Shaktism

Goddess-centric sect of Hinduism

Shaktism is a goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism - relief statues of Matrikas: from left to right Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani, and Chamunda Part of a series on

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Shaktism (Sanskrit: शाक्तसम्प्रदायः, romanized: Śāktasampradāyaḥ) is a major Hindu denomination in which the metaphysical reality or the deity is considered metaphorically to be a woman.

In Shaktism, the divine feminine energy, Shakti, is revered as the supreme power and is symbolized as the Mahadevi (Great Goddess), who manifests in numerous forms, with each form having distinct functions and unique attributes. The most prominently worshiped goddesses include Durga, the fierce protector who vanquishes evil and restores cosmic order; Parvati, the gentle yet powerful mother goddess of fertility, devotion, and spiritual wisdom; and Kali, the primal force of time and transformation. Additionally, Shaktism reveres a broader pantheon, including goddesses like Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts; Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity; and Tripura Sundari, the goddess of beauty and grace. Also honoured are the various Gramadevata, local village guardian deities, who protect and bless their communities. Following the decline of Buddhism in India, elements of Hindu and Buddhist goddess worship gradually merged, culminating in the emergence of the Mahavidya, a revered group of ten fierce and esoteric goddesses central to the tantric traditions within Shaktism.

Shaktism also encompasses various tantric sub-traditions, including Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. Shaktism emphasizes intense love of the deity as more important than simple obedience, thus showing an influence of the Vaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna as an ideal bhava. Similarly, Shaktism influenced Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the gods Vishnu and Shiva; they have their individual shaktis, Vaishnavi for Vishnu and Maheshvari for Shiva, and consorts Lakshmi and Sati/Parvati. An adherent of Shaktism is called Shakta. In 2020, the World Religion Database (WRD) estimated that Shaktism is the third largest Hindu sect, constituting about 305 million Hindus.[1]

The Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism form an important scriptural framework in Shaktism. Scriptures such as the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, and Shakta Upanishads such as the Devi Upanishad are revered. The Devi Mahatmya in particular, is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita. The Devi is revered in many Hindu temples and is worshipped during various Hindu festivals. The goddess-focused tradition and festivals such as the Durga Puja are very popular in the eastern India.

## Origins and history

[edit]

Main article: History of Shaktism

The earliest archaeological evidence of what appears to be an Upper Paleolithic shrine for Shakti worship were discovered in the terminal Upper Paleolithic site of Baghor I (Baghor stone) in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, India. The excavations, carried out under the guidance of noted archaeologists G. R. Sharma of Allahabad University and J. Desmond Clark of University of California and assisted by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer and J. N. Pal, dated the Baghor formation to between 9000 BC and 8000 BC.[2] The origins of Shakti worship also may be traced to Indus Valley Civilisation.[3]

Among the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of the deity in Hinduism is this passage in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, also called the Devi Suktam hymn:[4][5]

> I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship. Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in. Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken. They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it. I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome. I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman. I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller. On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother. Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body. I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.

> The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.

> — Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8,[6][4][5]

The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than the gods Indra, Agni and Soma. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of the neutral Brahman, of Prajapati and Purusha.[citation needed] The goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas (dawn), Vāc (speech, wisdom), Sarasvati (as river), Prithivi (earth), Nirriti (annihilator), Shraddha (faith, confidence).[7] Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of divine and the knower of ultimate knowledge (Brahman), such as in section 3 and 4 of the ancient Kena Upanishad.[8][9]

Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the Harivamsa section, which was a late addition (100 to 300 CE) to the work.[10] The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the goddess had become as prominent as God in Hindu tradition by about the third or fourth century.[11] The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India, climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya. This text, states C. Mackenzie Brown – a professor of religion, is both a culmination of centuries of Indian ideas about the divine woman, as well as a foundation for the literature and spirituality focussed on the female transcendence in centuries that followed.[10] The Devi Mahatmya is considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[12] The Devi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a professor of religious studies, but "it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is conceptualized as goddess, with a capital G".[13]

## Theology

[edit]

> [T]he central conception of Hindu philosophy is of the Absolute; that is the background of the universe. This Absolute Being, of whom we can predicate nothing, has Its powers spoken of as She — that is, the real personal God in India is She.

— Swami Vivekananda[14][15]

Shaktas conceive the goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, and that into which everything will ultimately dissolve.[16][7] Mahadevi said in Devi Upanishad, verse 2, "I am essentially Brahman".[17][18][19][20] According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."[21]

Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence, and substance of everything in creation.[7] Its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states:

> I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male in the form of Shiva.[a]

Shaktism's focus on the Divine Female does not imply a rejection of the male. It rejects masculine-feminine, male-female, soul-body, transcendent-immanent dualism, considering nature as divine. Devi is considered to be the cosmos itself – she is the embodiment of energy, matter and soul, the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe.[23] Yet in Shaktism, states C. MacKenzie Brown, the cultural concepts of masculine and the feminine as they exist among practitioners of Shaktism are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality.[24] In Hindu iconography, the cosmic dynamic of male-female or masculine-feminine interdependence and equivalence, is expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari.[25]

In Shakta theology, the female and male are interdependent realities, represented with Ardhanarishvara icon. Left: A 5th century art work representing this idea at the Elephanta Caves; Right: a painting of Ardhanarishvara.

