Sexual harassment in the military

Sexual misconduct in the armed forces

Leeuwin Barracks, Australia, site of widespread sexual abuse of child navy recruits between 1967 and 1971[1]

Sexual harassment in the military is unwanted sexual behaviour experienced as threatening, offensive, or otherwise upsetting, which occurs in a military setting.[2][3][4][5]

Sexual harassment is more common in military than civilian life.[3][6] Military women and men experience unwanted behaviours disproportionately,[3][4][7][8][9][10] particularly younger women and girls.[4][11][12][13][14][15] Other groups at high risk include partners of personnel, child cadets, and military detainees.

Risk factors characteristic of a military setting include the young average age of personnel, isolated workplaces, the minority status of women, hierarchical power relationships, a culture of conformity, the predominance of traditionally masculine values and behaviours, and a heavy drinking culture.[4][10][16][17][18] Harassment is particularly common in certain settings, notably centres for initial military training[1][19][20][21][22] and theatres of war.[10][23][24]

Experience of harassment can be traumatic. It increases the risk of stress-related mental illness,[10] particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[6] Nonetheless, typically most of those targeted choose not to raise a formal complaint, expecting repercussions if they do.[3][4][7][9][12][13][25][26]

Despite the development of prevention programmes in recent years, official statistics in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States report increasing rates of sexual harassment in the military.[4][10][7][8][9][15]

## Definitions

[edit]

Sexual harassment is unwanted sexual behaviour experienced as threatening or otherwise upsetting.[2][3][4][5] Definitions in use by state armed forces include:

* Australian Defence Forces: Unwanted sexual advances or sexual requests towards to another person[2]
* British Army: Unwanted sexually based conduct or other conduct affecting the dignity of women and men at work.[3]
* Canadian Armed Forces: Improper conduct directed at and offensive to others, which the perpetrator ought reasonably know would be so.[4]
* United States Armed Forces: Unwanted sexual advances and other behaviour of a sexual nature.[5]

## Behaviours

[edit]

Main article: Sexual harassment

Sexual harassment in the military includes a broad spectrum of behaviour.

Undirected behaviours are those not personally targeted but which affect the working environment, such as sexist and sexual jokes and the prominent display of pornographic material.

Directed behaviours target one or more individuals, such as hazing rituals, unwanted sexual advances, and sexual assault.[12]

Research in Canada has found that a military culture of undirected sexual harassment increases the risk of directed sexual harassment and assault.[4]

### Case examples

[edit]

A woman in the British army told researchers in 2006:

> A friend was out on an exercise when a group of men ducked her head in a bucket of water and each time she came up for breath she had to repeat "I am useless and I am a female". She told the story and said it was a joke but I could see she was upset.[12]

The Deschamps Review of 2015 found pervasive demeaning attitudes to women in the Canadian armed forces:

> Interviewees reported regularly being told of orders to "stop being pussies" and to "leave your purses at home" [...] The use of the word "cunt", for example, is commonplace, and rape jokes are tolerated. [...] A commonly held attitude is that, rather than be a soldier, a sailor or an aviator, a woman will be labeled an "ice princess", a "bitch", or a "slut". Another saying is that women enter the CAF "to find a man, to leave a man, or to become a man".[4]

A woman in the French army was raped by her commanding officer:

> It was months before I could pronounce the word "rape"... I blamed myself. I said: "We are trained in hand to hand combat. Why didn't I stop him?" But when that happens you are terrorised.[13]

Many incidents of sexual harassment and assault in the US armed forces have been documented. For example:

When a woman in the US army attended a sexual harassment awareness training, the senior officer teaching the class asked participants whether they would hit on "a naked, drunk girl on the bench outside your barracks", adding, "you're not supposed to but I probably would".[27]

US Senator Martha McSally, formerly of the US Air Force and the first female pilot to fly combat operations, testified to a Senate meeting that she was raped by a superior officer.[28] McSally explained that she never reported the incident for lack of trust in the military justice system. She added that she blamed herself, and that although she had thought herself strong, she felt powerless.[29]

The US Navy Tailhook Association scandal exposed multiple acts of sexual violence during the organisation's annual convention of aviators in Las Vegas. Lieutenant Paula Puopolo (then Coughlin) blew the whistle on a run-the-gauntlet ritual, in which male officers lined the third-floor corridor of the convention hotel to harass and assault women passing through. In 1991, the men sexually assaulted 83 women, including Puopolo, and seven men.[30] As reported in the Wall Street Journal:

