Sierra Leone Creole people

Ethnic group of Sierra Leone

Ethnic group

Creole people of Sierra Leone
(Krio)

Samuel Coleridge-Taylor

Total population
104,311 (2022)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Sierra Leone, Gambia, United States, United Kingdom
Languages
Krio, English
Religion
Anglican • Methodist • Catholic • Baptist • Countess of Huntingdon
Related ethnic groups
African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, Americo-Liberians, Atlantic Creoles, Black Britons, Black Nova Scotians, Gambian Creoles, Gold Coast Euro-Africans, Jamaican Maroons, Krio Fernandinos, Saro people, Tabom people.
Part of a series on

African Americans

History

|  Periods

* Timeline
* Atlantic slave trade
* Abolitionism in the United States
* Slavery in the colonial history of the US
* Revolutionary War
* Antebellum period
* Slavery and military history during the Civil War
* Reconstruction era
* Politicians
* Juneteenth
* Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
* Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
* Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
* Black power movement
* Post–civil rights era

Aspects

* Agriculture history
* Black Belt in the American South
* Business history
* Military history
* Treatment of the enslaved

Migrations

* Great Migration
* Second Great Migration
* New Great Migration

Culture

|  Lifeways

* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food

Schools

* Education during the slave period in the US
* Education of freed people during the Civil War
* History of African-American education, after the Civil War
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Fraternities

Academic study

* Studies
* Art
* Literature

Celebrations

* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Black History Month
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa

Economic class

* African-American businesses
* Middle class
* Upper class
* Billionaires

Symbols and ideas

* African-American beauty
* Black is beautiful
* Black pride
* African-American hair
* Good hair
* Stepping
* "Lift Every Voice and Sing"
* Self-determination

Religion

|  Institutions

* Black church

Theologies

* Black theology
* Womanist theology

Non-Christian groups

* Hoodoo
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* African-American Jews
* African-American Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Louisiana Voodoo
* African Diaspora Religions

Politics

|  Organizations

* Congressional Black Caucus
* Joint Center
* National Black Caucus of State Legislators
* National Conference of Black Mayors

Ideologies

* Afrocentrism
* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Garveyism
* Leftism
* Liberalism
* Nationalism
* Pan-Africanism
* Patriotism
* Populism
* Radicalism
* Socialism

Civic/economic groups

|  Organizations

* Association for the Study of African
American Life and History
* Black conductors
* NAACP
* National Black Chamber of Commerce
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Pan-Hellenic Council
* National Urban League
* TransAfrica
* UNCF

Sports

* Negro league baseball

Athletic associations and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* HBCU (HBCUAC)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Sub-communities

|  Multiethnic

* African-American Jews
* Afro-Puerto Ricans
* Alabama Creole people
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Mascogos
* Blaxicans
* Brass Ankles
* Creoles of color
* Dominickers
* Freedmen
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creoles
* Melungeon
* Carmel
* Redbone

Specific ancestries

* Americo-Liberians
* Creek Freedmen
* Gullah
* Merikins
* Nova Scotians
* Samaná Americans
* Sierra Leone Creole

Sexual orientation

* LGBT community

Dialects and languages

|  English dialects

* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* Liberian English
* Samaná English
* Tutnese

Languages and other dialects

* Gullah
* Afro-Seminole Creole
* Negro Dutch
* Black American Sign Language

Population

|  US states

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Florida
* Georgia
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* New York
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Virginia

US cities

* Black mecca
* List of neighborhoods
* Atlanta
* Baltimore
* Boston
* Chicago
* Dallas-Fort Worth
* Davenport
* Detroit
* Houston
* Jacksonville
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Los Angeles
* New York City
* Omaha
* Philadelphia
* San Antonio
* San Francisco

Historic places

* District of Columbia
* Florida
* Georgia
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Omaha, Nebraska
* North Carolina
* South Carolina
* Texas
* West Virginia

Population count

* US states and territories
* US metropolitan areas
* US cities
* US communities
* Places by plurality of population

Diaspora

* Africa
* Canada
* France
* Ghana
* Israel
* Liberia
* Nova Scotia
* Sierra Leone

Prejudice

|  Racism

* Black genocide
* Race and ethnicity in the US census
* Racism against Black Americans
* Reparations for slavery
* School segregation in the US
* Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

Stereotypes and media depictions

* Blackface
* Criminal stereotypes
* Hollywood
* Magical Negro
* Minstrel show

* United States portal
* Category
* Index

* v
* t
* e

The Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: Krio pipul) are an ethnic group of Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone Creole people are descendants of freed African-American, Afro-Caribbean, and Liberated African slaves who settled in the Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885. The colony was established by the British, supported by abolitionists, under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. The settlers called their new settlement Freetown.[2] Today, the Sierra Leone Creoles are 1.2 percent of the population of Sierra Leone.[1]

The Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry,[3][4] similar to their Americo-Liberian neighbours and sister ethnic group in Liberia.[5][6] In Sierra Leone, some of the settlers intermarried with English colonial residents and other Europeans.[7][8] Through the Jamaican Maroons, some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taíno ancestry.[9][10] The mingling of newly freed black and racially-mixed Nova Scotians[11] and Jamaican Maroons from the 'New World' with Liberated Africans – such as the Akan, Bakongo, Ewe, Igbo and Yoruba – over several generations in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, led to the eventual formation of a Creole ethnicity.[12][13][14][15]

The Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American, Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.[16][17][1] Thoroughly westernized in their manners, the Creoles as a class developed close relationships with the British colonial administration; they became educated in British institutions and advanced to prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa.[18] Partly due to this history, many Sierra Leone Creoles have first names and/or surnames that are anglicized or British in origin.

The Creoles are overwhelmingly Christian[a] and the vast majority of them reside in Freetown and its surrounding Western Area region of Sierra Leone.[21] From their mix of peoples, the Creoles developed what is now the native Krio language, a creole deriving from English, indigenous West African languages, and other European languages. It is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 96 percent of the country's population,[1][22] it unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[23][24] Krio is also the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad.[25]

The Sierra Leone Creoles settled across West Africa in the nineteenth century in communities such as Limbe (Cameroon); Conakry (Guinea); Banjul (Gambia); Lagos, Abeokuta, Calabar, Onisha (Nigeria); Accra, Cape Coast (Ghana) and Fernando Pó (Equatorial Guinea).[26] The Krio language of the Creole people influenced other pidgins such as Cameroonian Pidgin English, Nigerian Pidgin English, and Pichinglis.[27][28] As a result of their history, the Gambian Creole people, or Aku people of the Gambia,[29][30] the Saro people of Nigeria,[31][32][33] and the Krio Fernandinos of Equatorial Guinea,[34][35][36] are sub-ethnic groups or partly descended from the Sierra Leone Creole people or their ancestors.

## Ethnonymy and overview

[edit]

The English word creole[b] derives from the French créole, which in turn came from Portuguese crioulo, a diminutive of cria, meaning a person raised in one's house. Cria derives from criar, meaning "to raise or bring up", itself derived from the Latin creare, meaning "to make, bring forth, produce, beget";[37] — itself the source of the English word "create". The word creole has several cognates in other languages, such as créole, creolo, criol, criollo, crioulo, kreol, kreyol, krio, kriol, kriolu, and kriyoyo.

In Louisiana, the term Creole has been used since 1792 to represent descendants of African or ethnically mixed parents as well as children of French and Spanish descent with no racial mixing.[38][39][40] Its use to describe languages started from 1879, while as an adjective, from 1748.[37] In some Spanish-speaking countries, the word Criollo is used today to describe something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country.[41]

In the Caribbean, the term broadly refers to all the people, whatever their class or ancestry — African, East Asian, European, Indian — who are part of the culture of the Caribbean.[42] In Trinidad, the term Creole is used to designate all Trinidadians except those of Asian origin. In French Guiana the term refers to anyone, regardless of skin colour, who has adopted a European way of life, and in neighbouring Suriname, the term refers only to the descendants of enslaved Africans.[14][42]

In Africa, the term Creole refers to any ethnic group formed during the European colonial era, with some mix of African and non-African racial or cultural heritage.[43] Creole communities are found on most African islands and along the continent's coastal regions where indigenous Africans first interacted with Europeans. As a result of these contacts, five major Creole types emerged: Portuguese, African American, Dutch, French and British.[43]

The Crioulos of African or mixed Portuguese and African descent eventually gave rise to several ethnic groups in Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé e Príncipe, Angola and Mozambique.[44] The Mauritian and Seychellois Creoles are Africans with some French cultural ancestry and are Christianized. On La Réunion, the term Creole applies to the descendants of enslaved Africans born on the island,[45] while in South Africa, the blending of East African and Southeast Asian slaves with Dutch settlers, later produced a creolized population.[46] The Fernandino Creole peoples of Equatorial Guinea are a mix of Afro-Cubans with Emancipados and English-speaking Liberated Africans,[47] while the Americo-Liberians and Sierra Leone Creoles resulted from the intermingling of African Recaptives with Afro-Caribbeans and African Americans.[48][49]

Perhaps due to the range of divergent descriptions and lack of a coherent definition, Norwegian anthropologist T. H. Eriksen concludes:

> “A Creole society, in my understanding, is based wholly or partly on the mass displacement of people who were, often involuntarily, uprooted from their original home, shedding the main features of their social and political organisations on the way, brought into sustained contact with people from other linguistic and cultural areas and obliged to develop, in creative and improvisational ways, new social and cultural forms in the new land, drawing simultaneously on traditions from their respective places of origin and on impulses resulting from the encounter.”[14]

Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality (2020)

Today, Creole communities have more in common with each other than they have with any African ethnic groups. On the islands of Africa, creole languages predominate while on the mainland, creole languages are lingua franca or national languages in Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and South Africa. In island communities, Creoles are found in many occupations ranging from agricultural workers to members of society's elite. In the coastal areas of mainland Africa, Creoles acquired economic and political leverage due to their education, culture and close relationships with the colonial administration. They developed a strong sense of ethnic identity and formed their own political organisations. During the independence era of the mid-1900s, some Creoles supported colonial rule but many fought for independence and held positions of power afterwards. In most countries however, Creole political influence gradually gave way to ethnic groups from the interior that were considered 'more African'.[43]

Creole communities in Africa have grown in several ways. Elements of their culture, including language and music, have come to dominate popular culture on the islands. In Creole-established cities on the African mainland, some non-Creoles have assimilated into Creole societies, which are perceived to enjoy privileged status. Those seeking acceptance into a Creole community usually converted to Christianity, the religion shared by nearly all Creoles.[43]

## History

[edit]

In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves, primarily African Americans freed during the American Revolutionary War who had been evacuated to London, and Afro-Caribbeans and Africans from London, to relocate to Sierra Leone to settle in what they called the "Province of Freedom." Some of these early settlers had been freed earlier and worked as servants in London. Most of the first group died due to disease and warfare with indigenous peoples. About 64 survived to establish the second Granville Town following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789.

In 1792, 1200 Nova Scotian Settlers from Nova Scotia settled and established the Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown; these were African Americans and their descendants. Many of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. The Crown had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters, and thousands joined the British lines. The British resettled 3,000 of the African Americans in Nova Scotia, where many found the climate harsh and struggled with discrimination from white Nova Scotians. More than 1,200 volunteered to settle and establish the new colony of Freetown, which was established by British abolitionists under the Sierra Leone Company.