The philosophical premise in many Shakta texts, states professor of Religious Studies June McDaniel, is syncretism of Samkhya and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, called Shaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).[26]

The Hindu monk Swami Vivekananda, remarked thus; about being an actual Shakti worshipper: "Do you know who is the real "Shakti-worshipper"? It is he who knows that God is the omnipresent force in the universe and sees in women the manifestation of that Force."[27] Shakta-universalist Sri Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures of the Hindu reform movements, believed that all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the same mother goddess.[28] The 18th-century Shakta bhakti poems and songs were composed by two Bengal court poets, Bharatchandra Ray and Ramprasad Sen,[28] and the Tamil collection Abhirami Anthadhi was composed by Abhirami Bhattar.[29]

### Scriptures

[edit]

The important scriptures of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads,[30] as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana,[31] the Lalita Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana).[32][33] The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism,[34] distilling into its 16 verses almost every important topic in Shakta Tantra tradition.[35] Along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya (commentary) in the second half of 2nd-millennium, such as the work of Bhaskararaya,[36] and Ramanand.[37] These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a Vedic attribute,[38] however this link has been contested by scholars.[39][40] Scriptures such as the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, and Shakta Upanishads like the Devi Upanishad are particularly revered.[41]

#### Devi Gita

[edit]

The seventh book of the Srimad Devi-Bhagavatam presents the theology of Shaktism.[42] This book is called Devi Gita, or the "Song of the Goddess".[42][43] The goddess explains she is the Brahman that created the world, asserting the Advaita premise that spiritual liberation occurs when one fully comprehends the identity of one's soul and the Brahman.[42][44] This knowledge, asserts the goddess, comes from detaching self from the world and meditating on one's own soul.[42][45]

The Devi Gita, such as the Bhagavad Gita, is a condensed philosophical treatise.[46] It presents the divine female as a powerful and compassionate creator, pervader and protector of the universe.[47] She is presented in the opening chapter of the Devi Gita as the benign and beautiful world-mother, called Bhuvaneshvari (literally, ruler of the universe).[48][46] Thereafter, the text presents its theological and philosophical teachings.[47]

> The soul and the Goddess

> My sacred syllable ह्रीम्] transcends,[b]
>  the distinction of name and named,
>  beyond all dualities.
>  It is whole, infinite being, consciousness and bliss.
>  One should meditate on that reality,
>  within the flaming light of consciousness.
>  Fixing the mind upon me,
>  as the Goddess transcending all space and time,
>  One quickly merges with me by realizing,
>  the oneness of the soul and Brahman.

—Devi Gita, Transl: Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott
Devibhagavata Purana, Book 7[51]

The Devi Gita describes the Devi (or goddess) as "universal, cosmic energy" resident within each individual. It thus weaves in the terminology of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.[47] The text is suffused with Advaita Vedanta ideas, wherein nonduality is emphasized, all dualities are declared as incorrect, and interconnected oneness of all living beings' souls with Brahman is held as the liberating knowledge.[52][53][54] However, adds Tracy Pintchman – a professor of Religious Studies and Hinduism, Devi Gita incorporates Tantric ideas giving the Devi a form and motherly character rather than the gender-neutral concept of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.[55]

### List of 8 Shakta Upanishads

[edit]

List of the Shakta Upanishads according to Muktikā anthology[citation needed] Title | Muktika serial # | Attached Veda | Period of creation

|
|
|

Sita Upanishad | 45  | Atharva Veda | At least 10,000 Years Before
Tripuratapini Upanishad | 80  | Atharva Veda  | At least 10,000 Years Before
Devi Upanishad | 81  | Atharva Veda  | At least 10,000 Years Before
Tripura Upanishad | 82  | Rigveda | At least 10,000 Years Before
Bhavana Upanishad | 84  | Atharva Veda  | At least 10,000 Years Before
Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad | 105  | Rigveda  | Unknown
Sarasvati-rahasya Upanishad | 106  | Krishna Yajurveda | At least 10,000 Years Before
Bahvricha Upanishad  | 107  | Rigveda  | At least 10,000 Years Before

## Principal deities

[edit]

Shaktism is a goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism,[56] involving many goddesses, all being regarded as various aspects, manifestations, or personifications of the same supreme goddess Shakti.[57][58] Shaktas approach the Devi in many forms; however, they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess.[59][60] The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta devotee is his or her ishta-devi, that is a personally selected Devi.[61] The selection of this deity can depend on many factors such as family tradition, regional practice, guru lineage, and personal resonance.[62]