> Puopolo says up to 200 disheveled airmen set upon her. She was fondled and passed along from one groping, pinching set of hands to another before being dropped to the ground. At breakfast, Puopolo reported the incident to [Rear Admiral] Snyder, himself a former president of the association. "He said that's what you get when you go down a hallway full of drunken aviators," she recalls.[31]

## Principal targets

[edit]

### Female personnel

[edit]

While some male personnel are sexually harassed, women are much more likely to be targeted.[10][4][3][7][8][9]

Younger women and girls face a greater risk, according to American, British, Canadian, and French research.[11][12][4][13][14][15] For example, girls aged under 18 in the British armed forces were ten times as likely as adult female personnel to be the victim of a sexual offence in 2021.[14]

### Intimate partners

[edit]

In 2022, research in the UK armed forces found that experience of intimate partner violence (IPV), a category that includes sexual abuse, was three times more prevalent among partners of military personnel than among partners of civilians.[23] 10% of male and 7% of female personnel told the researchers they had abused their partner in the previous 12 months. The study found that physical and sexual abuse of partners was particularly common where personnel had traumatic experiences of war.

In the US armed forces, estimates of the sexual abuse of military partners indicate a similarly high rate of annual incidence, ranging from 12% to 40%.[32]

### Child cadets

[edit]

Cadet forces, common worldwide, are military youth organisations in communities and schools.[33][34][35][36] Some evidence from the UK, where hundreds of complaints of the sexual abuse of cadets have been recorded since 2012, and from Canada, where one in ten complaints of sexual assault in the military are from the cadet organisations, indicate that these institutions are susceptible to a culture of sexual harassment.[37][38][39][40][41]

### Detainees

[edit]

Individuals detained by militaries are particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment. During the Iraq War, for example, personnel of the U.S. Army and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) committed multiple human rights violations against detainees in Abu Ghraib prison,[42] including rape, sodomy, and other forms of sexual abuse.[43][44][45] Similarly, two Iraqi men detained on a Coalition warship at the start of the war were made to strip naked and were sexually humiliated.[46]

## Prevalence

[edit]

While prevalence varies by country, military branch, and other factors, official statistics and peer-reviewed research from Canada, France, the UK, and the US indicate that between a quarter and a third of military women in these countries are sexually harassed at work at least once each year.[47][48][49][50]

Military training settings are characterised by a particularly high level of sexual harassment and assault relative to both the civilian population and other military settings.[50][51][20][52][21]

Research further shows an increase in perpetration during and after deployment on military operations.[10][23][24]

Studies of sexual harassment have found that it is markedly more common in military than civilian settings[23][47][6] For example, between 2015 and 2020, girls aged 16 or 17 in the British armed forces were twice as likely as their same-age civilian peers to report rape or other sexual assault.[15]

## Risk factors

[edit]

Several reasons for a high prevalence of sexual harassment in the military have been suggested.

A Canadian study has found that key risk factors associated with military settings are the typically young age of personnel, the isolated locations of bases, the minority status of women, and the disproportionate number of men in senior positions.[10]

An emphasis in military organisations on conformity, obedience, and hierarchical power relations, combine to increase the risk, particularly to personnel of low rank, who are less able than others to resist inappropriate expectations made of them.[4]

Traditionally masculine values and behaviours that are rewarded and reinforced in military settings are also thought to play a role.[53][16][54][4][17]

In the UK, the 2019 Wigston Review into inappropriate sexual behaviours in the armed forces reported that several military factors contributed to risk: "tight-knit units that perceive themselves as 'elite'; masculine cultures with low gender diversity; rank gradients; age gradients; weak or absent controls, especially after extensive operational periods; and alcohol."[18]

## Effects

[edit]

Women affected by sexual harassment are more likely than other women to suffer stress-related mental illness afterwards.[10]

Research in the US found that when sexual abuse of female military personnel was psychiatrically traumatic, the odds of suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after deployment on operations increased by a factor of nine,[6] and the odds of suicide more than doubled.[55]

Research in the US has found that personnel affected by sexual harassment are somewhat less likely to develop depression or PTSD if a formal report leads to effective action to address the issue.[56]

## Institutional responses

[edit]

Poster created by the U.S. Army's Sexual Harassment/Assault Response & Prevention (SHARP)

The military leadership in some countries has begun to acknowledge a culture of sexual misconduct among personnel. For example:

* The British armed forces co-commissioned their first formal study of the problem in 2006.[12] In 2016, the head of the British army noted that soldier culture remained "overly sexualised" and committed to reducing the extent of sexual misconduct.[57]
* In 2016, after a major study uncovered widespread sexual harassment and assault in the Canadian armed forces, General Jonathan Vance, Chief of the Defence Staff, acknowledged: "Harmful sexual behaviour is a real problem in our institution."[58]
* The US established the Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office in 2005, which reports annually.[59] In 2019, Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin remarked nonetheless that prevention efforts remained "far short of what is required to make lasting change".[50]

Since the number of official complaints represents only a fraction of sexual harassment incidence, armed forces committed to reducing prevalence produce periodic estimates of its true extent by means of anonymised surveys.[3][8]

Other prevention initiatives, varying by country, include bystander and diversity training, and helplines.[9][50] Despite these steps, official statistics in Canada, the UK, and the US over the last decade show high and increasing rates of harassment.[47][49][50]

## Barriers to redress

[edit]

Military personnel are frequently reluctant to report incidents of sexual misconduct:[3][4][12][13][25][26][7][9]

* An official report of the Australian Defence Force concluded that women affected by harassment were less likely to make a complaint because they do not expect a serious response.[25]
* Leila Minano, the co-author of a book documenting sexual abuse in the French armed forces, has commented that women are systematically discouraged from complaining, and often moved out of their unit if they do.[13]
* The ombudsperson of the Canadian armed forces confirmed that women fear the consequences if they report a sexual offence to their chain of command: "The fear of repercussions is blatant", he said in 2014.[41] In 2015, the Deschamps Review reported that one of the main reasons why personnel do not lodge a complaint is a fear of the consequences for their career and that many complainants had indeed faced reprisals.[4]
* An official report on sexual harassment in the British army in 2015 found that almost half of personnel who had an 'upsetting' experience of sexual harassment did not complain to their chain of command for fear of damaging their career.[3] A major report by the House of Commons Defence Committee in 2021 called on the Ministry of Defence to "remove the chain of command entirely from complaints of a sexual nature".[9]
* In the US armed forces, a study in 2016 found that 58% of women who reported sexual misconduct by peers said that they had met with retaliation.[60] The Department of Defense estimated in 2017 that two in three victims of sexual assault do not report it.[8]

## Sexual harassment in the military: country examples

[edit]

### Australia

[edit]

Widespread reports of sexual harassment in the Australian armed forces led to the establishment of the Defence Abuse Response Taskforce to investigate complaints from women between 1991 and 2011. It received 2,439 complaints, of which it deemed 1,751 to be plausible.[25]

A Royal Commission into institutional child sexual abuse was established in 2012, which investigated widespread allegations of historical abuse in the navy.[1] The Commission took evidence from 8,000 individuals[61] and reported in 2017 that many recruits of both sexes and from the age of 15 had been repeatedly sexually abused by older recruits between 1967 and 1971, including by anal gang rape, and in some cases young recruits had been forced to rape each other.[1] The practice was "tolerated" by senior staff, according to the Commission.[62]

Further information: Defence Abuse Response Taskforce and Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse

### Canada

[edit]

Main article: Sexual assault in the Canadian Forces

Royal Military College Saint-Jean, Canada, training centre for recruits from age 16 and characterised by a "hostile environment and mistreatment of many female cadets" (Arbour Review)

In 2014, the ombudsman of the Canadian armed forces described sexual harassment in the institution as "'a huge problem"'.[41]

In 2015, after widespread allegations of sexual misconduct in the military, a major official report, the External Review into Sexual Misconduct and Sexual Harassment in the Canadian Armed Forces (the Deschamps Review), was published.[4] It found that sexual harassment was commonplace and embedded in military culture, and that pervasive degrading attitudes to women and LGBTQ+ personnel were jeopardising their safety.[4] The Deschamps Review also criticised the armed forces for a culture of dismissiveness;[4] one male interviewee told the Review, for example: "Girls that come to the Army know what to expect." The Review stated that senior NCOs are frequently seen as tolerating sexual harassment and discouraging the individuals affected from making a complaint.[4]

The Canadian Armed Forces have since conducted major surveys of personnel in 2016 and 2018. In each instance, the following proportions of female personnel reported being personally targeted by sexualised or discriminatory behaviour in the previous 12 months:[49]

* 2016: 31%.
* 2018: 28%.

