Sierra Nevada

Mountain range in the United States

For other uses, see Sierra Nevada (disambiguation).

"Range of Light" redirects here. For the S. Carey album, see Range of Light (album).

Sierra Nevada

The Sierra's Mills Creek cirque (center) is on the west side of the Sierra Crest, south of Mono Lake (top, blue).

Highest point
Peak| Mount Whitney
Elevation| 14,505 ft (4,421 m)[1]
Coordinates| 36°34′42.9″N 118°17′31.2″W﻿ / ﻿36.578583°N 118.292000°W﻿ / 36.578583; -118.292000
Dimensions
Length| 400 mi (640 km) north-south from Fredonyer Pass to Tehachapi Pass[2]
Width| 80 mi (130 km)[3]
Area| 24,370 sq mi (63,100 km2)[4]
Naming
Etymology| 1777: Spanish for "snowy mountain range"
Nicknames|

* the Sierra
* the High Sierra
* Range of Light (1894, John Muir)[5]

Geography

Position of Sierra Nevada inside California

Country| United States
States|

* California
* Nevada

Range coordinates| 38°00′N 119°30′W﻿ / ﻿38.000°N 119.500°W﻿ / 38.000; -119.500
Geology
Rock age| Mesozoic
Rock types|

* batholith
* igneous

The Sierra Nevada (/siˌɛrə nɪˈvædə, -ˈvɑːd-/ see-ERR-ə nih-VA(H)D-ə)[6][a] is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas.

The Sierra runs 400 mi (640 km) north-south, and its width ranges from 50 mi (80 km) to 80 mi (130 km) across east–west.[3] Notable features include the General Sherman Tree, the largest tree in the world by volume; Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m),[1] the highest point in the contiguous United States; and Yosemite Valley sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite, containing high waterfalls. The Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty-six wilderness areas, ten national forests, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks, as well as Devils Postpile National Monument.

More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift less than five million years ago,[8] and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.

The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The California gold rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to its inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912.[9]: 81

## Name and etymology

[edit]

Kearsarge Lakes Basin is named after the USS Kearsarge[10][b]

Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range (Santa Cruz Mountains), the term "Sierra Nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior.[11] In 1776, Pedro Font's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada.[12]

The literal translation is "snowy mountains", from sierra "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latin serra "a saw"; and from the Spanish adjective nevado "snowy".[13][14]

While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in the plural (Smokies, Rockies, Cascades, etc.), some locals who live in "the Sierra" are not hesitant to admonish those who refer to the area as "the Sierras".[15] However, there are historical and literary references that use the plural, such as the 1871 collection of Joaquin Miller poems, Songs of the Sierras.[15][16] Ansel Adams, in response to a publication of his photographs under the title Parmelian Prints of the High Sierras, commented, "To add an s is a linguistic, Californian, and mountaineering sin."[17]

## Geography

[edit]

The Sierra Nevada lies primarily in Central and Eastern California, with the Carson Range, a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 500 feet (150 m) in the Central Valley[18] to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) atop the highest peaks of its crest 50 to 75 miles (80 to 121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift.

### Setting

[edit]

The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River[19] and Fredonyer Pass[20] to the North Fork Feather River. It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range.[21] The range is bounded on the west by California's Central Valley, on the east by the Basin and Range Province, and on the southeast by the Mojave Desert. The southern boundary is at Tehachapi Pass.[2]

Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range."[22]

### Watersheds

[edit]

The Sierra hosts many waterways, such as the Tuolumne River.

The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather, Yuba, and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, which flow into the endorheic basin of Tulare Lake, which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years.

The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake, the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake, the Carson River runs into Carson Sink, the Walker River into Walker Lake; Rush, Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California.

### Elevation

[edit]

Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range and the contiguous United States

The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California. Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States.

South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) near Lake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m).[23]

### Notable features

[edit]

Mount Tallac above Lake Tahoe

There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada:

* Lake Tahoe is a large, clear freshwater lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 6,225 ft (1,897 m) and an area of 191 sq mi (490 km2).[24] Lake Tahoe lies between the main Sierra and the Carson Range, a spur of the Sierra.[24]
* Hetch Hetchy Valley, Yosemite Valley, Kings Canyon, and Kern Canyon are examples of many glacially-scoured canyons on the west side of the Sierra.
* Yosemite National Park is filled with notable features such as waterfalls, granite domes, high mountains, lakes, and meadows.
* Groves of giant sequoias Sequoiadendron giganteum occur along a narrow band of altitude on the western side of the Sierra Nevada. Giant sequoias are the largest trees in the world.[25]
* Two of the largest rivers in California, which form the Central Valley and drain into San Francisco Bay, derive most of their flow from the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The northern of the two is the Sacramento River (which also drains the adjacent Cascade Range and Klamath Range); the southern one is the San Joaquin River.