A 9th-century Durga Shakti idol, victorious over demon Mahishasura, at the Shiva temple, Prambanan, Indonesia[63]

Some forms of the goddess are widely known in the Hindu world.[64] The common goddesses of Shaktism, popular in the Hindu thought at least by about mid 1st-millennium CE, include Parvati, Durga, Kali, Yogamaya, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Gayatri, Radha, and Sita.[65][7] In the Eastern part of India, after the decline of Buddhism in India, various Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined to form the Mahavidya, a pantheon of ten goddesses.[66]

The rarer forms of Devi found among tantric Shakta are the Mahavidyas, particularly Tripura Sundari, Bhuvaneshvari, Tara, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi, and Kamala.[67][68]

Other major goddess groups include the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major Gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the 64 Yoginis. The eight forms of the goddess Lakshmi, Ashtalakshmi; and the nine forms of goddess Durga, the Navadurgas, which are mainly worshipped during the Navaratri festival.[69] Also worshipped regularly are the numerous Gramadevatas across the Indian villages.[70]

## Tantric traditions

[edit]

A sage worships Devi, an 18th-century painting from the Tantrik Devi Series, Punjab, India

Sub-traditions of Shaktism include "Tantra", which refers to techniques, practices and ritual grammar involving mantra, yantra, nyasa, mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga, typically practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources.[71][72] There has been a historic debate between Shakta theologians on whether its tantric practices are Vedic or non-Vedic.[73][39][40]

The roots of Shakta Tantrism are unclear, probably ancient and independent of the Vedic tradition of Hinduism. The interaction between Vedic and Tantric traditions trace back to at least the sixth century,[73] and the surge in Tantra tradition developments during the late medieval period, states Geoffrey Samuel, were a means to confront and cope with Islamic invasions and political instability in and after the 14th century CE.[74]

Notable Shakta tantras are Saradatilaka Tantra of Lakshmanadesika (11th century), Kali Tantra (c. 15th century), Yogini Tantra, Sarvanandanatha's Sarvolassa Tantra, Brahmananda Giri's Saktananda Tarangini with Tararahasya and Purnananda Giri's Syamarahasya with Sritattvacintamani (16th century), Krishananda Agamavagisa's Tantrasara and Raghunatna Tarkavagisa Bhattacarya Agamatattvavilasa (17th century), as well as works of Bhaskaracharya (18th century).[75]

### Vidyāpīṭha

[edit]

The Vidyāpīṭha is subdivided into Vāmatantras, Yāmalatantras, and Śaktitantras.[76]

### Kulamārga

[edit]

The Kulamārga preserves some of the distinctive features of the Kāpālika tradition, from which it is derived.[77] It is subdivided into four subcategories of texts based on the goddesses Kuleśvarī, Kubjikā, Kālī and Tripurasundarī respectively.[78] The Trika texts are closely related to the Kuleśvarī texts and can be considered as part of the Kulamārga.[79]

## Worship

[edit]

A modern depiction of the Divine Mother as the supreme divine ultimate reality encompassing all divinities.

Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi's nature and form.[80] Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula (family of Tripura Sundari), strongest in South India, and the Kalikula (family of Kali), which prevails in northern and eastern India.[80]

### Srikula: family of Lalita Tripura Sundari

[edit]

The Srikula (family of Sri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita-Tripura Sundari. Rooted in first-millennium. Srikula became a force in South India no later than the seventh century, and is today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South Indian regions such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas of Sri Lanka.[81]

Sri Lalita-Tripurasundari enthroned with her left foot upon the Sri Chakra, holding her traditional symbols, the sugarcane bow, flower arrows, noose and goad

The Srikula's best-known school is Srividya, "one of Shakta Tantrism's most influential and theologically sophisticated movements." Its central symbol, the Sri Chakra, is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect.[82]

Srividya largely views the goddess as "benign [saumya] and beautiful [saundarya]" (in contrast to Kalikula's focus on "terrifying [ugra] and horrifying [ghora]" Goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice, moreover, every aspect of the goddess – whether malignant or gentle – is identified with Lalita.[83]

The Sri Chakra, also known as the Shri Yantra, is a mystical diagram used in Shaktism.

Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract Sri Chakra yantra, which is regarded as her subtle form. The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a two-dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part of the worship ritual, or permanently engraved in metal) or in the three-dimensional, pyramidal form known as the Sri Meru. It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri Meru installed in South Indian temples, because – as modern practitioners assert – "there is no disputing that this is the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can be done openly. But what you see in the temples is not the srichakra worship you see when it is done privately."[c]

The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams, the Kaula (a vamamarga practice) and the Samaya (a dakshinamarga practice). The Kaula or Kaulachara, first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India,[85] and its most revered theorist is the 18th-century philosopher Bhaskararaya, widely considered "the best exponent of Shakta philosophy."[86]

The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara, and is "fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste brahmanical norms."[87] Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric, though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both.[87] The Samaya-Kaula division marks "an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism".[87]

### Kalikula: family of Kali

[edit]

The Kalikula (Family of Kali) form of Shaktism is most dominant in northeastern India, and is most widely prevalent in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Odisha, as well as Nepal and Kerala. The goddesses Kubjika, Kulesvari, Chamunda, Chandi, Shamshan Kali (goddess of the cremation ground), Dakshina Kali, and Siddheshwari are worshipped in the region of Bengal to protect against disease and smallpox as well as ill omens. Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). The tantric part generally stands "in opposition to the brahmanic tradition," which they view as "overly conservative and denying the experiential part of religion."[88]

Kali as the supreme deity worshiped by Indra, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva

The main deities of the Kalikula tradition are Kali, Chandi, Bheema and Durga. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and all the other Mahavidyas, Kaumari as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa, the snake goddesses, Ṣaṣṭī, the protectress of children, Śītalā, the smallpox goddess, and Umā (the Bengali name for Parvati) — all of them, again, considered aspects of the Divine Mother.[28][88]

Kali in her Dakshina Kali form

In Nepal devi is mainly worshipped as the goddess Bhavani. She is one of the important Hindu deities in Nepal. Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat where the skull of Kali is believed to be worshipped along with her 25 forms. The kali ghat temple is located in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum district. In Calcutta, emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the goddess as Kali. Where the goddess (Kali) is seen as the destroyer of evil;

> She is "the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her] mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, and giving [of] offerings."[88]

At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation as Tara ("She Who Saves") or Ugratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including "conquest of the Goddess, exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."[88]

The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the 19th-century saint Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism:

> Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali.[89]

### Festivals

[edit]

Shaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals, as well as a huge variety of local, temple- or deity-specific observances. A few of the more important events are listed below:[90][56]

#### Navaratri

[edit]

Main article: Navaratri

The most important Shakta festival is Navaratri (lit. 'Festival of Nine Nights'), also known as "Sharad Navaratri" because it falls during the Hindu season of Sharad (September/October/November). This is the festival that worships the Navadurgas, forms of Devi. This festival – often taken together with the following tenth day, known as Dusshera or Vijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga's victory over a series of powerful demons described in the Devi Mahatmya.[91] In Bengal, the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja, and mark one episode in particular: Durga's iconic slaying of Mahishasura (lit., the "Buffalo Demon").[28][92] Durga Puja also became the main religio-cultural celebration within the Bengal diaspora in the West (together with Kali and Sarasvati Pujas, if a community enough big and rich).[93]

While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival, Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. The spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra Navatri, and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March/April). Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi's form as the goddess Tripura Sundari. The summer festival is called Ashada Navaratri, as it is held during the Hindu month of Ashadha (June/July). The Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu, with Vaishno Devi considered an aspect of Durga, celebrates Navaratri.[91][94] Ashada Navaratri, on the other hand, is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar-headed Goddess Varahi, one of the seven Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya.[95]

#### Vasant Panchami

[edit]

Main article: Vasant Panchami

Vasant Panchami is dedicated to Goddess Saraswati, the goddess of arts, skills, intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom. She is the consort of Lord Brahma, the creator.

She is mainly worshipped by students in schools and colleges in India. She was one of the significant deities of Vedic India, where she was worshipped in Gurukuls in ancient times. She embodies sound and voice itself. Vasant Panchami is primarily celebrated in February.

#### Diwali and others

[edit]

Main article: Diwali

Lakshmi Puja is a part of Durga Puja celebrations by Shaktas, where Laksmi symbolizes the goddess of abundance and autumn harvest.[96] Lakshmi's biggest festival, however, is Diwali (or Deepavali; the "Festival of Lights"), a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India and in Nepal as Tihar. In North India, Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year, and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess's blessings.[97] Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja, popular in Bengal,[28] and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Parvati rather than Lakshmi.[98]

A gopuram (tower) of the Meenakshi Amman Temple, a Shakta temple at Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the Navaratis, following Kali Puja. It is very similar to Durga Puja in its details and observance, and is especially popular in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India. Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi, during Ganesha Puja in Western India, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri, Mother of Ganesha where she brings her son back home.[citation needed]

Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and Ambubachi Mela. The Meenakshi Kalyanam is a part of the Chithirai Thiruvizha festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of goddess Meenakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Parvati in marriage to Shiva.[99] Ambubachi Mela or Ameti is a celebration of the menstruation of the goddess, by hundreds of thousands of devotees, in a festival held in June/July (during the monsoon season) at Kamakhya Temple, Guwahati, Assam. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like stone, and the site is one of Shakta Pitha or pilgrimage sites in Shaktism.[100]