In 2022, a further major report, the Arbour Review, concluded that female armed forces personnel were more likely to be attacked by their peers than the enemy.[63]

Higher rates of harassment have been identified in military training centres. The rate of sexual harassment of women at military colleges in Canada was found in 2019 to be approximately twice (28%) that found in civilian colleges (15%).[51] According to the Arbour Review, training centres are characterised by a "hostile environment and mistreatment of many female cadets", including the Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean which trains new recruits from age 16.[19]

A notable case of a perpetrator is that of Russell Williams, a colonel in the Royal Canadian Air Force, who was charged with the sexual assault of two women in connection with two home invasions near Tweed, Ontario in September 2009. Williams was also charged in the death of Corporal Marie-France Comeau, a 37-year-old military traffic technician, who had been found dead at home in late November 2009.[64] He was sentenced in 2010 to two concurrent terms of life imprisonment.

### France

[edit]

The extent of sexual harassment in the French armed forces first came to prominence in 2014 when 35 cases of harassment and assault were detailed in La Guerre Invisible, a book by Leila Minano and Julia Pascual.[7] According to the Independent newspaper, the armed forces had not been required to report incidents or to keep statistics, and an official report acknowledged that awareness of the problem had been institutionally suppressed.[13]

A study in 2021 found that 37% of women and 18% of men in a representative sample from the French military had experienced verbal or physical sexual harassment in the previous 12 months, and that 13% of women and 4% of men had been sexually assaulted.[48] The incidence rates of sexual harassment and sexual assault experienced by women aged under 25 were particularly high, at 41% and 21% respectively. 22% of women of the lowest rank, who are typically those who have recently enlisted, said they had been sexually assaulted.

### Germany

[edit]

In 2014, the German armed forces reported that 55% of female and 12% of male personnel had experienced sexual harassment during their career, and that 3% of women said they had been sexually assaulted or raped.[65]

### Japan

[edit]

Main articles: ja:女性自衛官への性暴力事件 and ja:2022年に発覚した自衛隊での性被害

There have been several reports of sexual assaults in the Japanese Self-Defense Forces (JSDF).[66]

### Norway

[edit]

In 2021, the Armed Forces Research Institute found that 46% of all military women, 63% of women under 30, and 73% of new female recruits had experienced sexual harassment at least once in the previous 12 months.[22]

### United Kingdom

[edit]

Army Foundation College, Harrogate, site of 22 of 37 recorded sexual offences against girls aged under 18 in the UK armed forces in 2021

Main article: Sexual misconduct in the British military

#### UK armed forces

[edit]

Following concerns expressed in 2004 by the UK Equal Opportunities Commission (now the Equality and Human Rights Commission) about persistent sexual harassment in the British armed forces,[12] a number of anonymised, official surveys have been undertaken. The first, in 2006, found that a male-dominated culture sexualised women and diminished their military competence.[12] Among the comments made to researchers by male personnel about their female counterparts were: "Ok there are a few exceptions but on the whole they [women] shouldn't be here"; "They're all lesbians or sluts"; and "They are emotionally unstable."[12] The report found that 15% of women had had a 'particularly upsetting' experience of sexual harassment in the previous 12 months; the proportion rose to 20% in the youngest age group.[12]

Since 2009, official surveys asking the same question have found steadily rising rates of women in the army reporting particularly upsetting experiences, as follows:

* 2009: 8%[3]
* 2015: 13%[3]
* 2018: 15%[67]
* 2021: 35%[47]

In 2021, the same question asked of women in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force found rates of 43% and 35%, respectively.[68][69]

In 2021, 37 girls aged under 18 across the British armed forces (from a total population at the time of 290) were victims of a sexual offence.[20] 22 were new recruits at the training centre for the army's youngest recruits (aged from 16 years), the Army Foundation College;[20] three of the accused in these cases were members of staff.[52]

#### Military youth organisations

[edit]

In 2017, a BBC Panorama documentary found multiple cases of the sexual abuse of cadets from age 11 during the 1980s.[37] It reported that the victims and their parents were discouraged from making a formal complaint or contacting the police. In 2012 and 2013, the Ministry of Defence (MOD) paid £2 million to settle the allegations out of court.[38] Between 2012 and 2017, the MOD recorded a further 363 allegations, of which 282 were referred to the police.[39]

### United States

[edit]

Main article: Sexual assault in the United States military

Evidence photo from the official investigation into the Tailhook scandal in 1991, showing an unidentified Navy officer wearing a t-shirt emblazoned "WOMEN ARE PROPERTY"