In 1800, the British government also transported 550 Jamaican maroons to Sierra Leone and subsequent waves of African American and Afro-Caribbean immigrants would settle in Sierra Leone throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

After Britain and the United States abolished the international African slave trade beginning in 1808, they patrolled off the continent to intercept illegal shipping. The British resettled Liberated Africans from slave ships at Freetown. The Liberated Africans included people from the Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Fante, and other ethnicities of West Africa.[15]

Some members of indigenous Sierra Leone ethnicities, were also among the Liberated Africans resettled at Freetown; they also assimilated into Creole culture. Others came to the settlement voluntarily, seeing opportunities in Creole culture in the society.[16]

### Black Poor and Province of Freedom 1787–1789

[edit]

Main article: Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor

The first settlers to find a colony in Sierra Leone were the so-called "Black Poor": African Americans and Afro-Caribbean. 411 settlers arrived in May 1787. Some were Black Loyalists who were either evacuated or travelled to England to petition for a land of their own; Black Loyalists had joined British forces during the American Revolutionary War, many on promises of freedom from enslavement.[50][51]

On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone, 96 passengers died.[52] However, enough survived to establish and build a colony. Seventy white women accompanied the men to Sierra Leone. Anna Falconbridge portrayed these white women as prostitutes from Deptford Prison, but they were most likely wives and girlfriends of the black settlers.[53] Their colony was known as the "Province of Freedom" and their settlement was called "Granville Town"' after the English abolitionist Granville Sharp. The British negotiated for the land for the settlement with the local Temne chief, King Tom.

However, before the ships sailed away from Sierra Leone, 50 white women had died, and about 250 remained of the original 440 who left Plymouth. Another 86 settlers died in the first four months. Although initially there was no hostility between the two groups, after King Tom's death the next Temne chief retaliated for a slave trader's burning of his village.[54] He threatened to destroy Granville Town. The Temne ransacked Granville Town and took some Black Poor into slavery, while others became slave traders. In early 1791 Alexander Falconbridge returned, to find only 64 of the original residents (39 black men, 19 black women, and six white women). The 64 people had been cared for by a Greek and a colonist named Thomas Kallingree at Fourah Bay, an abandoned African village.[54] There the settlers reestablished Granville Town. After that time, they were called the "Old Settlers". By this time the Province of Freedom had been destroyed; Granville Sharp did not lead the next settlement movement.

### Nova Scotians and the Freetown Colony 1792–1799

[edit]

Main article: Nova Scotian Settlers (Sierra Leone)

Freetown in 1803

The proponents and directors of the Sierra Leone colony believed that a new colony did not need black settlers from London. The directors decided to offer resettlement to African Americans from Nova Scotia, despite the failure of the last colony. These settlers were Black Loyalists, American slaves who had escaped to British lines and fought with them during the American Revolution, to earn freedom. The British government had transported more than 3,000 freedmen to Nova Scotia for resettlement, together with white Loyalists. Some of the African Americans were from South Carolina and the Sea Islands, of the Gullah culture; others were from states along the eastern seaboard up to New England.

Some 1200 of these blacks emigrated to Sierra Leone from Halifax Harbour on 15 January 1792, arriving between 28 February and 9 March 1792. On 11 March 1792, the Nova Scotian Settlers disembarked from the 14 passenger ships that had carried them from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone and marched toward the large cotton tree near George Street. As the Settlers gathered under the tree, their preachers held a thanksgiving service and the white minister, Rev. Patrick Gilbert preached a sermon. After the religious services, the settlement was officially established and was designated Freetown. The Settler men cleared the forest and shrub and built a new settlement on the overgrown site that had formerly contained the Granville Town settlement.

They had a profound influence on Creole culture; many of the Western attributes of Creole society were conveyed by the "Settlers", who continued what was familiar to them from their past lives. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotians or "Settlers" (the 1787 Settlers were called the Old Settlers). They founded the capital of Sierra Leone in 1792. The descendants of African Americans remained an identifiable ethnic group until the 1870s, when the Creole identity was beginning to form.

### Maroons and other transatlantic immigrants 1800–1819

[edit]

Main article: Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone

Captain Paul Cuffee transported 38 African Americans to Freetown in 1815

The next arrivals were the Jamaican Maroons; these maroons came specifically from Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), one of the five Maroon cities in Jamaica. The Maroons mainly descended from highly military skilled Ashanti slaves who had escaped plantations and, to a lesser extent, from Jamaican indigenous people. The Maroons numbered around 551, and they helped quell some of the riots against the British from the settlers. The Maroons later fought against the Temne during the Temne Attack of 1801.[55]

The dispute with the Temne was over "rent" which the Temne felt they were owed by the colony. In a twist that became the hallmark of politics in the subregion, the Temne had indeed signed a treaty granting full sovereignty to the Colony but then turned around to say that this was not their understanding. This misunderstanding became violent, when in 1801, the Temne attacked Freetown. The assault failed, resulting instead in the expulsion of the Temne from the area.

The next migrations of transatlantic immigrants between 1800 and 1819 were smaller in comparison to the early Nova Scotian Settlers and Jamaican Maroon immigrants. Afro-Caribbean and Liberated African soldiers from the 2nd and 4th West India Regiments were settled in Freetown and in suburbs around it in 1819. Barbadian rebels who participated in the Bussa Rebellion were transported to colonial Freetown in 1816 and included families such as the Priddy family.

Thirty-eight African Americans (nine families) immigrated to Freetown under the auspices of African-American ship owner Paul Cuffe, of Boston. These Black Americans included Perry Lockes and Prince Saunders from Boston; Abraham Thompson and Peter Williams Jr. from New York City;[56] and Edward Jones from Charleston, South Carolina. Americo-Liberian merchants and traders also settled in colonial Freetown throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Following the Jamaican Maroons and Barbadian rebels, Afro-Caribbean immigrants settled in Freetown, Sierra Leone and in settlements across the Freetown peninsula throughout the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as missionaries, artisans and colonial officials such as the Porter family from Jamaica.

Prominent Creole families of more recent Afro-Caribbean ancestry include the Farquhar family and their descendants such as the Stuart family and Conton family who settled in Sierra Leone from Barbados, the Bahamas, and Bermuda between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

### Recaptives or Liberated Africans 1807–1830s

[edit]

Main article: Sierra Leone Liberated Africans

An 1835 illustration of liberated slaves arriving in Sierra Leone.

The last major group of immigrants to the colony was the Liberated Africans or "Recaptives".[57] Held on slave ships for sale in the western hemisphere, they were liberated by the Royal Navy, which, with the West Africa Squadron, enforced the abolition of the international slave trade after 1808.

Capture of slave ship El Almirante by the British Royal Navy in the 1800s. HMS Black Joke freed 466 slaves.[58]

The Liberated Africans were multi-ethnic and were largely Akan, Aja, Ewe, Angolan, Wolof, Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Bambara, Nupe, and Fulani people who had been enslaved by illegal slave traders. The Liberated Africans also included Sherbro, Mende and Temne people who had been enslaved in territories neighbouring the Colony of Sierra Leone.

The Liberated Africans, also called Recaptives, contributed greatly to the Creole culture. While the Settlers, Maroons, and transatlantic immigrants gave the Creoles their Christianity, some of their customs, and their Western influence, the Liberated Africans modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians and Europeans, yet kept some of their ethnic traditions.[16]: 5

Initially the British colonial administration intervened to ensure the Recaptives became firmly rooted in Freetown society; they served in the army with the West India Regiment, and they were assigned as apprentices in the houses of Settlers and Maroons. Sometimes if a child's parents died, the young Recaptive would be adopted by a Settler or Maroon family. The two groups mixed and mingled in society.[59]

As the Recaptives began to trade and spread Christianity throughout West Africa, they began to dominate Freetown society. The Recaptives intermarried with the Settlers and Maroons, and the two groups became a fusion of African and Western societies.[16]: 3–4, 223–255

## Settlements

[edit]

The ancestors of the Creoles founded the Colony of Sierra Leone and established the settlement of Freetown in 1792. They based the plan on what they were familiar with – the grid of a North American colonial town.[60] The families originally from Nova Scotia – the Balls, Burdens, Chambers, Davis, Dixons, Georges (descendants of David George), Keelings, Leighs, Moores, Peters (descendants of Thomas Peters or Stephen Peters), Prestons, Snowballs, Staffords, Turners, Willoughsby, Williams, and the Goodings – took up residence in Settler Town. The town was in close proximity to Cline Town (then Granville Town). Eighty percent of Nova Scotians lived on five streets: Rawdon, Wilberforce, Howe, East, and Charlotte street.

The next group of settlers were Jamaican Maroons from Cudjoe's Town, who arrived in Freetown, via Nova Scotia, in 1800. Notable families such as the Jarretts, Smiths, Hortons, Coles, Porters, Jones, and the Morgans, settled in Maroon Town, Sierra Leone. Seventy percent of Maroons lived on five streets: Gloucester, George, Trelawney, Walpole, and Westmoreland street. The Jamaican Maroon settlement was west of Settler Town between Walpole street and King Tom.

The Liberated African ancestors – principally of Akan, Bakongo, Ewe, Igbo and Yoruba origin – settled across the Western Area peninsula of Sierra Leone. By the 1850s, they had already established Aberdeen, Bathurst, Charlotte, Dublin, Gloucester, Goderich, Grafton, Hastings, Kent, Kissy, Leicester, Murray Town, Regent, Ricketts, Sussex, Waterloo, Wellington, Wilberforce and York.

Between the late 18th and early 20th centuries, immigrants from the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Liberia and the Gold Coast likewise settled in Freetown and eventually coalesced into the Sierra Leone Creole identity.[61] In the 21st century, the majority of Creoles in Sierra Leone continue to reside in Freetown and along the surrounding Western Area peninsula[21] where their language and culture have a disproportionate influence relative to their population.[22][62]

The Creole people acted as colonial administrators, traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result, there are also Creole communities in The Gambia, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea.[26][63] Due to normal migration patterns, the Sierra Leone Civil War, and some discrimination at home, many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, Creoles are mostly settled in Washington DC, Maryland, Virginia, Texas, New York, Georgia, California and North Carolina.[24]

## Religion

[edit]

St. George's Cathedral, Freetown St. John's Maroon Church in Freetown Sacred Heart Cathedral, Freetown

The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at more than 98 percent. A large proportion of the settlers from Nova Scotia and the Caribbean were Christians. Many liberated Africans also converted to Christianity.[64]

The Creoles were instrumental in the establishment of Pan-African Christianity.[65] Between 1840 and 1900, at least six out of every ten black African clergy in the Anglican Church across West Africa was a Creole.[66] By the 1820s, Sierra Leone already had more Christians than the entirety of tropical Africa.[67] Educational institutions such as Fourah Bay College were initially established with the objective of training Christian clergy and educators, who were later dispatched across West Africa to spread Christianity.[68][25]

Creole denominations are mainly Protestant with the Anglican and Methodist churches having the largest Creole congregants. However, smaller denominations such as the Baptist church and Countess of Huntingdon denominations in places such as Freetown, and Waterloo, Sierra Leone, also have Creole attendees, although these are smaller in number compared to Creole Anglicans and Methodists.