### Animal sacrifice

[edit]

Shakti tradition practices animal sacrifice to revere goddesses such as Kali in many parts of India but particularly in the eastern and Himalayan states of India and Nepal. This is either an actual animal, or a vegetable or sweet dish substitute considered equivalent to the animal.[101] In many cases, Shakti devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[102]

In Shakti mythology, Durga slays an evil buffalo demon (left, 18th century statue).[103] Right: A buffalo about to be sacrificed by a villager during Durga puja festival. The buffalo sacrifice practice, however, is rare in contemporary India.[104]

In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakti temples, particularly to mark the legend of goddess Durga slaying the buffalo demon. This involves slaying of a goat or a male water buffalo. Animal sacrifice is also an essential component as part of the Kaula tantra school of Shaktism. This practice is rare among Hindus, outside this region.[103]

In Bengal, the animal sacrifice ritual follows the guidelines as seen in texts such as Mahanirvana Tantra. This ritual includes selecting the animal, then a priest offers a prayer to the animal, then recites the Gayatri Mantra in its ear before killing it.[105] The meat of the sacrificed animal is then cooked and eaten by the Shakta devotees.[103]

In Nepal, animal sacrifice en masse occurs during the three-day-long Gadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were sacrificed during this event.[106][107]

In Odisha, during the Bali Jatra, Shakti devotees sacrifice male goats to the goddess Samaleswari in her temple in Sambalpur, Orissa.[108]

The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places.[109][110] The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior. The ritual is directed by a priest.[111] The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.[112]

Animal sacrifice of a buffalo or goat, particularly during smallpox epidemics, has been practiced in parts of South India. The sacrificed animal is dedicated to a goddess, and is probably related to the myth of goddess Kali in Andhra Pradesh, but in Karnataka, the typical goddess is Renuka. According to Alf Hiltebeitel – a professor of Religions, History and Human Sciences, these ritual animal sacrifices, with some differences, mirrors goddess - related ritual animal sacrifice found in Gilgamesh epic and in texts of Egyptian, Minoan and Greek sources.[113]

In the 19th century through the early 20th century, Indian laborers were shipped by the British Empire into colonial mining and plantations operations in the Indian ocean and the Caribbean regions. These included a significant amount of Shakta devotees. While instances of Shakta animal sacrifice during Kali puja in the Caribbean islands were recorded between 1850s to 1920s, these were relatively uncommon when compared to other rituals such as temple prayers, community dancing and fire walking.[114]

## Shaktism versus other Hindu traditions

[edit]

The tantra practices are secretive, subject to speculations and criticism. Scholars variously attribute such criticism to ignorance, misunderstanding or sectarian bias on the part of some observers, as well as unscrupulous practices by some Shaktas. These are some of the reasons many Hindus question the relevance and historicity of Tantra to their tradition.[115][40] The emphasis in Shaktism that love of the deity is more important than obedience shows an influence of the Vaishnavaite idea of passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna as an ideal bhava.[116] Similarly, Shaktism influenced Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The goddess is considered the consort and energy (shakti) of the gods Vishnu and Shiva; they have their individual shaktis, Vaishnavi for Vishnu and Maheshvari for Shiva, and consorts Lakshmi and Sati/Parvati.[117]

"The Hindoo Goddess Kali", an illustration from Dr. Scudder's Tales for Little Readers About the Heathen, by Dr. John Scudder (London, 1849)

Beyond tantra, the Shakta sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Smartism as follows:

Comparison of Shaktism with other traditions  | Vaishnava Traditions | Shaiva Traditions | Shakta Traditions | Smarta Traditions | References

|
|
|
|
|

Scriptural authority | Vedas and Upanishads | Vedas and Upanishads | Vedas, Upanishads and Tantras | Vedas and Upanishads | [118][119]
Supreme deity | God Vishnu | God Shiva | Goddess Devi | None | [120][121]
Creator | Vishnu | Shiva | Devi | Brahman principle | [120][122]
Avatar | Key concept | Minor | Significant | Minor | [118][123][124]
Monastic life | Accepts | Recommends | Accepts | Recommends | [118][125][126]
Rituals, Bhakti | Affirms | Affirms[127][128][129] | Affirms | Optional[130] | [131]
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism | Affirms | Recommends,[127] Optional | Optional | Recommends, recommends Optional | [132][133]
Free will, Maya, Karma | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms | Affirms | [120]
Metaphysics | Brahman (Vishnu) and Atman (Soul, Self) | Brahman (Shiva), Atman | Brahman (Devi), Atman | Brahman, Atman | [120]
Epistemology
(Pramana) | 1\. Perception
2\. Inference
3\. Reliable testimony | 1\. Perception
2\. Inference
3\. Reliable testimony
4\. Self-evident[134] | 1\. Perception
2\. Inference
3\. Reliable testimony | 1\. Perception
2\. Inference
3\. Comparison and analogy
4\. Postulation, derivation
5\. Negative/cognitive proof
6\. Reliable testimony | [135][136][137]
Philosophy | Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita, Visishtadvaita | Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita | Shakti-advaita, Samkhya | Advaita | [138]
Salvation
(Soteriology) | Videhamukti, Yoga,
champions householder life | Jivanmukta,
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[139] | Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga | Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,
champions monastic life | [140][141]