Since 2014, surveys of US military personnel have found a high prevalence of sexual harassment. The following rates refer to the proportion of women reporting that they had experienced harassment in the previous 12 months.[50]

* 2014: 21.5%
* 2016: 21.4%
* 2018: 24.2%

In the same years, 5–6% of servicewomen said they had been sexually assaulted in the previous 12 months; rates at initial training centres were found to be substantially higher.[50]

In 2017, the Department of Defense reported that an estimated 14,900 military personnel were sexually assaulted in 2016,[8] of whom 6,172 made an official complaint.[60]

In the same year, the Department reported that an active duty military woman who reported sexual harassment to a superior was 16% more likely to be sexually assaulted than one who did not report, while a man who reported increased his chance of sexual assault thereafter by 50%.[70]

## See also

[edit]

* Sexual harassment
* Wartime sexual violence
* Military sexual trauma
* Sexual misconduct in the British military
* Sexual assault in the Canadian forces
* Sexual assault in the United States military
* Sexual assault in the Japan Self-Defense Forces [ja]
* 2022 JSDF sexual assault incident [ja]
* Misconduct in the military [ja]
* Suicide in the military
* Women in the military
* Children in the military
* Dedovshchina (hazing ritual in the Russian military)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse (2017). "Report of case study no. 40: The response of the Australian Defence Force to allegations of child sexual abuse" (PDF). Retrieved 9 March 2018.
2. ^ a b c Australia, Department of Defence (15 March 2013). "Unacceptable Behaviour in the Workplace". www.defence.gov.au. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l British army (2015). "Sexual harassment report 2015" (PDF). gov.uk. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Deschamps, Marie (2015). "External Review into Sexual Misconduct and Sexual Harassment in the Canadian Armed Forces" (PDF). forces.gc.ca. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
5. ^ a b c US, Department of Defense. "Sexual Assault vs. Sexual Harassment" (PDF). marines.mil. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
6. ^ a b c d Anderson, E H; Suris, A (2013). "Military sexual trauma". In Moore, Brett A; Barnett, Jeffrey E (eds.). Military psychologists' desk reference. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 264–269\. ISBN 978-0-19-992826-2. OCLC 828143812.264-269&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info:oclcnum/828143812&rft.isbn=978-0-19-992826-2&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=E+H&rft.au=Suris,+A&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
7. ^ a b c d e f Leila, Miñano; Pascual, Julia (2014). La guerre invisible: révélations sur les violences sexuelles dans l'armée française (in French). Paris: Les Arènes. ISBN 978-2352043027. OCLC 871236655.
8. ^ a b c d e f US, Department of Defense (2017). "Department of Defense Annual Report on Sexual Assault in the Military: Fiscal Year 2016" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
9. ^ a b c d e f g House of Commons Defence Committee (12 July 2021). "Protecting those who protect us: Women in the Armed Forces from Recruitment to Civilian Life (the Atherton Review)". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Watkins, Kimberley; Bennett, Rachel; Richer, Isabelle; Zamorski, Mark. "Sexual Assault in the Canadian Armed Forces: Prevalence, Circumstances, Correlates, and Mental Health Associations" (PDF). Retrieved 8 March 2018.
11. ^ a b American Public Health Association (30 October 2013). "Cessation of Military Recruiting in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools". www.apha.org. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Rutherford, Sarah; Schneider, Robin; Walmsley, Alexis (2006). "Quantitative & qualitative research into sexual harassment in the armed forces" (PDF). Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2018.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
13. ^ a b c d e f g Lichfield, John (20 April 2014). "France battles sexual abuse in the military". Independent. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
14. ^ a b c Cooper, Charlotte (July 2022). "British army: Welfare concerns at the Army Foundation College, Harrogate" (PDF). Child Rights International Network. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
15. ^ a b c d Whyte, Lara. "Tenfold rise in rapes and sexual assaults on girls in military". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
16. ^ a b Parrott, Dominic J.; Zeichner, Amos (2003). "Effects of hypermasculinity oh physical aggression against women". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 4 (1): 70–78\. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.70.70-78&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info:doi/10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.70&rft.aulast=Parrott&rft.aufirst=Dominic+J.&rft.au=Zeichner,+Amos&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
17. ^ a b Baugher, Amy R.; Gazmararian, Julie A. (2015). "Masculine gender role stress and violence: A literature review and future directions". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 24: 107–112\. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.002.107-112&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.002&rft.aulast=Baugher&rft.aufirst=Amy+R.&rft.au=Gazmararian,+Julie+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
18. ^ a b Wigston, M (2019). "Report on inappropriate behaviours" (PDF). Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
19. ^ a b Defence, National (10 June 2022). "Part II – Leadership". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
20. ^ a b c d Ministry of Defence (14 April 2022). "Armed Forces: Offences against Children". parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
21. ^ a b "Air Force relieves commander over sex scandal". The Seattle Times. 10 August 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