### Communities

[edit]

Communities in the Sierra Nevada include Paradise, South Lake Tahoe, Truckee, Grass Valley, Lee Vining, Mammoth Lakes, Sonora, Nevada City, Placerville, Pollock Pines, Portola, Auburn, Colfax, Kennedy Meadows and Shaver Lake.

### Protected areas

[edit]

Main article: List of protected areas of the Sierra Nevada

View of Sequoia National Park from Moro Rock

Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and is either protected from development or strictly managed. The mountain range is home to three National Parks - Yosemite, Kings Canyon, and Sequoia - and two national monuments - Devils Postpile and Giant Sequoia. Ten national forests[26] span much of the mountain range's remaining area. Within these national parks, monuments, and forests lie 26 wilderness areas, which together protect 15.4% of the Sierra's 63,118 km2 (24,370 sq mi) from logging, development, and wheeled vehicle use.[4]

The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada.[4] Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.

The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.[27]

## Geologic history

[edit]

Sevehah Cliff, near Convict Lake, shows severely deformed Devonian rock[28] Yosemite Valley in Yosemite National Park was carved by glaciers

For central Sierra Nevada geology, see Geology of the Yosemite area.

The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age, the oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region.[28] These dark-colored hornfels, slates, marbles, and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold, west of the Tehachapi Pass) and east of the Sierra Crest.[29] The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N.[30] In the Triassic and into the Jurassic, an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny.[31] Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California.

In the Cretaceous, a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent.[32] This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American Plate. Magma, formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate, rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith. These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma.[33] The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra.[30] At this time, the Sierra Nevada formed the western ramp of a high plateau to the east, the Nevadaplano.[34] During this period, rivers cut deep canyons into the range, generating topographic relief similar to the modern Sierra Nevada. This period of incision was halted approximately 30 million years ago by vast outpourings of pyroclastic flows from Nevada which filled the northern Sierran valleys with volcanic deposits.[35] These pyroclastic flows, which continued for about 10 million years, were followed by andesitic lahars which nearly completely buried the northern Sierran landscape such that only the tallest peaks emerged above a volcanic plain.[36] This second period of volcanism appears to have been triggered by crustal extension associated with extension of the Basin and Range Province.[37] As this andesitic volcanism began waning about five million years ago, the rivers were able to begin eroding away the 100s of meters of volcanic deposits and resume the incision that had been halted by the first period of volcanism.

Some studies have argued that this recent incision is a sign of recent tectonic uplift.[38][39] Other geologists claim that the elevations of many of the modern rivers flowing down the range are only 100–300 meters (300–1,000 ft) lower than their ancient counterparts from 30–40 million years ago and the overall elevation and bedrock topography of the northern Sierra Nevada has changed little since at least 30–40 million years ago.[40][41][42]

About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.

Extension of the Basin and Range continues today, leading to downdropping of crustal blocks just east of the Sierra Nevada during large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872.[43]

Sierra Escarpment viewed from the east. In the foreground is Tinemaha Reservoir in the Owens Valley.

## Climate and meteorology

[edit]

Red Slate Mountain (elevation 13,156 ft or 4,010 m) is still covered with snow in June

The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 m) elevation, due to orographic lift.[33]: 69 Above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), precipitation diminishes on the western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year.[44] While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in a short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42–90 °F (6–32 °C). Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows, at 8,600 feet (2,600 m) elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 °F (4 °C) with daily lows about 10 °F (−12 °C).[45] The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation.[18] The highest elevations of the Sierra have an alpine climate.

The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California.[46] Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States.[47]

Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.

The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.[48]

The Sierra Nevada is home to the Mono winds, strong, dry downslope winds that primarily affect the western slopes, especially in the central region, and are most common from late fall to spring. With gusts reaching over 80 miles per hour, these winds can cause widespread disruption, uprooting trees, damaging infrastructure, and making mountain passes hazardous for drivers.[49]

Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle. Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000,[50] including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett. Hypotheses that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force's Area 51, or to the activities of extra-terrestrial aliens, have no evidence to support them.[51][52]

## Ecology

[edit]

Main article: Ecology of the Sierra Nevada

Tuolumne Meadows is an example of a subalpine meadow in the Sierra.