## Demography

[edit]

There is no census data available on demographic history or trends for Shaktism or other traditions within Hinduism.[142] Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Shaktism compared to other traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Shaktism tradition is the smaller group with about 30 million or 3.2% of Hindus.[143] According to a 2020 estimate by the World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), Shaktism is the third largest Hindu sect, constituting about 305 million Hindus.[144]

Adherents of Shaktism are referred to as Shaktas.[145] Large shakta communities are particularly found in eastern states, such as West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Tripura with substantial communities also existing in Punjab, Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Gujarat and Central India.[146][147] In West Bengal Shaktas belong to the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes, while the lower middle castes are Vaishnavas.[28]

Gavin Flood states that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[148] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses henotheistically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[149]

## Temples and influence

[edit]

Further information: List of Shakti Temples and Shakti Peethas

Shakta temples are found all over South Asia. Many towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi.[150] Major pilgrimage sites of Shaktism are called "Shakti Peethas", literally "Seats of the Devi". These vary from 4 to 51.[151]

Jwala Ji

Kanyakumari

Manasarovar

Puri

Kolkata

Guwahati

class=notpageimage|

The map depicts location of Shakti Peethas in South Asia, major (blue) and minor (red).

Some Shakta temples are also found in Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, Australia and elsewhere.[152] Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach, California;[153] and Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam,[154] a Srividya temple in rural Rush, New York.[155]

Some feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to Goddess worship", suggest Shaktism is a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality."[152]

### Buddhism

[edit]

There has been a significant sharing of ideas, ritual grammar and concepts between Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana tradition) found in Nepal and Tibet and the Tantric Shakta tradition of Hinduism.[156][157] Both movements cherish female deities.[158] According to Miranda Shaw, "the confluence of Buddhism and Shaktism is such that Tantric Buddhism could properly be called Shakta Buddhism".[159]

The Buddhist Aurangabad Caves about 100 kilometers from the Ellora Caves, dated to the 6th to 7th century CE, show Buddhist Matrikas (mother goddesses of Shaktism) next to the Buddha.[160] Other goddesses in these caves include Durga. The goddess iconography in these Buddhist caves is close, but not identical to the Hindu Shakta tradition. The "seven Goddess mothers" are found in other Buddhist caves and literature, such as their discussion in the Buddhist text Manjusrimulakalpa and Vairocanabhisambodhi.[160][161]

Matrika – mother goddesses – are found in both Shakta-Hinduism and Vajrayana-Buddhism.[162][163]

### Jainism

[edit]

In Jainism, ideas similar to Shaktism tradition are found, such as the Vidyadevis and the Shasanadevis.[157]

### Sikhism

[edit]

The secondary scripture of Sikhs, Dasam Granth attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, includes numerous sections on Shakta goddesses, particularly Chandi – the fierce warrior form of the Hindu goddess.[164] According to Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh – a professor of Religious Studies, the stories about goddess Durga in the Dasam Granth are reworkings of ancient Shakti mythologies.[165] A significant part of this Sikh scripture is based on the teachings in the Shakta text Devi Mahatmya found in the Markandeya Purana of Hinduism.[166]

## See also

[edit]

* Palden Lhamo – Female Tibetan Buddhist deity
* Tridevi – Trinity of chief goddesses in Hinduism
* Caribbean Shaktism

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, VII.33.13-15, cited in Brown 1991[22]
2. ^ ह्रीम् is pronounced as hrīm, it is a tantric mantra bīja, and it identifies a "Shakti".[49][50]
3. ^ A senior member of Guru Mandali, Madurai, November 1984, cited in Brooks 1992.[84]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ "List of religious populations | Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
2. ^ Kenoyer et al. 1983, pp. 88–94.
3. ^ Singh 2018.
4. ^ a b McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
5. ^ a b Brown 1998, p. 26.
6. ^

* "The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125". Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith.
* "for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५".