22. ^ a b Fasting, Kari; Køber, Petter Kristian; Strand, Kari Røren (15 February 2021). "Mobbing og seksuell trakassering i Forsvaret" (PDF). ffi.no (in Norwegian and English). Retrieved 23 August 2022.
23. ^ a b c d MacManus, Deirdre; Short, Roxanna; Lane, Rebecca; Jones, Margaret; Hull, Lisa; Howard, Louise M.; Fear, Nicola T. (1 September 2022). "Intimate partner violence and abuse experience and perpetration in UK military personnel compared to a general population cohort: A cross-sectional study". The Lancet Regional Health – Europe. 20: 100448. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100448. ISSN 2666-7762. PMC 9256655. PMID 35813966. S2CID 250239805.
24. ^ a b Department of Defense Task Force on Sexual Violence. (2004). "Sexual Harassment Survey of Reserve Component Members" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2022. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
25. ^ a b c d Defence Abuse Response Taskforce (2016). "Defence Abuse Response Taskforce: Final report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
26. ^ a b US, Department of Defence (1 May 2017). "DoD Releases Latest Military Sexual Assault Report". Retrieved 9 March 2018.
27. ^ Schulte, Brigid (10 December 2018). "The Army's New Sexual Harassment Training Truly Looks Promising". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
28. ^ "1st Air Force female pilot in combat reflects on career". U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
29. ^ Beech, Eric (6 March 2019). "Senator McSally, an Air Force veteran, says she was raped by a superior officer". Reuters. reuters.com. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
30. ^ "Two thirds of women in US military say they have been sexually harassed or assaulted in service". The Independent. 3 January 2019. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
31. ^ Knowles, David (30 April 2009). "From Navy Whistleblower to Warrior Pose". Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
32. ^ Kwan, J.; Sparrow, K.; Facer-Irwin, E.; Thandi, G.; Fear, N. T.; MacManus, D. (July 2020). "Prevalence of intimate partner violence perpetration among military populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 53: 101419. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2020.101419. ISSN 1359-1789. PMC 7375166. PMID 32714067.
33. ^ Government of Canada (18 July 2013). "Royal Canadian Army Cadets". Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
34. ^ New Profile (2004). "Child Recruitment in Israel" (PDF). Retrieved 9 March 2018.
35. ^ Army Cadet Force (2018). "Join The Army Cadets". Retrieved 9 March 2018.
36. ^ US Army (2018). "U.S. Army JROTC". www.usarmyjrotc.com. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
37. ^ a b Razzall, Katie; MacSorley, Jane (4 July 2017). "Sex abuse against cadets 'covered up'". BBC News. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
38. ^ a b Quinn, Ben (28 December 2014). "Ministry of Defence pays out £2m to settle cadets' sexual abuse claims". Guardian. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
39. ^ a b Rawlinson, Kevin (4 July 2017). "MoD admits over 350 sexual abuse complaints have been made by cadets". Guardian. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
40. ^ "Documents Show the Canadian Army Cadets Program Is Plagued With Sexual Abuse Allegations". Vice. 26 November 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
41. ^ a b c Mercier, Noémi; Castonguay, Alec (16 May 2014). "Our military's disgrace". Macleans.ca. Archived from the original on 16 May 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
42. ^ Greenwald, Glenn. "Other government agencies". Salon.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2008. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
43. ^ Hersh, Seymour M. (May 17, 2004). "Chain of Command". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on January 1, 2012. Retrieved September 13, 2011. "NBC News later quoted U.S. military officials as saying that the unreleased photographs showed American soldiers "severely beating an Iraqi prisoner nearly to death, having sex with a female Iraqi prisoner, and 'acting inappropriately with a dead body.' The officials said there also was a videotape, apparently shot by U.S. personnel, showing Iraqi guards raping young boys.""
44. ^ Benjamin, Mark (30 May 2008). "Taguba denies he's seen abuse photos suppressed by Obama: The general told a U.K. paper about images he saw investigating Abu Ghraib – not photos Obama wants kept secret". Salon.com. Archived from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2009. "The paper quoted Taguba as saying, "These pictures show torture, abuse, rape and every indecency." [...] The actual quote in the Telegraph was accurate, Taguba said – but he was referring to the hundreds of images he reviewed as an investigator of the abuse at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq"
45. ^ Hersh, Seymour Myron (June 25, 2007). "The general's report: how Antonio Taguba, who investigated the Abu Ghraib scandal, became one of its casualties". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on September 12, 2007. Retrieved June 17, 2007. "Taguba said that he saw "a video of a male American soldier in uniform sodomizing a female detainee""
46. ^ Leigh Day (14 December 2017). "High Court finds MoD breached the Geneva Conventions during the Iraq War". Retrieved 14 March 2018.
47. ^ a b c d British army (2021). "Sexual harassment 2021 report" (PDF). gov.uk. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
48. ^ a b Moreau, Caroline; Bedretdinova, Dina; Duron, Sandrine; Bohet, Aline; Panjo, Henri; Bajos, Nathalie; Meynard, Jean Baptiste (17 November 2021). "From sexual harassment to sexual assault: Prevalence and correlates of sexual trauma in the French military". PLOS ONE. 16 (11): e0259182. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259182. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8598035. PMID 34788297.