Creole church attendees congregate at traditional "Creole" churches in Freetown such as St. George's Cathedral, Trinity Church, St John's Maroon Church, Ebenezer Methodist Church, Rawdon Street Methodist Church, and Zion Methodist Church, Wilberforce Street.

Prominent Creole Anglicans include Edward Fasholé-Luke and Creoles such as Arthur Thomas Porter, Canon Harry Sawyerr and Robert Wellesley-Cole. Well-known Creole Methodists include Sylvia Blyden, a newspaper proprietor and Creoles such as Macormack Easmon, Edna Elliott-Horton, and George T.O. Robinson, the founder of the Krio Descendants Union.

Although Creoles are primarily Protestant, there are a small number of Creole Catholics who attend Catholic churches such as St. Anthony's Church in Brookfields and the Sacred Heart Cathedral in Freetown. Prominent Creole Catholics include Dr Monty Jones, Bertha Conton and Florence Dillsworth and, in previous generations, James C.E. Parkes.

## Language

[edit]

Main article: Krio language

The official language of Sierra Leone is English. In addition to English, the Sierra Leone Creoles also speak a distinctive creole language[2]: xxi named after their ethnic group called Creole or Krio. Krio was strongly influenced by British English, Gullah, African American Vernacular English, Jamaican Creole, Akan, Igbo and Yoruba.[69]

Krio is widely spoken throughout Freetown and the surrounding towns, such that Krio speakers are no longer presumed to be of the Creole ethnic group.[25]

The Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century.[63] As a result of Sierra Leone Creole migratory patterns, in the Gambia, the Gambian Creole or Aku community speak a dialect called the Aku language that is very similar to Krio in Sierra Leone. Fernando Po Creole English is also largely a result of Sierra Leone Creole migrants. A small number of liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins, such as the Saros of Nigeria who not only took their Western names with them but also imported Krio words like sabi into Nigerian Pidgin English.[29][32][33][36]

In 1993, there were 473,000 speakers in Sierra Leone (493,470 in all countries); Krio was the third-most spoken language behind Mende (1,480,000) and Themne (1,230,000). Today, Krio is the most widely spoken language in Sierra Leone utilized by 96 percent of the country's population.[1][22] It unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[23] Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans living abroad,[25] and has also heavily influenced Sierra Leonean English.[70]

Native Krio speakers of the Creole ethnicity lived principally in Freetown communities, on the Peninsula, on the Banana Islands and York Island, and in Bonthe.

## Culture

[edit]

A Creole family, circa 1918.

Creole culture is a fusion of West African, North American and British cultures reflected in both Victorian and Edwardian modes of Christianity, morality, norms and values. The Creoles were economically dominant in trade and held prominent leadership positions in colonial Sierra Leone and British West Africa. They were influential in intellectual, technocratic, artisanal, commercial and public life in general, actively participating in multiple fields of scholarly and civic importance.[18][71][72][73][74][75][47]

From their earliest presence in Sierra Leone and British West Africa, the Creoles, or their ancestors, have significantly contributed science,[76][77] literature,[78] art,[79] agricultural skills,[80][81] cuisine,[24] clothing styles,[82] music,[83] language,[69] pan-african christianity[65] and cultural innovation.[84][13] Notable examples include Nova Scotian settlers such as Thomas Peters,[85] David George[86] and Moses Wilkinson[87] who were founding figures of the nation of Sierra Leone. In biomedicine, the discovery of the breakdown of insulin in the human body, by Davidson Nicol, was a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes.[76] John Farrell Easmon coined the term Blackwater fever and wrote the first clinical diagnosis of the disease linking it to malaria.[77] In agriscience, James Pinson Davies is credited with pioneering cocoa farming in West Africa,[80][88] while William Vivour was the single most successful 19th-century planter in Africa.[81][89][90] Other notable Creoles, or their ancestors, made significant contributions to Sierra Leone and British West Africa, and were pioneers in several categories of human endeavour.[91][72]

### Marriage and family

[edit]

Creoles observe dating and marriage customs that reflect their westernized and broader West African cultural retentions. Creole wedding ceremonies involve the gej or put stop – an elaborate Shakespearean performance in which the hand of the bride is asked for, following the appearance of several 'roses'. Among the gifts presented by the future groom's representatives are a calabash, some kola nuts, various domestic items a wife would use (such as needles and some thread), but also a Bible, a ring, and some money.[92]

Creole traditional wedding attire is a morning suit or lounge suit for the bridegroom and the women wear the traditional white wedding dress. Creoles marry in church weddings and in the Victorian and Edwardian era, relatives sought out and introduced prospective suitors from desirable families to their kin seeking a spouse. When a suitor has been chosen by the prospective groom or bride, traditionally the groom's parents set a "put stop" day. After this day, the girl is expected to no longer entertain other suitors. On the evening before the wedding, the groom's friends treat him to "bachelor's eve," a rowdy last fling before marriage.[93]

Ashobis, (parties) at which every guest is expected to wear the same type of materials, are held on the day of the wedding or some days after, for newlyweds.[93]

Creoles live in nuclear families (father, mother, and their children), but the extended family is important to them as well.[94] More affluent family members are expected to help those who are less fortunate. They assist poorer relatives with school fees and job opportunities. In most Creole families, women and elder siblings care for the children who in turn, are expected to complete the household chores.[71]

### Twins in Creole society

[edit]

Twins are important for the Creole who tend to give special names to each one. The naming convention used by the Creoles comes from their Yoruba Liberated African ancestry.[95] The first of the twins to be born is traditionally named Taiyewo or Tayewo, which means 'the first to taste the world', or the 'slave to the second twin', this is often shortened to Taiwo, Taiye or Taye.[96] Kehinde is the name of the last born twin and it means, 'the child that came behind gets the rights of the elder'.[97]

### Music

[edit]

Main articles: Gumbe and Gumbe (drum)

Sierra Leonean gumbe music originates from the Jamaican Maroon ancestors of the Creole people. It is primarily a vocal and percussive musical genre that has been associated with nationalist thought since colonial times.[98]

The gumbe drum is an important cultural symbol played to induce a trance-like state which connects the Creoles with their ancestors.[99] Generally, the music is produced using the gumbe drum, the maracash and the saw. The maracash is a glass bottle and metallic object played together to produce a desirable rhythm. The jagged edge of the saw is rubbed against another sharp object to produce a rasping sound.[100]

In modern times, gumbe music has become a key feature in Sierra Leone's musical landscape. It is often mixed with other more contemporary musical genres to create an authentic local sound.[83]

### Attire

[edit]

Present-day Creoles, similar to other Sierra Leoneans, wear both African and Western-style dress. Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone had been accustomed to seeing European dress prior to the arrival of the Creoles, as a consequence of extensive trade with Europeans dating to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

However, the ethnic groups who inhabited Sierra Leone did not customarily wear Western-style dress, until they were popularized by the Creole.[82][3][101] Like their Americo-Liberian neighbors, Creole fashion between the Victorian and Edwardian era consisted of a top hat and frock coat for men and a petticoat for women,[102][93] although some Creole women sometimes wore the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot and Kotoku,[103] the latter a Akan or Ga word for money bag.

Portrait of a Creole family in Sierra Leone, early 1900s.

Although Creoles continue to wear elaborate dress style for special occasions such as weddings and parades, they adapted their styles of dress to incorporate newer Western-style fashion and intricate African-style dresses between the early to late 20th century.

Today, teenage fashion—jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers—are very much in style among young Creole people. However, older Sierra Leone Creoles still dress conservatively in Western-style suits and dresses and some Creole women still wear the Jamaican Maroon Kabaslot, Kotoku, and carpet slippers and its derivative, the "print" that is a fusion of older African American, Afro-Caribbean and British dress styles.[93]

### Cuisine

[edit]

Breakfast meal of some Creoles consist of porridge or English breakfast typically consisting of fried, poached or scrambled eggs, fried tomatoes or mushrooms, fried bread or buttered toast, and sausages.[104] Noonday meal includes Western style or Caribbean-derived cuisines and also African food.

Creole meals often coincide with specific days of the week. On Saturdays, fufu a dough-like paste made of cassava pounded into flour and a type of palaver sauce or plassas (leafy vegetable sauce) is often eaten. This is a spicy dish consisting of spinach with tripe, fish, beef, and chicken. It is often made with palm oil except for wayt soup (white soup). Additionally, other types of typical Creole plassas may be eaten with fufu, such as shakpa, okra, egusi, bologi, greens, krain krain, bitterleaf and sawa sawa among others.[24]

Sunday dinner is a West African one-pot meal, jollof rice or couscous and stew or peanut soup, including some plantains and salad. Awujoh[c] meals on Fridays or other festive occasions are usually accompanied by sweet potato cooked in palm oil, black-eyed beans, eba, oleleh, agidi, plantain, rice bread and akara with ginger beer. On other days, a variety of local dishes may be consumed.[24]

### Rites of passage

[edit]

Creoles use combined British Christian cultural practices and certain elements of African rituals in connection with rites of passage such as births and deaths. Creoles have christening and baptismal ceremonies but also have a naming ceremony commonly referred to as pull-na-doh or komojadé on the seventh day following the birth, which is held to celebrate a new-born.[92]

For life cycle ceremonies related to death among the Creoles, one such ceremony is the babichu or barbecue of Jamaican Maroon origin and the subsequently more prevalent Liberated African awujoh feast,[105][106] intended to celebrate the anniversaries of ancestors who have died. Awujoh feasts are held in remembrance of deceased family members, generally on the first anniversary of their death but sometimes on the fifth, tenth, or fifteenth anniversaries, etc.

Among some Creole families, when someone dies, pictures in the house are turned toward the wall and all mirrors or reflecting surfaces covered. At the wake held before the burial, people clap and sing "shouts"(negro spirituals) loudly to make sure the corpse is not merely in a trance. The next day the body is washed, placed in shrouds (burial cloths), and laid on a bed for a final viewing. Then it is placed in a coffin and taken to the church for the service, and lastly to the cemetery for burial.