7. ^ a b c d Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 2600.
8. ^ Deussen 1980, pp. 207–208, 211–213 verses 14–28.
9. ^ Johnston 2014, pp. 229–232.
10. ^ a b Saxena 2012, p. 139.
11. ^ Coburn 2002, p. 7.
12. ^ Rocher 1986, p. 193.
13. ^ Coburn 1991, p. 16.
14. ^ Vivek 2021.
15. ^ Maharaj 2020, p. 281.
16. ^ Bhattacharyya 1996, p. 1.
17. ^ Dura 2016.
18. ^ Duvm 2023.
19. ^ Duaj 2022.
20. ^ 108u 2022.
21. ^ Dikshitar 1999, pp. 77–78.
22. ^ Brown 1991, p. 186.
23. ^ Saxena 2012, pp. 134–138, 140.
24. ^ Brown 1991, p. 217.
25. ^ Yadav 2001.
26. ^ McDaniel 2004, pp. 89–91.
27. ^ Vivek 2021a.
28. ^ a b c d e f McDermott 2005, p. 826.
29. ^ Dalal 2014.
30. ^ Krishna Warrier 1999, pp. ix–x.
31. ^ Bhattacharyya 1996, p. 164.
32. ^ Dikshitar 1999, pp. 1–36.
33. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 8, 17, 10, 21, 320.
34. ^ Brooks 1990, pp. xiii–xiv.
35. ^ Brooks 1990, pp. xvi.
36. ^ Brooks 1990, pp. 37–38.
37. ^ Brooks 1990, p. 221 with note 64.
38. ^ Dasgupta 1996, p. 3.
39. ^ a b Brooks 1990, pp. xiii–xiv, xvi, 21.
40. ^ a b c Urban 1997, pp. 1–38.
41. ^ Jones & Ryan 2014, p. 399.
42. ^ a b c d Rocher 1986, p. 170.
43. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 1–2, 85–98.
44. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 12–17.
45. ^ Pintchman 2015, pp. 131–138.
46. ^ a b Brown 1990, pp. 179–198. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrown1990 (help)
47. ^ a b c Brown 1998, pp. 1–3.
48. ^ Pintchman 2014, pp. 26–28.
49. ^ Rigopoulos 1998, p. 72.
50. ^ Brooks 1992, p. 94.
51. ^ Foulston & Abbott 2009, pp. 74–75.
52. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 1–3, 12–17.
53. ^ Pintchman 2015, pp. 9, 34, 89–90, 131–138.
54. ^ Foulston & Abbott 2009, pp. 15–16.
55. ^ Pintchman 2014, pp. 9–10.
56. ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 174–176.
57. ^ Klostermaier 2010, pp. 30, 114–116, 233–245.
58. ^ Melton & Baumann 2010, pp. 2600–2602.
59. ^ Kinsley 1987.
60. ^ Kali 2003, p. 149.
61. ^ Monaghan 2011, pp. 26, 94.
62. ^ Kinsley 1987, pp. 102–104.
63. ^ Ooi 2004, pp. 1101–1102.
64. ^ Greenberg 2008, pp. 254–256.
65. ^ Kinsley 1987, pp. 1–5.
66. ^ Sanderson 2014, p. 80.
67. ^ Kinsley 1987, pp. 161–165.
68. ^ Kinsley 1998.
69. ^ Bhattacharyya 1996, p. 126.
70. ^ Sharma 2000, p. 65.
71. ^ Brooks 1990, pp. 47–72.
72. ^ Harper & Brown 2012, pp. 48, 117, 40–53.
73. ^ a b Brooks 1990, p. xii.
74. ^ Samuel 2010, pp. 60–61, 87–88, 351–356.
75. ^ McDermott 2005, p. 827.
76. ^ Sanderson 2014, pp. 35, 37.
77. ^ Sanderson 2014, pp. 4–5, 11, 57.
78. ^ Sanderson 2014, pp. 57–65.
79. ^ Sanderson 2014, pp. 59–60, 68.
80. ^ a b Subramuniyaswami 2002, p. 1211.
81. ^ Brooks 1992, p. back cover.
82. ^ Brooks 1990, p. xiii.
83. ^ Brooks 1992, pp. 59–60.
84. ^ Brooks 1992, p. 56.
85. ^ White 2003, p. 219.
86. ^ Bhattacharyya 1996, p. 209.
87. ^ a b c Brooks 1990, p. 28.
88. ^ a b c d McDaniel n.d. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcDanieln.d. (help)
89. ^ Nikhilananda 2000, p. 734.
90. ^ Pattanaik 2000, pp. 103–109.
91. ^ a b Kinsley 1987, pp. 95–115.
92. ^ Durgapuja 2007.
93. ^ McDermott 2005, p. 830.
94. ^ Wadley 2004, pp. 103–104.
95. ^ Srinivasan 2007.
96. ^ Kinsley 1987, p. 33.
97. ^ Diwali 2007.
98. ^ Kalipooja 2007.
99. ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, pp. 112–113.
100. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 184.
101. ^ McDermott 2011, pp. 204–205.
102. ^ Katznelson & Jones 2010, p. 343.
103. ^ a b c Fuller 2004, p. 83.
104. ^ Fuller 2004, p. 141.
105. ^ McDermott 2011, p. 205.
106. ^ Lang 2009.
107. ^ Shrestha 2009.
108. ^ Pfeffer & Behera 1997, p. 312.
109. ^ Harlan 2003, pp. 45, 55, 58–59.
110. ^ Hiltebeitel & Erndl 2000, p. 77.
111. ^ Harlan 1992, pp. 61, 88.
112. ^ Harlan 1992, pp. 107–108.
113. ^ Hiltebeitel 1980, pp. 187–195, 211–214.
114. ^ Taylor & Case 2013, pp. 285–288.
115. ^ White 2003, p. 262.
116. ^ McDaniel 2004, p. 11.
117. ^ Kinsley 1987, p. 156.
118. ^ a b c Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 474.
119. ^ Dhavamony 1999, pp. 32–34.
120. ^ a b c d Gonda 1970.
121. ^ Partridge 2013, p. 182.
122. ^ Gupta 2013, pp. 65–71.
123. ^ Eng 2008, p. 221.
124. ^ Dhavamony 2002, p. 63.
125. ^ Phillips 1995, p. 332 note 68.
126. ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. 4–18.
127. ^ a b Flood 1996, pp. 162–167.
128. ^ Shaivas 2017.
129. ^ Munavalli 2007, p. 83.
130. ^ Prakash 1998, pp. 56–57.
131. ^ Frazier 2013.
132. ^ Kemmerer & Nocella 2011, pp. 27–36.
133. ^ Simoons 1998, pp. 182–183.
134. ^ Sivaraman 1973, pp. 336–340.
135. ^ Grimes 1996, p. 238.
136. ^ Flood 1996, p. 225.
137. ^ Deutsche 2000, pp. 245–248.
138. ^ McDaniel 2004, pp. 177–225.
139. ^ Hurley & Hurley 2012, p. 5.
140. ^ Skoog 1996, pp. 63–84, 236–239.
141. ^ Prasad 2008, p. 375.
142. ^ Pew 2012.
143. ^ Johnson & Grim 2013, p. 400.
144. ^ Preston 2024.
145. ^ Merriam 2023.
146. ^ Zeidan 2024.
147. ^ Odisha 2018.
148. ^ Flood 2008, p. 200: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".
149. ^ Lipner 2009, pp. 371–375.
150. ^ Pattanaik 2000, pp. 110–114.
151. ^ Bhattacharyya 1996, p. 171.
152. ^ a b McDermott 1998, pp. 281–305.
153. ^ Kalimandir 2016.
154. ^ Srividya 2016.
155. ^ Dempsey 2006.
156. ^ Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 2599.
157. ^ a b Dalal 2010, p. 332.
158. ^ Keul 2012, p. 119.
159. ^ Saxena 2012, p. 137.
160. ^ a b Brancaccio 2010, p. 21, 202–207: "To the right of the main Buddha image, carved out of the wall of the sanctum, is an ensemble of seven female images".
161. ^ Gray & Overbey 2016, pp. 47–48.
162. ^ Keul 2012, pp. 119–123.
163. ^ Roberts 2011, p. 715.
164. ^ Rinehart 2011, pp. 71, 107–110.
165. ^ Elsberg 2003, pp. 37–38.
166. ^ Singh & Fenech 2014, p. 139.