The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species.[33] Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone is higher in the east.[33] A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:

* The western foothill zone, 1,000–2,500 ft (300–760 m),[33]: 92 with grassland, oak-grass savanna and chaparral-oak woodland.[18] Gray pine (also known as Foothill pine) is intermixed with the oak woodland.[33]: 95
* The Pinyon pine-Juniper woodland, 5,000–7,000 ft (1,500–2,100 m) east side only.[33]: 92
* The Sierra Nevada lower montane forest (indicator species: Ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine), 2,500–7,000 ft (760–2,130 m) west side, 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) east side.[33]: 92 This biotic zone is notable for containing giant sequoia.
* The Sierra Nevada upper montane forest (indicator species: Lodgepole pine, Red fir) 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) west side, 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) east side.[33]: 92
* The Sierra Nevada subalpine zone (indicator species: Whitebark pine)[53] 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) west side, 10,500–11,500 ft (3,200–3,500 m) east side[33]: 92
* The alpine region at greater than 10,500 ft (3,200 m), and greater than 11,500 ft (3,500 m) east side.[33]: 92

## History

[edit]

John Frémont was an early American explorer of the Sierra

### Native Americans

[edit]

Main article: Great Basin tribes

Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tübatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads. The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains.[54] Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement.[55][56]

### Initial European-American exploration

[edit]

See also: History of the Yosemite area and California Trail

Albert Bierstadt, Among the Sierra Nevada, California, 1868

American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions, pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada.[57] The first Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass.[57]

In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California. Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley.[58] The Walker Party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of giant sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees,[57] but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia.[59]

Starting in 1841, emigrants from the United States started to move to California via Sonora and Walker Passes.[60]

In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont, accompanied by Kit Carson, was the first European American to see Lake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m).[61]

### Gold rush

[edit]

Map of gold fields in the Sierra

Main article: California Gold Rush

The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma, in the western foothills of the Sierra.[62] On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River.[63] Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"[63]

On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress.[64]: 80 Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.[65] Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims.

Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams.[66]: 198–200 However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.[67]: 90

By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields.[64]: 89 In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million troy ounces (340 metric tons) of gold (worth approximately US$16 billion in 2020 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking".[68] A consequence of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants were washed into streams and rivers.[67]: 32–36 As of 1999[update], many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.[67]: 116–121

It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.[64]: 25 The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.[67]

The exploration team for the California Geological Survey, 1864

### Thorough exploration

[edit]

The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored.[9][69] The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King, explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863.[9] In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon. In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range,[70] and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley, mistakenly believing he had summited Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range.[71] In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, California, on a fishing trip.[9] From 1892 to 1897 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.[9]

Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped the area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park. James S. Hutchinson, a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over.[9]: 81

### Logging

[edit]

See also: Logging in the Sierra Nevada

Square-set timbering as used in the Comstock mines, 1877.

Logging in the Sierra Nevada has significantly impacted the landscape. The logging industry in the Sierra Nevada started in the early 1800s, when settlers relied on hand tools and ox-teams.[72]: 103, 127 Before the California Gold Rush, the industry was relatively small, and most of the lumber used in the state was imported. However, as the demand for lumber to support the mining industry increased, logging became a major industry in the region.

Initially, most of the lumber produced in California was used in mining. The Comstock Lode was a major center for logging, with operations supplying lumber for the construction of mine structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and buildings, as well as fuel for the mines. Dan DeQuille observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected."[73]

In the late 1800s, the logging industry moved westward due to the depletion of white pine forests in the upper Midwest.[74]: 9–14 This shift was encouraged by the positive portrayal of the Sierra Nevada as a promising timber region. In 1859, Horace Greely marveled, "I never saw anything so much like good timber in the course of any seventy-five miles' travel as I saw in crossing the Sierra Nevada."[75]

Clearcutting in Converse Basin resulted in a loss of 8,000 giant sequoia.[76]

The logging industry experienced significant growth in the late 1800s due to several factors. The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 allowed individuals to claim ownership of old-growth timber tracts, which were later consolidated under joint-stock companies, such as those founded by Midwestern lumber magnates.[77]: 142–144 These companies had the financial resources to transport timber from remote locations and build sawmills near the tracks of the Southern Pacific railroad which connected the San Joaquin Valley to the rest of the state in the 1870s. This facilitated the nationwide distribution of lumber. In addition, technological advancements, such as the shay locomotive and the v-shaped log flume, made it easier to transport lumber across mountainous terrain.[72]

### Conservation

[edit]

See also: Protected areas of the Sierra Nevada

The General Sherman Tree, a giant sequoia in Sequoia National Park, is the world's largest tree by volume.

The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range. Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park.[58] John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of giant sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906.[58] In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time.

In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley. The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the U.S. Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed in 1923.[78][79]

Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and after World War II, towns such as South Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000.[80] The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency.[81]

As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. The John Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley to Mount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938.[82] Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of the Kings River.