49. ^ a b c Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (22 May 2019). "Sexual misconduct in the Canadian Armed Forces Regular Force, 2018". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
50. ^ a b c d e f g Acosta, Joie D.; Chinman, Matthew; Shearer, Amy L. (19 July 2021). "Countering Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Military: Lessons from RAND Research": 4. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
51. ^ a b Defence, National (10 June 2022). "Part I – Sexual Misconduct". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
52. ^ a b Ministry of Defence (16 May 2022). "Armed Forces: Offences against Children". parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
53. ^ Gallagher, Kathryn E.; Parrott, Dominic J. (May 2011). "What accounts for men's hostile attitudes toward women? The influence of hegemonic male role norms and masculine gender role stress". Violence Against Women. 17 (5): 568–583\. doi:10.1177/1077801211407296. PMC 3143459. PMID 21531691.568-583&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3143459#id-name=PMC&rft_id=info:pmid/21531691&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/1077801211407296&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+E.&rft.au=Parrott,+Dominic+J.&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3143459&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
54. ^ Rosen, Leora N; et al. (September 2003). "The Effects of Peer Group Climate on Intimate Partner Violence among Married Male U.S. Army Soldiers". Violence Against Women. 9 (9): 1045–1071\. doi:10.1177/1077801203255504. S2CID 145571984.1045-1071&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/1077801203255504&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145571984#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Leora+N&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
55. ^ Kimerling, Rachel; Makin-Byrd, Kerry; Louzon, Samantha; Ignacio, Rosalinda V.; McCarthy, John F. (1 June 2016). "Military Sexual Trauma and Suicide Mortality". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (6): 684–691\. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.019. ISSN 0749-3797. PMID 26699249.684-691&rft.date=2016-06-01&rft.issn=0749-3797&rft_id=info:pmid/26699249&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.019&rft.aulast=Kimerling&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.au=Makin-Byrd,+Kerry&rft.au=Louzon,+Samantha&rft.au=Ignacio,+Rosalinda+V.&rft.au=McCarthy,+John+F.&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amepre.2015.10.019&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
56. ^ Bell, Margret E.; Street, Amy E.; Stafford, Jane (2014). "Victims' psychosocial well-being after reporting sexual harassment in the military". Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. 15 (2): 133–152\. doi:10.1080/15299732.2014.867563. ISSN 1529-9740. PMID 24410254. S2CID 36336443.133-152&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1529-9740&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36336443#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/24410254&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/15299732.2014.867563&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Margret+E.&rft.au=Street,+Amy+E.&rft.au=Stafford,+Jane&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">
57. ^ Farmer, Ben (14 June 2016). "Army has 'overly-sexualised' heavy drinking culture, Chief of General Staff admits". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
58. ^ Harris, Kathleen (28 November 2016). "960 soldiers reported being sexually assaulted in the past year". CBC News. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
59. ^ US, Department of Defense (2018). "Mission & History". Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
60. ^ a b "Sexual assault reports in U.S. military reach record high, Pentagon says". NBC News. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
61. ^ Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse (30 May 2017). "Private sessions". Retrieved 9 March 2018.
62. ^ Australian Associated Press (22 August 2017). "Navy staff tolerated widespread child sexual abuse of recruits, royal commission says". Guardian. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
63. ^ "Women in Canada's military face greater harm from comrades than enemy, says judge". the Guardian. 1 June 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
64. ^ "The secret life of Col. Russell Williams exposed". thestar.com. 18 October 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
65. ^ Krennerich, Michael (30 October 2020). "Shadow Report Child Soldiers 2020" (PDF). UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. p. 24\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
66. ^ "同意なき性行為、高裁が「880万円」の賠償を命じるまで 自衛隊セクハラ事件、弁護士の闘い - 弁護士ドットコムニュース". 弁護士ドットコム (in Japanese). Retrieved 30 September 2022.
67. ^ British army (2018). "Sexual harassment report 2018" (PDF). gov.uk. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
68. ^ Ministry of Defence (31 March 2022). "Royal Navy and Royal Marines sexual harassment survey 2021". gov.uk. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
69. ^ Royal Air Force (December 2021). "2021 RAF sexual harassment survey full report". gov.uk. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
70. ^ "REPORTS". sapr.mil. Retrieved 7 February 2019.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Crowley, Kacy; Sandhoff, Michelle (2017). "Just a Girl in the Army". Armed Forces & Society. 43 (2): 221–237\. doi:10.1177/0095327X16682045. S2CID 151623237.221-237&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0095327X16682045&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151623237#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Crowley&rft.aufirst=Kacy&rft.au=Sandhoff,+Michelle&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sexual+harassment+in+the+military" class="Z3988">