### Works cited

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#### Books and Journals

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* Kemmerer, Lisa; Nocella, Anthony J. (2011). Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern. ISBN 978-1-59056-281-9.
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* Nikhilananda, Swami (trans.) (2000) [1942]. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (9th ed.). New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center.
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* Sanderson, Alexis (2014) [2012–2013]. "The Śaiva Literature" (PDF). Journal of Indological Studies (24 & 25). Kyoto. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
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* Wadley, Susan Snow (2004). Raja Nal and the Goddess: The North Indian Epic Dhola in Performance. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-11127-7.
* White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-89483-6.
* Yadav, Neeta (2001). Ardhanārīśvara in Art and Literature. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
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#### Websites

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* "Complete-Works/Volume 5/Epistles-First Series". ramakrishnavivekananda.info. Archived from the original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
* "Devi Upanishad – Rishi Atharvan". 10 October 2016. Archived from the original on 20 June 2023.
* "Devi Upanishad – Vyasa Mahabharata". Archived from the original on 28 October 2023.
* "Devi Upanishad". Astrojyoti.com. 30 May 2022. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
* "Full text of "108 Upanishads English Translation"". 14 January 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
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* "Kali Pooja in Bengal". Diwalifestival.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2007.
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## Further reading

[edit]

* Chatterji, Usha (1968). "Shakta and Shakti" (PDF). Studies in Comparative Religion. 2 (4).
* Kinsley, David (1978). "The Portrait of the Goddess in the Devī-māhātmya". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. XLVI (4): 489–506\. doi:10.1093/jaarel/XLVI.4.489. JSTOR 1463045.
* Koester, Hans (1929). "The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti". Journal of the Siam Society. 23 (1): 1–18.

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