The period of mourning lasts one year. On the third, seventh, and fortieth day after death, awujoh feasts are held. The feast on the fortieth day marks the spirit's last day on earth. The family and guests eat a big meal. Portions of the meal and kola nuts are placed into a hole for the dead. The "pull mooning" day – the end of mourning – occurs at the end of one year (the first anniversary of a death). The mourners wear white, visit the cemetery and then return home for refreshments.[93][105][106]

### Creole folktales

[edit]

Creoles have inherited a wide range of proverbs and folktales, including Anansi stories, from their multi-ethnic ancestors including the Jamaican Maroons and the Akan and Ewe Liberated Africans. They entertain and provide instruction in Creole values and traditions. Among the best loved are Creole stories about Anansi the spider.[107] The following is a typical spider tale:

> “Once the spider was fat. He loved eating, but detested work and had not planted or fished all season. One day the villagers were preparing a feast. From his forest web, he could smell the mouth-watering cooking. He knew that if he visited friends, they would feed him as was the custom. So he called his two sons and told both of them to tie a rope around his waist and set off in opposite directions for the two closest villages, each holding one end of the rope. They were to pull on the rope when the food was ready. But both villages began eating at the same time, and when the sons began pulling the rope, it grew tighter and tighter, squeezing the greedy spider. When the feasting was over and the sons came to look for him, they found a big head, a big body, and a very thin waist!”[107][108][109]

Anansi stories are part of an ancient mythology that is rooted in Liberated African folklore and concerns the interaction between divine and semi-divine beings, royalty, humans, animals, plants and seemingly inanimate objects.[110]

### Creole culture and broader Sierra Leonean cultures

[edit]

Oku people

The Oku have origins among the Liberated African community of settlers in Sierra Leone and have historically intermarried with some Creole people. However, several scholars such as Ramatoulie Onikepo Othman and Olumbe Bassir classify the Oku as distinct from the Creoles because of their ancestry and strong Muslim culture.

In contrast to the Oku people, the Creoles are Christian and are a mixture of various ethnic groups including African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Liberated Africans of Igbo, Akan and Yoruba descent in addition to other African ethnic groups and European ancestry.[15][8][11] Furthermore, unlike the Oku people, the Creoles do not practice cliterodotomy, engage in the Bundu society, and are monogamous.[20]

More recently, some scholars consider the Oku to be a sub-ethnic group of the Creoles, based on their close association with British colonists and their adoption of Western education and other aspects of culture.[19] Those classifying the Oku as part of the Sierra Leone Creole people note their adoption of similar English or European surnames (although this was a minority of Oku) and cultural aspects such as egungun, gelede, hunters' masquerade,[111] esusu,[112] awujoh and komojadé.[92] However, as scholars have outlined, the few cultural similarities between the Creole and Oku people are because there are some Yoruba cultural retentions from the christianized Yoruba liberated Africans found among the Creoles and because the cultural orientation, heritage, identity and origin of the Oku people are Yoruba in essence.[20][113][114]

Sherbro people

According to anthropologist Anaïs Ménard, the only Sierra Leonean ethnic group whose culture is similar (in terms of its embrace of Western culture) are westernized members of the Sherbro people.[115] Many Sherbro assimilate as Creoles, as they share the Christian faith and often have similar westernized surnames.

Some of the Sherbro interacted with Portuguese and English traders and intermarried with them in the mid-15th to 18th centuries (producing Afro-European clans such as the Sherbro Tuckers and Sherbro Caulkers). As a result, some of the Sherbro have a more westernized culture than that of other indigenous Sierra Leone ethnic groups.

As Creoles settled in places such as Bonthe for trading and missionary purposes, the Creoles intermarried with westernized Sherbros from as far back as the 18th century.[115]

## Architecture

[edit]

Creole style architecture, circa 1885. Old Fourah Bay College Building, circa 1930s.

The Creole homeland[21] is a mountainous, narrow peninsula on the coast of west Africa. At its northern tip lies Freetown, the capital.[116][117][2] The peninsula's mountain range is covered by tropical rainforests split by deep valleys and adorned with impressive waterfalls. White sand beaches line the Atlantic coast. The whole of Sierra Leone covers some 72,500 square kilometres.

Traditional Creole architecture in the colonial period included a variety of architectural styles ranging and consisting of English-style mansions, smaller to medium stone or brick houses, and traditional one or two-story wooden houses built on stone foundations reminiscent of those found in the Old South, the West Indies or Louisiana.

The distinctive style of Creole wooden or "board" housing was brought by the Settlers from Nova Scotia, and as early as the 1790s, the Nova Scotians had built houses with stone foundations and wooden superstructures, and American-style shingle roofs. However, subsequent African-American and Afro-Caribbean settlers continued to influence Creole architectural styles.

Despite their dilapidated appearance, some of the remaining traditional Creole board houses have a distinctive air, with dormers, box windows, shutters, glass panes, and balconies. The elite live in attractive neighbourhoods such as Hill Station, above Freetown. A large dam in the mountains[118] provides a reliable supply of water and electricity to this area.

## Admixture

[edit]

Creole ethnicities were formed during the European colonial era, from the mass displacement of peoples[d] brought into sustained contact with others from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, who converged onto a colonial territory to which they had not previously belonged.[13][14] Often involuntarily uprooted from their original home, the settlers were obliged to develop and creatively merge the desirable elements from their diverse backgrounds, to produce new varieties of social, linguistic and cultural norms that superseded the prior forms.[120][14][13]: 12–23 This process, known as creolization,[121][122] is characterized by rapid social flux regularized into Creole ethnogenesis.

Like their Americo-Liberian neighbours, the Creoles of Sierra Leone have varying degrees of European ancestry because some of the settlers were descended from white Americans and other Europeans.[3][7][4] Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the "lower-class White males" but Davis concludes that "there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families."[123] A famous example was Thomas Jefferson's mistress, Sally Hemings.[124]

After the American Revolutionary War, the Book of Negroes listed approximately 3000 "black and mixed-race" loyalists who sailed from New York City to Nova Scotia in 1783.[11] Additionally, genealogical studies have shown that the majority of free African American families that originated in colonial Virginia and Maryland, descended from white servant women who had children by slaves or free African Americans.[125][126] Sixty-five percent of those evacuated were from the American South.[127]

Through the Maroons, some Creoles probably also have indigenous Amerindian Taino ancestry. Spanish Jamaica consisted of Spaniards, "natives", enslaved Africans, "black freedmen", mixed-race mulattoes, and those born on the island known as "creole Africans".[9] Genetic studies on the Jamaican Maroons suggest that their ancestry extends beyond Africa, to include Amerindian, European and East Asian progenitors.[9][10]

On the voyage between Plymouth, England and Sierra Leone, seventy European girlfriends and wives accompanied the Black Poor settlers.[53] There was considerable intermarriage between the Europeans who settled in the colony of Sierra Leone and the various ethnic groups that coalesced into the Creole identity.[8] The settlers generally married endogamously, although individuals from mixed and European groups recorded a much higher proportion of women and men involved in exogamous marriages. Mixed-race individuals intermarried with Europeans and black colonial residents at the same rate as they married their own.[8]

Alongside the Americo-Liberians, the Creoles of Sierra Leone are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American,[17] Liberated African, and Afro-Caribbean descent in West Africa.

## Sierra Leone Creole Diaspora

[edit]

### Historic diaspora

[edit]

Historically, Creoles spread Christianity and their lingua franca throughout West Africa, and because of this, Sierra Leone Creole communities existed in Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal, Equatorial Guinea and Liberia. Many Creoles traded throughout West Africa, and some settled in new countries.

Liberated Africans and their colony-born children in the early to mid-19th centuries, and subsequently Creoles between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who settled in Nigeria, were known as Saros, and there is a thriving community there. Sierra Leone Creoles who settled in the Gambia became part of the Aku or Gambian Creole people; they make up an elite community in Gambia. Many recaptives returned to their original homes after being freed in Freetown, as most kept their anglicised names, they took partially new identities back to their homelands.[29][32][33][36]

### Present-day diaspora

[edit]

As a result of normal immigration patterns, the Sierra Leone Civil War, and some discrimination at home,[128][129] many Sierra Leone Creoles live abroad in the United States and the United Kingdom. What has been called the "Creole Diaspora" is the migration of Sierra Leone Creoles abroad. Many Creoles attend formal and informal gatherings. A Creole or Krio Heritage Society is based in New York City, with branches in places including Texas.

## Related communities

[edit]

* Black Nova Scotians – ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who fought for their freedom on the side of the British during the American Revolutionary War. Initially resettled in Nova Scotia, they arrived in West Africa where they founded the settlement of  Freetown, Sierra Leone in 1792.
* Jamaican Maroons – ancestors of the Sierra Leone Creoles who freed themselves from slavery on the Colony of Jamaica. Initially resettled in Nova Scotia, after the Second Maroon War, they eventually arrived in Freetown in 1800.
* Americo-Liberians – sister ethnic group of the Creoles of Sierra Leone, comprising African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans and Liberated Africans who founded the settlement of Liberia in 1822.
* Gambian Creoles – descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to The Gambia in the late 19th and early 20th century.
* Saro people (Nigerian Creoles) – sub-ethnic group of the Sierra Leone Creoles who resettled in several Nigerian cities in the late 19th and early 20th century.
* Krio Fernandinos – descendants of the Creoles of Sierra Leone who migrated to Bioko island, Equatorial Guinea in the late 19th century.
* Gold Coast Euro-Africans – extensively intermarried with Sierra Leone Creole migrants in colonial Ghana.

## Notable people of Sierra Leone Creole descent

[edit]

Main article: List of Sierra Leone Creole people

Name  | Born  | Died  | Notability  | Ref.  | Image

|
|
|
|
|

William Vivour | 1830  | 1890  | Single most successful 19th-century farmer in Africa  | [89][90] |
Davidson Nicol | 1925  | 1994  | Discovered the breakdown of insulin in the human body, a breakthrough for the treatment of diabetes | [76][130][131] |
James Pinson Davies | 1828  | 1906  | Pioneer of cocoa farming in West Africa | [132] |
John Farrell Easmon (seated, with brother Albert)  | 1856  | 1900  | Coined the term "Blackwater Fever" and was the first to link the disease directly to malaria | [77] |
Christian Frederick Cole | 1852  | 1885  | First black graduate of Oxford and first African barrister to practice in the English courts | [133] |
Sir Samuel Lewis | 1843  | 1903  | First mayor of Freetown and first West African to receive a knighthood  | [134] |  |
Idris Elba | 1972  | —  | Actor and winner of the BET and Golden Globe awards  | [135] |  |
Stella Jane Thomas | 1906  | 1974  | First black African woman called to the Bar in Great Britain and first West African female to qualify as a lawyer | [136][137] |
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor | 1875  | 1912  | Composer and conductor known for his three cantatas on the epic 1855 poem The Song of Hiawatha | [138] |
Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan | 1896  | 1979  | Pharmaceutical entrepreneur and philanthropist  | [139][140] |
Frances Claudia Wright | 1919  | 2010  | First Sierra Leonean woman to be called to the Bar in Great Britain and to practice law in Sierra Leone  | [141] |
Dame Linda Dobbs | 1951  | —  | First non-white High Court judge in Great Britain  |

[142][143]

