Shifta

East African term for a rebel, outlaw, and/or bandit

Shifta is a term mostly used in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, and Somalia that can be translated as "bandit" or "outlaw", but can include anyone who rebels against an authority or an institution that is seen as illegitimate, like the Arbegnoch guerillas during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia.[1] The Swahili word was loaned from the Somali shufta during the Shifta War, and is in turn derived from Amharic ሽፍታ (šəfta).[2][3]

Historically, the shifta served as a local militia in particularly remote, rural and often lawless parts of the Horn of Africa, namely the Ethiopian Highlands.

This word had a heroic or anti-heroic connotation rather than a villainous character (similar to the historical romanticization of the legendary outlaw Robin Hood in western society), over time, the term has taken on a more villainous meaning.[4][5]

## Concept

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The term shifta has positive and negative connotations, that of a common bandit and that of a revolutionary; both concepts being distinct, but not necessarily mutually exclusive. They are often considered as highly respected, politically-minded outlaws struggling for social order or a political cause. When applied in this context, shiftinnet (being a shifta) in its diverse forms has a social function as a form of conflict resolution.

## History

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Ethiopian warriors in 1770, during the Zemene Mesafint

One of the first mentions of shifta-like activity in the region comes from the Portuguese in medieval Ethiopia who stated that due to the countries mountainous nature rebels could hide out in the countryside, evading capture by imperial troops, setting up ambushes, and subsisting off the local land for months. The idea of the shifta as a form of law enforcement in east Africa likely comes from northern Ethiopian societies historical propensity for blood feud (Amharic: ደመላሽ, romanized: Demelash, lit. '"blood return" or "response"'). A common occurrence in many Middle Eastern, North African, and Horn African cultures,[6] it plays a larger role in Amhara and Agew culture as those wanted for murder can easily escape arrest due to the rugged and difficult-to-traverse topography of the Ethiopian Highlands, leading next of kin to take matters into their own hands.[7]

In Ethiopia, individuals who started as shifta have risen to the level of regional or Emperor thus legitimizing the concept of shifta itself. Two nineteenth-century shiftas, Kassa Hailu[8] of Gondar and Kassa Mercha of Tigre, became Emperor Tewodros and Emperor Yohannes respectively in the late 19th century. Thus the shiftas formed the military elite and became the core of the resistance, using their military skills against the Italians. Conventionally however, a shifta whose acts trespassed social norms would be called t'era-shifta and would be regarded as a thief or bandit. Nevertheless, to be described as a shifta, especially during the Italian occupation, was an honor for an Ethiopian and this was how resistance started and spread. In Eritrea, during the British administration, military units were used to police the lawless areas and stop common shifta activity.[9][10]

In recent times, both prime ministers Isaias Afewerki of Eritrea and Meles Zenawi of Ethiopia were called shifta when they served, respectively, as rebel leaders of the EPLF and TPLF,[11] along with members of the 21st century Amhara ethnic nationalist Fano.

## See also

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* Brigandage
* Shifta War, (1963–1967) in northeastern Kenya
* Klepht, a similar status in Greece.
* Arbegnoch
* Fano (militia)

## References and notes

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1. ^ "Hunt for tourists moves to Eritrea". Scotland on Sunday. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
2. ^ Hamilton, David; Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky, Chris Prouty (September 2004). Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810849105.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
3. ^ shifta Definition Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, Encarta
4. ^ "Somali Refugees in Kenya". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2007-03-16. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
5. ^ "African Banditry Revisted" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
6. ^ Roeder, Larry W., Jr. The Sinai Bedouin Archived 2007-01-27 at the Wayback Machine
7. ^ The Causes of Blood Feud in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia - Kumilachew Siferaw Anteneh, Gubaye Assaye Alamineh, Mohammed Seid Ali & Abebe Dires, August 2021, African Studies, Bahir Dar University
8. ^ Jon Abbink; Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven (2003). Rethinking Resistance: revolt and violence in African history. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 95–96\. ISBN 90-04-12624-4.
9. ^ "Battling the Shifta in Eritrea". Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
10. ^ "THE ROYAL BERKSHIRE REGIMENT THE LAST TWELVE YEARS". Retrieved 2007-04-07.
11. ^ Abbink, Jon; Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven (September 2003). Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9789004126244.