## External links

[edit]

### Research

[edit]

* British armed forces: Rutherford Report, 2006; Army sexual harassment reports: 2015, 2018, 2021; David Gee, The First Ambush? Effects of military training and employment, 2017 Archived 12 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine
* Canadian armed forces: Dechamps Review, 2016; Arbour Review, 2022.
* French armed forces: La Guerre Invisible, 2014
* US armed forces: Department of Defense Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office

### Testimony and recent reportage

[edit]

* Rachel Thompson (British army), 2017 [video]
* Lara Whyte for The Times: "I was sexually assaulted in uniform. I can't get over it", 2021.
* Lara Whyte for The Times: 'Tenfold rise in rapes and sexual assaults on girls in military', 2021.
* Lara Whyte for Vice World News: 'Teenage girls serving in British army report record levels of assault', 2022.

* v
* t
* e

Sexual abuse

Forms|

* Bride kidnapping
* Child
* Child-on-child
* Child exploitation
* Child pornography
* Child prostitution
* Child sex tourism
* Cybersex trafficking
* Forced prostitution
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Money marriage
* Rape
* Campus
* Date
* Gray
* Marital
* Prison
* By proxy
* Statutory
* Of males
* Raptio
* Revenge porn
* Sex trafficking
* Sexual assault
* Sexual bullying
* Sexual grooming
* Sexual harassment
* in education
* in education in the United States
* in the military
* Sexual misconduct
* Sexual predator
* Sexual slavery
* Sexual violence
* Statistics
* War

Sociological
theories|

* Aggression
* Causes of sexual violence
* Effects and aftermath of rape
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Rape culture
* Rape trauma syndrome
* Sociobiological theories of rape
* Victim blaming

Laws|

* Laws regarding child sexual abuse
* Laws regarding rape
* Sexually violent predator laws

Related topics|

* Child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome
* False allegation of child sexual abuse

* Law portal

* v
* t
* e

Sexual ethics

Human sexuality|

* Adolescent sexuality
* Rainbow party
* Adultery
* Education
* Fetishism
* Incest
* law
* Infidelity
* Miscegenation
* Obesity and sexuality
* Objectification
* Orientation
* Pornography
* gay
* law
* lesbian
* women's
* Pregnancy
* Abortion
* Prostitution
* law
* Reproductive rights
* Right to sexuality
* Sex-positive feminism
* Sex-positive movement
* Sex workers' rights
* Survival sex

Child sexuality|

* Child marriage
* Child pornography
* law
* Child prostitution
* Child sex tourism

Sexual abuse|

* Child-on-child sexual abuse
* Child sexual abuse
* law
* Cybersex trafficking
* Harassment
* Rape
* law
* Sex trafficking
* Sexual slavery

Age of consent (reform)|

* Africa
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* United States
* Mexico
* Oceania
* South America

* Topical outline

Authority control databases: National |

* United States
* Israel

|

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template