Constance Cummings-John | 1918  | 2000  | Educator, politician and first mayoress of Freetown  | [144] |
Emanuel Adeniyi Thomas | 1914  | 1945  | First black African to qualify as a pilot and first Royal Air Force officer of West African origin  | [145] |
Sir Kitoye Ajasa (born: Edmund Macauley) | 1866  | 1937  | Legislator during the colonial period and first Nigerian to receive a knighthood | [146][147] |
Sir Ernest Beoku-Betts | 1895  | 1957  | Jurist and one-time mayor of Freetown  | [148] |
Charles Odamtten Easmon | 1913  | 1994  | Performed the first successful open-heart surgery in West Africa  | [149] |
Sir Henry Lightfoot Boston | 1898  | 1969  | First African Governor-General of Sierra Leone | [150] |
Christopher Okoro Cole | 1921  | 1990  | Chief Justice, later interim Governor-General and President of Sierra Leone  | [151] |
Samuel Benjamin Thomas | 1833  | 1901  | Philanthropist, entrepreneur and one of the richest men in 19th-century Africa  | [63] |
Adelaide Casely-Hayford | 1868  | 1960  | Activist and pioneer of women's education in Sierra Leone  | [152] |
Lati Hyde-Forster | 1911  | 2001  | First female graduate of the oldest western-style university in Africa | [153][154] |
Gladys Casely-Hayford | 1904  | 1950  | Playwright and first author to write in the Krio language | [155] |
Clifford Nelson Fyle | 1933  | 2006  | Author of the Krio-English Dictionary and the Sierra Leone National Anthem | [156] |
Sir Émile Fashole-Luke | 1895  | 1980  | Chief Justice and Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone | [157][158] |
William Broughton Davies | 1831  | 1906  | First West African to qualify as a medical doctor | [159] |
Dr Claude Nelson-Williams | 1927  | 1989  | Sierra Leonean physician, politician, and director of the Bank of Sierra Leone | [160] |  |
Ulric Emmanuel Jones | 1940  | 2020  | First Sierra Leonean neurosurgeon | [161] |
Andrew Juxon-Smith | 1931  | 1996  | Commander of the armed forces and Head of State of Sierra Leone | [162] |
James Africanus Horton | 1835  | 1883  | Surgeon, scientist and political thinker who worked towards African independence a century before it occurred  | [163][164] |
Agnes Yewande Savage | 1906  | 1964  | First West African woman to qualify as a medical doctor  | [165] |
Murietta Olu-Williams | 1923  | —  | First woman in Africa to achieve the rank of Permanent Secretary in the Civil Service | [166] |
Charles Burgess King | 1875  | 1961  | Former President of Liberia | [167] |
Samuel Ajayi Crowther | 1809  | 1891  | Clergyman and first Anglican Bishop of West Africa | [168] |
Adesanya Kwamina Hyde | 1915  | 1993  | Royal Air Force aviator awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for acts of valour and courage  | [169][170] |
Sir Samuel Bankole-Jones | 1911  | 1981  | Chief Justice and first Sierra Leonean president of the Court of Appeal  | [171] |
Valentine Strasser | 1967  | —  | Army officer and Head of State of Sierra Leone  | [172] |
John Clavell Smythe | 1915  | 1996  | Royal Air Force aviation officer shot down over Nazi Germany, later attorney-general of Sierra Leone  | [173] |
George Gurney Nicol | 1856  | 1888  | Clergyman and first African graduate of Cambridge University | [174][144] |
Sir Salako Benka-Coker | 1900  | 1965  | First Sierra Leonean Chief Justice of the Supreme Court | [175] |
Napheesa Collier | 1996  | —  | Professional basketball player and gold medallist at the 2020 Summer Olympic Games | [176] |
Ryan Giggs | 1973  | —  | Welsh football coach and former player, regarded as one of the greatest players of his generation  | [177][178] |
Leonard Benker Johnson | 1902  | 1974  | British Empire Boxing champion, considered to be one of the best middleweights of his era.  | [179] |

## See also

[edit]

* Africa portal

* African-American diaspora
* African Americans in Africa
* African Americans in the Revolutionary War
* Atlantic Creole
* Atlantic World
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Birchtown, Nova Scotia
* Black Loyalists
* Book of Negroes
* Creolization
* Church Missionary Society
* The Cotton Tree
* Door of Return
* Dunmore's Proclamation
* Gullah
* Gumbe
* Jamaican Maroon Creole
* History of Sierra Leone
* Outline of Sierra Leone
* Philipsburg Proclamation
* Rough Crossings
* Sierra Leonean nationality law
* Timeline of Freetown

## Explanatory notes

[edit]

