequestration, and punishment.[4]

Sexual aggression in humans comes most frequently from men who are in an existing social or sexual relationship with the female victim. Among college-aged women, approximately 40% of rape victims continue to have relationships with their attackers. Among married women raped by their partners, most are raped multiple times and a large proportion additionally face physical abuse. Women in developed countries often gain increased economic opportunities that allow them to escape coercive partners, which may threaten the sense of control their partners have over the relationship and thus encourage the use of sexual coercion by their partners. In the United States, Albania, and various developing countries, women with higher education levels and greater personal income experience increased risk of physical abuse from a partner. Women in developed nations with high education levels are more vulnerable to coercive partners, as a result of being more likely to live distantly from close friends and relatives, and being more likely to be isolated from social networks.[4]

### Sexual deception

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Studies show that men often admit to misleading women about their emotional commitment. For instance, in a survey of 112 college men, 71 percent confessed to exaggerating their feelings to engage in sexual activity, compared to 39 percent of women. In another study where women recounted their experiences of being deceived by men, they reported various forms of deception: "falsely implying stronger feelings than actually felt" (44 percent), "exaggerating sincerity, trustworthiness, or kindness" (42 percent), "misleading about compatibility" (36 percent), and "pretending to have stronger feelings to have sex" (25 percent). Men with Dark Triad traits—narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy—are particularly likely to use these deceptive strategies.[3]

### Romantic jealousy

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Men tend to display jealousy towards sexual rivals who possess status and resources, while women tend to display jealousy towards sexual rivals who possess physical attractiveness. Women are more likely to intentionally induce jealousy in their mates as a strategy for retaining them. Women intentionally create jealousy in their mates through tactics such as flirting with other men in front of them, showing interest in other men, and talking with other men. Women report that they are motivated to elicit jealousy in their mates to increase the closeness of their relationship, to test the strength of their relationship, to find out whether their partner still cares, and to motivate their partner to be more possessive of them.[3]

## References

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1. ^ Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff; Rauch, Kristin Liv (September 2009). "Sexual conflict in humans: Variations and solutions". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 18 (5): 201–214\. doi:10.1002/evan.20226.201-214&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002/evan.20226&rft.aulast=Mulder&rft.aufirst=Monique+Borgerhoff&rft.au=Rauch,+Kristin+Liv&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+conflict+in+humans" class="Z3988">
2. ^ Hagen, Renée V.; Scelza, Brooke A. (30 January 2024). "Sex ratios and gender norms: why both are needed to understand sexual conflict in humans". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 6: 1–39\. doi:10.1017/ehs.2024.3. PMC 10897493.1-39&rft.date=2024-01-30&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10897493#id-name=PMC&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/ehs.2024.3&rft.aulast=Hagen&rft.aufirst=Renée+V.&rft.au=Scelza,+Brooke+A.&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10897493&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+conflict+in+humans" class="Z3988">
3. ^ a b c d Buss, David M. (2019). Evolutionary psychology: the new science of the mind (6th ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1138088610.
4. ^ a b c Shackelford, Todd K.; Goetz, Aaron T. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Sexual Conflict in Humans. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195396706.