1. ^ The Creoles are Christians, whether nominal or in practice, at over 98 percent. Recently, some scholars consider the Oku ethnic group to be Creoles,[19] although others reject this premise given the differentiation in admixture, religion, and cultural practices between the Oku and Creoles, such as the practice of female genital mutilation, bundu society membership and polygamy among the Oku people[20]
2. ^ Webster's online etymological dictionary states the meaning of creole as a "person born in a country but of a people not indigenous to it," but also notes that the meaning varies according to local use.
3. ^ Awujoh originates from the Yoruba Liberated African ancestry of the Creoles. Awujoh ceremonies are held for the protection of newborns and newlyweds by ancestral spirits and as a means to acquire guidance and wisdom regarding aspects of death.[94]
4. ^ The word peoples is specifically used as the plural of people in its sense as a collective singular noun referring to a nation, or tribe, or other community, as in Indigenous Peoples or the many peoples of the world. This usage emphasizes that you're talking about several different specific groups that share a commonality. This can be important for clarity—the many people of the world means something different from the many peoples of the world. In practical terms, using peoples in this way can help to prevent erasure and homogenization of groups that are often lumped together in ways that obscure their specific, complex identities. In this way, the term Indigenous Peoples emphasizes the vast diversity among the world's Indigenous groups while also implying that there are, in fact, separate and distinct groups.[119]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e "CIA World Factbook (2022)". www.cia.gov. 14 February 2023.
2. ^ a b c Walker, James W. (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone". The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 94–114. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7. Originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).
3. ^ a b c Torrent, Mélanie (2009). "Crowning the work of Wilberforce? The Settlers Descendants' Union and the challenges of Sierra Leone's independence". Cahiers Charles V. 46: 241–292\. doi:10.3406/cchav.2009.1541.
4. ^ a b Colonial Office Brief: CO554/2884, Note on the Attorney General's 'Note of the Supreme Court Judgement', 10 August 1960, op.cit.
5. ^ R.W. July, Nineteenth Century Negritude: Edward W. Blyden in the Journal of African History, v, 1964, p. 77, n. 9. "This attitude to ‘mulattoes’ was of course racialist in view; cf. Burton, op. cit. p, 271 – ‘the worst class of all is the mulatto’. The correspondence recently published in Holden, op. cit. shows that Blyden had developed his views about ‘mulattoes’ during his conflicts with the Americo-Liberians in Monrovia, but his public writings were less outspoken about Liberia than they were about Freetown."
6. ^ "Liberia Country Study: The True Whig Ascendancy" Global Security
7. ^ a b Galli, Stefania (2022). "Socioeconomic Status and Group Belonging: Evidence from Early-Nineteenth-Century Colonial West Africa". Social Science History. 46 (2): 349–372\. doi:10.1017/ssh.2021.47.
8. ^ a b c d Galli, Stefania (2 October 2019). "Marriage patterns in a black Utopia: Evidence from early nineteenth-century colonial Sierra Leone". The History of the Family. 24 (4): 744–768\. doi:10.1080/1081602X.2019.1637361.
9. ^ a b c Fuller, Harcourt; Torres, Jada Benn (2 January 2018). "Investigating the 'Taíno' ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons". Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies. 43 (1): 47–78\. doi:10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227.
10. ^ a b Madrilejo, N; Lombard, H; Torres, JB (2015). "Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27 (3): 432–437\. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22656. PMID 25392952. S2CID 30255510.
11. ^ a b c "Looking Back, Moving Forward: Documenting the Heritage of African Nova Scotians". www.archives.novascotia.ca. 20 April 2020.
12. ^ Arthur Porter, Creoledom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp.53, 58
13. ^ a b c d Baron, Robert A.; Cara, Ana C. (2011). Creolization as Cultural Creativity. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781617031069.
14. ^ a b c d e Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (2020). "Creolisation as a Recipe for Conviviality". Conviviality at the Crossroads. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 43–63\. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28979-9_3. ISBN 978-3-030-28978-2.
15. ^ a b c "Sierra Leone: Brief Introduction". English in West Africa. Institute of English and American Studies, Humboldt University. Archived from the original on 29 September 2003. Retrieved 1 December 2012. citing Wolf, Hans-Georg (2001). "English in Cameroon". Sociology of Language (85). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
16. ^ a b c d Dixon-Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril Raschid (2006). "Introduction". New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 2–3\. ISBN 978-0-8204-7937-8. "A substantial part of this ex-slave population was Yoruba, but members of ethnic groups from other regions of the Atlantic (Igbo, Efik, Fante, etc) were also very much in evidence in this coterie of Liberated Africans. Individuals from ethnic communities indigenous to Sierra Leone were significantly represented among the Liberated Africans [...] Many a Temne, Limba, Mende, and Loko resident of Freetown, influenced by local European officials and missionaries, would come in time to shed their indigenous names, and cultural values, to take on a Creole identity which gave them a better chance of success in the rarefied Victorian ambience[sic] of a progressively westernized Freetown society."
17. ^ a b Poplack, Shana; Tagliamonte, Sali (2001). African English in the diaspora. Blackwell. p. 41\. ISBN 0-631-21266-3.
18. ^ a b Bangura, Joseph (May 2009). "Understanding Sierra Leone in Colonial West Africa: A Synoptic Socio-Political History". History Compass. 7 (3): 583–603\. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00596.x.
19. ^ a b Cole, Gibril R. (15 September 2013). The Krio of West Africa: Islam, Culture, Creolization, and Colonialism in ... Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-4478-8. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
20. ^ a b c Bassir, Olumbe (1954). "Marriage Rites among the Aku (Yoruba) of Freetown". Africa. 24 (3): 251–256\. doi:10.2307/1156429. JSTOR 1156429.
21. ^ a b c Taylor, Bankole Kamara (February 2014). Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History. New Africa Press. p. 68\. ISBN 9789987160389.
22. ^ a b c "Translators without borders: Language data for Sierra Leone". www.translatorswithoutborders.org.
23. ^ a b Oyètádé, B. Akíntúndé; Fashole-Luke, Victor (15 February 2008). "Sierra Leone: Krio and the Quest for National Integration". Language and National Identity in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 122–140\. ISBN 978-0-19-928675-1.
24. ^ a b c d e "Sierra Leone languages", Joshua Project
25. ^ a b c d Thompson, V. A. D. (2013). The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation, University of London.
26. ^ a b Little, K. L. (1950). "The Significance of the West African Creole for Africanist and Afro-American Studies". African Affairs. 49 (197): 308–319\. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a093841.
27. ^ Yakpo, Kofi (2019). A Grammar of Pichi. Studies in Diversity Linguistics. Vol. 23\. Berlin: Language Science Press. doi:10.5281/zenodo.2546450. ISBN 978-3-96110-133-7.
28. ^ Njeuma B.J. Structural similarities between Sierra Leone Krio and two West African Anglophone Pidgins: A case for common origin University of South Carolina. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1995. 9541244.
29. ^ a b c Frederiks, Martha (2002). "The Krio in the Gambia and the Concept of Inculturation". Exchange. 31 (3): 219–229\. doi:10.1163/157254302X00399.
30. ^ Ashcroft, Shaka (2015). "Roots and Routes: Krio Identity in Postcolonial London". Black Theology. 13 (2): 102–125\. doi:10.1179/1476994815Z.00000000051.
31. ^ Agiri, Babatunde "The Introduction of Nitida Kola into Nigerian Agriculture, 1880–1920", African Economic History, No. 3, Spring 1977, p. 1.
32. ^ a b c Dixon-Fyle, Mac, "The Saro in the Political Life of Early Port Harcourt, 1913–49", The Journal of African History, Vol. 30, No. 1, p. 126.
33. ^ a b c Derrick, Jonathan, "The 'Native Clerk' in Colonial West Africa", African Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 326, p. 65.
34. ^ Martín del Molino, Amador. 1993. La ciudad de Clarence. Malabo: Ediciones Centro Cultural Hispano-Guineano
35. ^ García Cantús, M. Dolores. 2006. Fernando Poo: Una aventura colonial español, vol. 1: Las islas en litigio: Entre la esclavitud y el abolicionismo, 1777–1846. Barcelona: Ceiba Ediciones.
36. ^ a b c Lynn, Martin. 1984. "Commerce, christianity and the origins of the ‘creoles’ of Fernando Po". Journal of African History 25(3), 257–278.
37. ^ a b "creole | Origin and meaning of creole by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
38. ^ Dominguez, Virginia R. White by Definition: Social Classification in Creole Louisiana. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1986.
39. ^ Dormon, James H. Louisiana's 'Creoles of Color': Ethnicity, Marginality, and Identity, Social Science Quarterly 73, No. 3, 1992: 615-623.
40. ^ Eaton, Clement. A History of the Old South: The Emergence of a Reluctant Nation, third edition. New York: Macmillan, 1975.
41. ^ "Criollo, criolla | Diccionario de la lengua española".
42. ^ a b "Creole". www.britannica.com. 31 May 2024.
43. ^ a b c d "Creoles of Africa". www.geography.name.
44. ^ Berlin, Ira (April 1996). "From Creole to African". William and Mary Quarterly. 53 (2): 266. doi:10.2307/2947401. JSTOR 2947401.
45. ^ Robert Chaudenson (2001). Creolization of Language and Culture. CRC press. p. 11\. ISBN 978-0-203-44029-2.
46. ^ Markey, Thomas L. (1982). "Afrikaans: Creole or Non-Creole?". Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik. 49 (2): 169–207\. JSTOR 40501733.
47. ^ a b Glimpses of Africa, West and Southwest coast. By Charles Spencer Smith; A.M.E. Sunday School Union, 1895; p. 164
48. ^ Murray, Robert P., Whiteness in Africa: Americo-Liberians and the Transformative Geographies of Race (2013). Theses and Dissertations--History. 23. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/history_etds/23
49. ^ Walker, James W (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone". The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 94–114. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7. Originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).
50. ^ Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty, (Beacon Press, Boston, 2006).[page needed]
51. ^ Holten, Woody (1996). "Review of The Black Loyalist Directory: African Americans in Exile After the American Revolution". The William and Mary Quarterly. 53 (4): 831–833\. doi:10.2307/2947159. JSTOR 2947159.
52. ^ Sivapragasam, Michael, 'Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?’ Unpublished Masters dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), p. 36.
53. ^ a b Sivapragasam, Michael, "Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?" Unpublished master's dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), pp. 40–43.
54. ^ a b Sivapragasam, Michael, 'Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?’ Unpublished Masters dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), p. 37.
55. ^ Watkins, Thayer. "Economic History of Sierra Leone". San José State University, Department of Economics. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
56. ^ Horton, James Oliver; Horton, Lois E (1998). In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700–1860. Oxford University Press. p. 186\. ISBN 0-19-512465-0. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
57. ^ Smitherman, Geneva (1977). Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America. Waynebook. Vol. 51\. Wayne State University Press. p. 161\. ISBN 0-8143-1805-3. Retrieved 1 December 2012. "In neighboring Sierra Leone, the analogous group of liberated Africans delivered there by the British Navy are generally seen as having played a crucial role in the evolution of Krio."
58. ^ "Navy News". June 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
59. ^ Knörr, Jacqueline (1995). Kreolisierung versus Pidiginisierung als Kategorien kultureller Differenzierung. Varianten neoafrikanischer Identität und Interethnik in Freetown, Sierra Leone [Creolization versus Pidiginisierung as Categories of Cultural Differentiation. Neoafrican variants of identity and interethnicity in Freetown, Sierra Leone] (in German). Münster: Lit-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8258-2318-4. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
60. ^ The town grid was laid out by the Sierra Leone company's British surveyor Richard Pepys. Schama, pp. 352-253
61. ^ "Jan. 15, 1817: The Vote on Colonization of Free Blacks in West Africa". Zinn Education Project. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
62. ^ "Sierra Leone". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
63. ^ a b c Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7.
64. ^ Northrup, David (2006). "Becoming African: Identity formation among liberated slaves in nineteenth-century Sierra Leone1". Slavery & Abolition. 27 (1): 1–21\. doi:10.1080/01440390500499794.
65. ^ a b Hanciles, Jehu J. (2014). "'Africa is our Fatherland': The Black Atlantic, Globalization, and Modern African Christianity". Theology Today. 71 (2): 207–220\. doi:10.1177/0040573614530140.
66. ^ Paracka Jr., D. J. (2003), p. 11, The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone: Routledge.
67. ^ Hanciles, Jehu J. (2001). "Anatomy of an Experiment: The Sierra Leone Native Pastorate". Missiology: An International Review. 29 (1): 63–82\. doi:10.1177/009182960102900106.
68. ^ Paracka Jr., D. J. (2003), p. 3, The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone: Routledge.
69. ^ a b Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Krio, a language of Sierra Leone". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16 ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
70. ^ Saidu Bangura, 2015 A Roadmap to Sierra Leone English: A Sociohistorical and Ecological Perspective, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, PhD thesis, p. 124, 222, 232-242.
71. ^ a b Thayer, James Steel (1991). "A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone (Une approche non-conventionnelle de la culture des Créoles de Sierra Leone)". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 31 (121/122): 215–230\. doi:10.3406/cea.1991.2116. JSTOR 4392318.
72. ^ a b "The Krios of Sierra Leone – Pioneers throughout Africa". www.africanvoiceonline.co.uk. 26 October 2017.
73. ^ Lynn, Martin (1992). "Technology, Trade and 'A Race of Native Capitalists': The Krio Diaspora of West Africa and the Steamship, 1852-95". The Journal of African History. 33 (3): 421–440\. doi:10.1017/S0021853700032552. JSTOR 183140.
74. ^ Hair, P. E. H. (1967). "Africanism: The Freetown Contribution". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 5 (4): 521–539\. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00016396. JSTOR 158756.
75. ^ Browne-Davies, Nigel (2014). "The Brothers Easmon: The Emergence of a Nova Scotian Medical Dynasty in Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast". Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana (16): 45–110\. JSTOR 26512498.
76. ^ a b c "Dr Davidson Nicol | Christs College Cambridge". www.christs.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
77. ^ a b c W. F. Bynum; Helen Bynum, eds. (December 2006). "Easmon, John Farrell (b. Freetown, Sierra Leone, 30 June 1856; d. Cape Coast, Gold Coast, 9 June 1900- Medicine, Bacteriology" (PDF). Dictionary of Medical Biography [Five Volumes]. Greenwood Publishing Group. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
78. ^ Neville Shrimpton, Thomas Decker and The Death of Boss Coker (1987)
79. ^ "Lisk-Carew Brothers". Cambridge University Library. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
80. ^ a b Elebute (2013). The Life of James Pinson Labulo Davies. pp. 111–119.
81. ^ a b Sundiata, I. K. (1996). From Slaving to Neo-Slavery. The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 89–92\. ISBN 0-299-14510-7.
82. ^ a b Little, K. L. (1948). "Social Change and Social Class in the Sierra Leone Protectorate". American Journal of Sociology. 54 (1): 10–21\. doi:10.1086/220263. JSTOR 2770594.
83. ^ a b "Sierra Leone Gumbe music". www.musicinafrica.net. 19 January 2017.
84. ^ Stewart, Charles (2016). Creolization history, ethnography, theory. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. pp. 1–25\. ISBN 9781598742787.
85. ^ Redmond Shannon (13 April 2016). "Saint John historian illuminates story of Thomas Peters, prominent black loyalist". New Brunswick: CBC News. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
86. ^ Wayne Adams, "Black, white Baptists bridge centuries-old racial divide"[permanent dead link], The Daily News, Halifax, Canada, 22 Aug 2007, reprinted on Amistad America, accessed 4 May 2010]
87. ^ "The Radical Methodist Congregation of Daddy Moses". blackloyalist.info.
88. ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Bates, Robert H.; Nunn, Nathan; Robinson, James (2014). Africa's Development in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 218–219\. ISBN 978-1-139-99269-5.
89. ^ a b Martin Kilson; Robert I. Rotberg (1976). The African diaspora: interpretive essays. Harvard University Press, University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-674-00779-6.
90. ^ a b I. K. Sundiata (1990). Equatorial Guinea: colonialism, state terror, and the search for stability (Nations of contemporary Africa, Westview Profiles Series). University of Michigan (Westview Press). p. 24\. ISBN 978-0-8133-0429-8.
91. ^ "Krios and their history". www.natinpasadvantage.com.
92. ^ a b c Dixon-Fyle, Mac (1999). A Saro community in the Niger Delta. University Rochester Press. ISBN 978-1-58046-038-5.
93. ^ a b c d e Wyse, Akintola, pp. 11–12, The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History (Hurst and International African Institute, 1989, ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7).
94. ^ a b "Creoles of Sierra Leone". www.encyclopedia.com.
95. ^ Knox, George; Morley, David (December 1960). "Twinning in Yoruba Women". BJOG. 67 (6): 981–984\. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1960.tb09255.x. PMID 13757217. S2CID 28909380.
96. ^ "The J. Richard Simon Collection of Yoruba Twin Figures – Art & Life in Africa – The University of Iowa Museum of Art". africa.uima.uiowa.edu. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
97. ^ "Land of Ibeji". NOOR. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
98. ^ Aranzadi, 2010, 23
99. ^ Bilby, Kenneth. The Legacies of Slavery and Emancipation, Jamaica in the Atlantic World. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University, 2007. pp 108
100. ^ "Sierra Leone Heritage". www.sierraleoneheritage.org.
101. ^ Sierra Leone Weekly News, 9 September 1922, 8, Quoted in Kandeh 87 - 88: "unwashed aborigines who dressed, or rather undressed, in a style that would have been considered scanty even in the days when Adam delved and Eve spun"
102. ^ Africa and the West: Intellectual Responses to European Culture. Edited by Curtin, Philip D.. Madison, Wisconsin, 1972. University of Wisconsin Press.
103. ^ Hafkin, Nancy J.; Bay, Edna G., eds. (1976). Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-6624-1.
104. ^ "How to make the perfect full English breakfast". 25 June 2015.
105. ^ a b Peterson: 1968.
106. ^ a b Fashole-Luke: 1968.
107. ^ a b Carpenter, Allan; Eckert, Susan L (1974). Sierra Leone. Chicago: Childrens Press. p. 27\. ISBN 978-0-516-04583-2.
108. ^ Gall, Timothy L (2009). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Africa (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Cengage Learning. p. 155\. ISBN 978-1-4144-4883-1.
109. ^ Beah, Ishmael (2007). A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier. London: Fourth Estate. pp. 74–75\. ISBN 978-0-374-10523-5.
110. ^ "Anansi stories". www.anansistories.com.
111. ^ King, Nathaniel (2014), Chapter 3, Freetown's Yoruba-Modelled Secret Societies as Transnational and Transethnic Mechanisms for Social Integration, Berghahn Books OAPEN Library Edition
112. ^ Bascom, William R. (1952). "The Esusu: A Credit Institution of the Yoruba". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 82 (1): 63–69\. doi:10.2307/2844040. JSTOR 2844040.
113. ^ Sonko-Godwin, Patience (1 January 2004). Trade in the Senegambia Region: From the 12th to the Early 20th Century. Sunrise Publishers. p. 68\. ISBN 9789983990041.
114. ^ Othman, Ramatoulie Onikepo (1999). A Cherished Heritage: Tracing the Roots of Oku Marabou--early 19th to Mid 20th Century. Edward Francis Small Printing Press. p. 31.
115. ^ a b Ménard, Anaïs (2015). Beyond Autochthony Discourses: Sherbro Identity and the (Re-)Construction of Social and National Cohesion in Sierra Leone. PhD Thesis, Philosophische Fakultät I, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle/Saale.
116. ^ Thayer, James Steel (1991). A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone. pp. 215–230. https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1991_num_31_121_2116
117. ^ Browne-Davies, Nigel (2014). A Precis of Sources relating to genealogical research on the Sierra Leone Krio people. Journal of Sierra Leone Studies, Vol. 3; Edition 1, 2014.
118. ^ "Regent / Regent, Western Area, Sierra Leone, Africa". SL: Travelingluck.com. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
119. ^ ""Persons" vs. "People" vs. "Peoples": Which Word Is The Right Choice?". www.thesaurus.com. 11 October 2021.
120. ^ Cohen, Robin (2007). "Creolization and Cultural Globalization: The Soft Sounds of Fugitive Power". Globalizations. 4 (3): 369–384\. Bibcode:2007Glob....4..369C. doi:10.1080/14747730701532492. S2CID 54814946.
121. ^ Jourdan, C. (2001). "Creolization: Sociocultural Aspects". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 2903–2906\. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00835-4. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8.
122. ^ Stewart, Charles (2016). Creolization history, ethnography, theory. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. pp. 1–25\. ISBN 978-1-59874-278-7.
123. ^ Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World.(2006) ISBN 978-0-19-514073-6 p. 201
124. ^ "Memoirs of Madison Hemings". PBS Frontline.
125. ^ Heinegg, Paul (1997). "Free African Americans of North Carolina and Virginia". African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter.
126. ^ "Freedom in the archives: Free African Americans in Colonial America". www.commonplace.online.
127. ^ Lanning, 161–162.
128. ^ Sankoh, Mohamed (30 September 2020). "Is the SLPP Government Planning the Final Onslaught on 'Kriodom', the Last Bastion in Freetown?". www.theorganiser.net.
129. ^ Thomas, Abdul Rashid (11 May 2019). "The brouhaha over two-sim bridge in Freetown". www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com.
130. ^ "Dr Davidson Nicol;Obituary". The Times. 19 October 1994.
131. ^ "Nicol, Davidson Sylvester Hector Willoughby". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/55166. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
132. ^ Elebute, Adeyemo (2013). The Life of James Pinson Labulo Davies: A Colossus of Victorian Lagos. Kachifo Limited/Prestige. p. 1\. ISBN 9789785205763.
133. ^ Brockliss, L. W. B. (2016). The University of Oxford: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 410\. ISBN 978-0-19-924356-3.
134. ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
135. ^ "Idris Elba And Mo Abudu On Bringing African Talent Into Entertainment Mainstream". Deadline Hollywood. 19 May 2023.
136. ^ Emeka Keazor, "Notable Nigerians: Stella Thomas", NSIBIDI Institute (4 November 2014).
137. ^ "West African Lady Barrister Called to the Bar" Nigerian Daily Telegraph (11 May 1933): 1.
138. ^ De Lerma, Dominique-René. "African Heritage Symphonic Series, Vol. I". Database of Recorded American Music.
139. ^ Sierra Leone list: "No. 45265". The London Gazette (Supplement). 31 December 1970. pp. 43–44.
140. ^ "Sir Ernest Dunstan Morgan: A true Sierra Leonean pioneer and philanthropist". www.sierraconnection.com/biographies.htm. 22 July 2023.
141. ^ "Frances Wright". The Daily Telegraph. 27 April 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
142. ^ "High Court Gets First Black Judge", BBC News, 2 September 2004.
143. ^ Clare Dyer, "Woman QC to be high court's first black judge", The Guardian, 1 September 2004.
144. ^ a b Hakim Adi, Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787 (2003, ISBN 0203417801), pp. 29–31.
145. ^ "Thomas, (Emanuel) Peter John Adeniyi (1914–1945), air force officer". www.oxforddnb.com.
146. ^ Whiteman 2013, p. 202.
147. ^ Teniola 2013.
148. ^ "Sierra Leone Heroes: Beoku-Betts". www.sierra-leone.org.
149. ^ "Kwame Nkrumah's Revolutionary Health Platform". GhanaWeb. 30 November 2001. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
150. ^ Fisher, Humphrey J. (1969). "Elections and Coups in Sierra Leone, 1967". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 7 (4): 611–636\. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00018863.
151. ^ Roy-Johnson, M. (1980). Who's who in Sierra Leone. Lyns Publicity. p. 6. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
152. ^ Rogers, Brittany Rose, "Hayford, Adelaide Smith Casely (1868–1960)", BlackPast.org.
153. ^ africanvoice (26 October 2017). "The Krios of Sierra Leone – Pioneers throughout Africa - African Voice Newspaper". African Voice Newspaper. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
154. ^ Conton, Miatta (27 September 2001). "Tribute to the First Female Fourah Bay College Graduate Latilewa Christiana Hyde". Concord Times (Freetown). Retrieved 28 June 2018.
155. ^ Chipasula, Stella; Chipasula, Frank Mkalawile, eds. (1995). The Heinemann Book of African Women's Poetry. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-90680-1.
156. ^ Fyle, Magbaily (2006). Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. p. 57.
157. ^ Uwechue, Raph (14 March 1991). Makers of Modern Africa. Africa Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-903274-18-0 - via Google Books.
158. ^ "Dr. Abdulai Conteh Comments on Controversial Speaker Issue". 22 November 2013.
159. ^ Patton, Adell. Physicians, colonial racism, and diaspora in West Africa, University Press of Florida, 1996.
160. ^ "Nelson-Williams, Dr Claude," Africa's Who Who, (Africa Journal Limited, 1991), p. 1253.
161. ^ "Ulrich Jones Tribute". www.allafrica.com.
162. ^ Uwechue, Raph (1991). Africa Who's who. Africa Journal Limited. ISBN 9780903274173.
163. ^ Nwauwa, Apollos (1999). "Far Ahead of his Time: James Africanus Horton's Initiatives for a West African University and his Frustration". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 39 (153): 107–121\. doi:10.3406/cea.1999.1966. JSTOR 4392915.
164. ^ "African Political Philosophy, 1860-1995" (PDF). www.research.rug.nl.
165. ^ Mitchell, Henry (November 2016). "Dr Agnes Yewande Savage – West Africa's First Woman Doctor (1906–1964)". Centre of African Studies. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019.
166. ^ Register of Admissions to the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, Vol. 5, p. 48 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 1 July 2020.
167. ^ "King resignation". www.liberiapastandpresent.com.
168. ^ "Samuel Ajayi Crowther, 1890 · Slavery Images". slaveryimages.org. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
169. ^ Killingray, David (2012). Africans in Britain. Routledge.
170. ^ "The London Gazette, Fourth Supplement" (PDF). thegazette.co.uk/. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1968. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
171. ^ Crowder, Michael (1966). "Symposium of West African Archaeologists". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 4 (2): 238–239\. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00013288. JSTOR 158948.
172. ^ Akam, Simon (13 February 2012). "Akam '09 profiles former African dictator Valentine Strasser". Columbia Journalism School. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013.
173. ^ "From Sierra Leone to Stalag Luft I: Remembering Johnny Smythe".
174. ^ Akintola J. G. Wyse (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 34\. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7.
175. ^ Fyle, Magbaily C. Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone. Vol. 99. Scarecrow Press, 2006.
176. ^ "Time to call APC's bluff". www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com. 4 May 2019.
177. ^ "Ryan Giggs Biography". www.footbalium.com.
178. ^ "A key group has been left out of the reparations debate: West African descendants of enslaved people". inews.co.uk. 6 October 2023.
179. ^ "Black History Month 2022: Local Black heroes from Manchester's past present and future". www.morson-group.com. 26 October 2022.

### General bibliography

[edit]

* Porter, Arthur (1966). Creoledom: A study of the development of Freetown society. Oxford University Press. ASIN B0007IT722.
* Spitzer, Leo (1974). The Creoles of Sierra Leone: Responses to colonialism, 1870–1945. University of Wisconsin Press; 1st edition. ISBN 978-0-299-06590-4.
* Wyse, Akintola (1989). The Krio of Sierra Leone: An Interpretive History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-031-7.
* Campbell, Mavis; Ross, George (1993). George Ross and the Maroons : from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone. Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-384-7.
* Lewis-Coker, Eyamide (2018). Creoles of Sierra Leone: Proverbs, Parables, Wise Sayings. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-5462-5273-3.
* Dixon-Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril (2005). New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. Peter Lang Inc., International Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8204-7937-8.
* Schama, Simon (2005). Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution. BBC Books. ISBN 0-06-053916-X.
* Conteh, Doris (2021). The Creoles of Sierra Leone. Independently Published. ISBN 979-8504488066.
* Walker, James (1992). The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7402-7.
* Braidwood, Stephen (1994). Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London's Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement, 1786–1791. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-377-0.
* Baron, Robert; Cara, Ana (2013). Creolization as Cultural Creativity. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-61703-949-2.
* Teniola, Eric (2013). "The Creoles in Nigeria (2)". Daily Independent. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
* Whiteman, Kye (1 October 2013). Lagos: A Cultural History. Interlink Publishing Group, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-62371-040-8. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
* Wyse, Akintola (1990). H.C. Bankole-Bright and politics in colonial Sierra Leone, 1919–1958. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53333-1.
* Paracka, Daniel (2003). The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94795-4.

## External links

[edit]

* Creole culture and traditional outfits
* Dr. Oloh and his Milo Jazz Band
* Johnny Smythe, RAF pilot shot down over Nazi Germany
* Sights and sounds of Krio
* Meet the Krios of Freetown, Sierra Leone (part 1)
* Meet the Krios of Freetown, Sierra Leone (part 2)

* v
* t
* e

Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone

* Fula
* Kissi
* Kono
* Krio
* Kru
* Kuranko
* Limba
* Loko
* Mandingo
* Mende
* Oku
* Sherbro
* Susu
* Temne
* Vai
* Yalunka

* v
* t
* e

American diaspora

Africa|

* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* South Africa

Asia|

* Children of American service members (multiple countries)

| East|

* China
* Hong Kong
* Japan
* North Korea
* Taiwan

|

South|

* India
* Pakistan

Southeast|

* Philippines

West|

* Israel
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Saudi Arabia
* Qatar
* United Arab Emirates

Europe|

* France
* African Americans
* Germany
* Greece
* Ireland
* Italy
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Spain
* Sweden
* United Kingdom

North America|

* The Bahamas
* Belize
* Canada
* Black Nova Scotians
* New England Planters
* Six Nations
* United Empire Loyalists
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominican Republic (African Americans)
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Free Blacks
* Honduras
* Mexico
* Kickapoo
* Mascogo
* Mormons
* New Virginia
* Trinidad and Tobago (African Americans)

Oceania|

* Australia
* New Zealand

South America|

* Argentina
* Brazil
* Americana
* Confederados
* Santa Bárbara d'Oeste
* New Texas
* Chile
* Ecuador
* Paraguay
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

See also|

* African-American diaspora

* v
* t
* e

African Americans

History|

* Timeline
* Abolitionism
* African American founding fathers
* Afrocentrism
* American Civil War
* Atlantic slave trade
* Black Codes
* Black cowboys
* Black genocide
* Black Lives Matter
* Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
* Children of the plantation
* Civil Rights Acts
* 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* 1968
* Civil rights movement 1865–1896
* Civil right movement 1896–1954
* Civil rights movement 1954–1968
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle (1956)
* Sit-in movement
* Freedom Riders
* Birmingham movement
* March on Washington
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Chicago Freedom Movement
* Post–civil rights era
* Cornerstone Speech
* COVID-19 impact
* Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
* Free Negro
* Free people of color
* George Floyd protests
* Great Migration
* Second
* New
* Exodusters
* Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching
* Military history
* Million Man March
* Nadir of American race relations
* The Negro Motorist Green Book
* Partus sequitur ventrem
* Plantations
* Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
* Reconstruction Amendments
* Reconstruction era
* Redlining
* Separate but equal
* Silent Parade
* Slavery
* Treatment of slaves
* Tulsa race massacre
* Underground Railroad
* Women's suffrage movement

Culture|

* Afrofuturism
* Art
* Black mecca
* Businesses
* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Hair
* Harlem Renaissance
* New Negro
* Hoodoo
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa
* LGBTQ community
* Literature
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Negro National Anthem
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food
* Stereotypes
* Middle class
* Upper class

Notable people|

* Ralph Abernathy
* Maya Angelou
* Crispus Attucks
* James Baldwin
* James Bevel
* Julian Bond
* Amelia Boynton
* James Bradley
* Carol Moseley Braun
* Edward Brooke
* Blanche Bruce
* Ralph Bunche
* George Washington Carver
* Shirley Chisholm
* Claudette Colvin
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Medgar Evers
* James Farmer
* Henry Highland Garnet
* Marcus Garvey
* Fred Gray
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Kamala Harris
* Jimi Hendrix
* Jesse Jackson
* Ketanji Brown Jackson
* Michael Jackson
* Harriet Jacobs
* Barbara Jordan
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Huddie Ledbetter
* John Lewis
* Joseph Lowery
* Malcolm X
* Thurgood Marshall
* Toni Morrison
* Bob Moses
* Diane Nash
* Barack Obama
* Michelle Obama
* Rosa Parks
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Colin Powell
* Gabriel Prosser
* Joseph Rainey
* A. Philip Randolph
* Hiram Revels
* Paul Robeson
* Al Sharpton
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Clarence Thomas
* Emmett Till
* Sojourner Truth
* Harriet Tubman
* Nat Turner
* Denmark Vesey
* C. T. Vivian
* David Walker
* Booker T. Washington
* Ida B. Wells
* Roy Wilkins
* Oprah Winfrey
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young

Education, science
and technology|

* Black studies
* Black schools
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Inventors and scientists
* Museums
* Women
* in computer science
* in medicine
* in STEM fields

Religion|

* African-American Jews
* Islam
* American Society of Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Black church
* Azusa Street Revival
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Black theology
* Doctrine of Father Divine

Political movements|

* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Movement
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Leftism
* Pan-Africanism
* Populism
* Raised fist
* Self-determination
* Nationalism
* Socialism

Civic and economic
groups

* Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
* Black Panther Party
* Committee to Eliminate Media Offensive to African People (CEMOTAP)
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Nashville Student Movement
* National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
* National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
* National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
* National Urban League (NUL)
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* Thurgood Marshall College Fund
* United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

Sports|

* Negro league baseball
* Baseball color line
* Black players in professional American football
* Black NFL quarterbacks
* Black players in ice hockey
* Muhammad Ali
* Arthur Ashe
* Jack Johnson
* Joe Louis
* Jesse Owens
* Jackie Robinson
* Serena Williams

Athletic associations
and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* By African descent
* Fula
* Gullah
* Igbo
* Yoruba
* Alabama Creole
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Cherokee Freedmen
* Choctaw Freedmen
* Creek Freedmen
* Black Southerners
* Blaxicans
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creole
* of color
* Melungeon

Demographics|

* Neighborhoods
* list
* U.S. cities with large populations
* 2000 majorities
* 2010 majorities
* Metropolitan areas
* States and territories

Languages|

* Afro-Seminole Creole
* American Sign
* Black American Sign
* English
* American English
* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* social context
* Gullah
* Louisiana Creole

By state/city|

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Florida
* Jacksonville
* Tallahassee
* Georgia
* Atlanta
* Hawaii
* Illinois
* Chicago
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Davenport
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Massachusetts
* Boston
* Michigan
* Detroit
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* Omaha
* New Jersey
* New York
* New York City
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Cleveland
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Austin
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* San Antonio
* Utah
* Virginia
* West Virginia

Diaspora|

* Africa
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* America
* Canada
* Dominican Republic
* Haiti
* Mexico
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Israel
* Europe
* France

Lists|

* African Americans
* Activists
* Actors
* Astronauts
* Billionaires
* Journalists
* Jurists
* Mathematicians
* Republicans
* Singers
* Sportspeople
* Spingarn Medal winners
* US cabinet members
* US representatives
* US senators
* Visual artists
* Writers
* African-American firsts
* Mayors
* Sports firsts
* US state firsts
* Historic places
* Index of related articles
* Landmark African-American legislation
* Lynching victims
* Monuments
* Neighborhoods
* Topics related to the African diaspora

* Category
* United States portal

* v
* t
* e

Black Loyalists

* Slavery in the U.S.
* African Americans in the Revolutionary War
* Loyalists
* United Empire Loyalist
* Black Canadians

Proclamations|

* Dunmore's Proclamation (1775)
* Philipsburg Proclamation (1779)

American Revolutionary War|

* Black Loyalists
* Black Company of Pioneers
* Ethiopian Regiment

Post-war Emancipation|

* Treaty of Paris (1783)
* Book of Negroes
* Merikins
* Petition of Free Negroes (Niagara)

White Loyalists
involved in Emancipation|

* General Samuel Birch
* Stephen Skinner

Nova Scotia|

* Birchtown
* Halifax County
* Port Rosey (now Shelburne)
* Shelburne riots

Black Nova Scotians|

* Colonel Stephen Blucke
* Rose Fortune
* Rev. John Marrant
* Richard Pierpoint
* Deborah Squash
* See also Sierra Leone settlers below

Nova Scotian /
Sierra Leone Settlers (1792)|

* Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor
* Settler Town
* Sierra Leone Company

Sierra Leone people|

* Davis family
* David George
* Abraham Hazeley
* John Kizell
* Boston King
* Cato Perkins
* Thomas Peters
* Harry Washington
* Moses Wilkinson

In media|

* The Book of Negroes
* miniseries

* v
* t
* e

African diaspora

Geography|

| Americas/
Latin America|

| Caribbean|

* Anguilla
* Antigua and Barbuda
* Aruba
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Bermuda
* Cayman Islands
* Cuba
* Afro-Roma
* Arará
* Cape Verdean
* Ganga-Longoba
* Curaçao
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Cocolo
* Samaná Americans
* Grenada
* Haiti
* Marabou
* Marron
* Jamaica
* Afro-Roma
* Coromantee
* Igbos
* Jamaican Maroons
* Puerto Rico
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Garifuna
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Douglas
* Merikins
* Turks and Caicos Islands

|

Central
America|

* Belize
* Garifuna
* Costa Rica
* El Salvador
* Guatemala
* Honduras
* Miskito people
* Miskito Sambu
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Cimarrón

North
America|

* Canada
* Black Mennonites
* Indigenous Black Canadians
* New Brunswick
* Nova Scotia
* Ontario
* African immigrants
* Mexico
* Mascogos
* United States
* African Americans
* Afro-Roma
* Affrilachians
* African-American Jews
* Alabama Creoles
* Black Mennonites
* Black Southerners
* Black Hispanic
* Black Indians/Freedmen
* Cherokee freedmen
* Chickasaw freedmen
* Choctaw freedmen
* Creek freedmen
* Seminole freedmen
* Creoles of color
* Gullah
* Brass Ankles
* Chestnut Ridge people
* Dominickers
* Fulani
* Garifuna
* Igbos
* Louisiana Redbones
* Lumbee
* Melungeons
* Somali Bantus
* Yoruba
* African immigrants

South
America|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Kalungas
* Macombo
* Quilombola
* Chile
* Colombia
* Raizal
* Ecuador
* French Guiana
* Aluku
* Ndyuka
* Saramaka
* Guyana
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Suriname
* Kwinti
* Matawai
* Ndyuka
* Paramaccan
* Saramaka
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Europe
(Blacks)|

* Abkhazia
* Austria
* Belgium
* Finland
* France
* Paris
* Germany
* Greece
* Blacks
* Ireland
* Italy
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Cambridge
* Liverpool
* London
* Scotland
* Wales

Middle East|

* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Ethiopian Israelis
* Sudanese refugees
* Jordan
* Oman
* Palestine
* Saudi Arabia
* Syria
* Turkey
* Africans
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen

Asia and
Oceania|

* Australia
* China
* Guangzhou
* Hong Kong
* Afro-Asians in South Asia
* India and Pakistan
* Siddi
* in Karnataka
* Indonesia
* Black Dutchmen
* Mardijker
* Japan
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* Sri Lanka
* Kaffirs

Atlantic|

* Saint Helena

Secondary
Afro-American
diaspora|

| Africa|

* Ghana
* African Americans
* Tabom
* Liberia
* Americo-Liberians
* Nigeria
* Afro-Brazilians
* Saro
* Sierra Leone
* Sierra Leone Creole

|

Europe|

* France
* African Americans
* Haitians
* United Kingdom
* African Americans
* Afro-Caribbean people
* British Jamaicans

Asia and
Oceania|

* Israel
* African Hebrew Israelites
* Japan

Related
topics|

* African diaspora religions
* Anti-African sentiment
* Anti-Black racism
* Atlantic slave trade
* Coromantee
* Igbo
* Kongo
* Tikar
* Yoruba
* Slavery in the Ottoman Empire
* Black Lives Matter
* Black power
* Civil rights movement
* Creole peoples
* Genetic history
* Maroons
* Pan-Africanism
* Slavery
* Reparations

* Category
* Commons

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

Other|

* IdRef
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template