In the 1920s, automobile clubs and nearby towns started to lobby for trans-Sierra highways over Piute Pass[83] (which would have closed the gap in SR 168) and other locations. However, by end of the 1920s, the Forest Service and the Sierra Club decided that roadless wilderness in the Sierra was valuable, and fought the proposal. The Piute Pass proposal faded out by the early 1930s, with the Forest Service proposing a route over Minaret Summit in 1933.[83] The Minaret Summit route was lobbied against by California's Governor Ronald Reagan in 1972. The expansion of the John Muir and Ansel Adams Wildernesses in the 1980s sealed off the Minaret Summit route.[83]

A trans-Sierra route between Porterville and Lone Pine was proposed by local businessmen in 1923.[84] Eventually, a circuitous route across the Sierra was built across Sherman Pass by 1976.[85]

By 1964, the Wilderness Act protected portions of the Sierra as primitive areas where humans are simply temporary visitors. Gradually, 20 wilderness areas were established to protect scenic backcountry of the Sierra. These wilderness areas include the John Muir Wilderness (protecting the eastern slope of the Sierra and the area between Yosemite and Kings Canyon Parks), and wilderness within each of the National Parks.

The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands.[86] Grazing occurs on private lands as well as on National Forest lands, which include Wilderness areas. Overgrazing can alter hydrologic processes and vegetation composition, remove vegetation that serves as food and habitat for native species, and contribute to sedimentation and pollution in waterways.[87] A recent increase in large wildfires, like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the Eldorado National Forest, has prompted concerns.[86] A 2015 study indicated that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable to human-induced climate change.[88] A study looking back over 8,000 years found that warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and more stand-replacing fires and concluded that as climate is such a powerful influence on wildfires, trying to recreate presettlement forest structure may be difficult in a warmer future.[89]

## See also

[edit]

* Geography portal
* Mountains portal
* California portal
* Nevada portal

* Bibliography of the Sierra Nevada
* List of Sierra Nevada road passes
* List of Sierra Nevada topics
* Sierra Nevada (Spain)

## Explanatory notes

[edit]

1. ^ Spanish pronunciation: [ˈsjera neˈβaða]; lit. 'snowy range'.[7]
2. ^ The ship was named after Mount Kearsarge in New Hampshire, see "Kearsarge (BB-5)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval History & Heritage Command (NHHC). February 23, 2005. Archived from the original on September 21, 2015. Retrieved December 15, 2012.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "Mount Whitney". NGS Data Sheet. National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce.
2. ^ a b "Sierra Nevada". Ecological Subregions of California. United States Forest Service. Archived from the original on December 5, 2010.
3. ^ a b "Sierra Nevada". SummitPost.org. Archived from the original on September 17, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
4. ^ a b c "The Sierra Nevada Region". USCB Biogeography lab. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.
5. ^ Muir, John (1894). "Chapter 1: The Sierra Nevada". The Mountains of California. Archived from the original on April 10, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
6. ^ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
7. ^ Carlson, Helen S. (1976). Nevada Place Names: A Geographical Dictionary. University of Nevada Press. p. 215\. ISBN 978-0-87417-094-8.
8. ^ "Cascade-Sierra Mountains Province (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on February 12, 2022. Retrieved February 12, 2022.
9. ^ a b c d e f Roper, Steve (1997). Sierra High Route: Traversing Timberline Country. The Mountaineers Press. ISBN 978-0-89886-506-6.
10. ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (1926). "K". Place Names of the Sierra Nevada. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Archived from the original on March 13, 2006.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
11. ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (March 1925). "Exploration of the Sierra Nevada". California Historical Society Quarterly. 4 (1): 3–58\. doi:10.2307/25177743. hdl:2027/mdp.39015049981668. JSTOR 25177743. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011.
12. ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (1926). "S". Place Names of the Sierra Nevada. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Archived from the original on May 25, 2024.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
13. ^ "Sierra". Etymology Online. Archived from the original on August 6, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
14. ^ "Nevada". Etymology Online. Archived from the original on August 29, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
15. ^ a b Moon, Freda (July 19, 2021). "Is it 'The Sierra' or 'The Sierras'? Californians can't agree". SFGATE. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved January 28, 2023.
16. ^ "POET OF THE SIERRAS, JOAQUIN MILLER, DIES; His Body to be Burned on Pyre at Mountain Home and Ashes Borne by Winds". The New York Times. February 18, 1913. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 30, 2021. Retrieved July 30, 2021.
17. ^ Adams, Ansel; Mary Street Alinder (1996). Ansel Adams: An Autobiography. NY: Little, Brown & Co. pp. 65–66\. ISBN 0-8212-2241-4.
18. ^ a b c "Chapter 33-Ecological subregions of the United States, Sierran Steppe - Mixed Forest - Coniferous Forest". United States Forest Service. Archived from the original on January 2, 2014. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
19. ^ "Subsection M261Eb: Fredonyer Butte – Grizzly Peak". Archived from the original on December 5, 2010. Retrieved August 2, 2010.
20. ^ "Sierra Nevada". Peakbagger.com. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved August 7, 2010.
21. ^ "California Geomorphic Provinces" (PDF). California Geological Survey. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2004.
22. ^ "California Geologic Provinces" (PDF). California Geological Survey. p. 2\. Note 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 22, 2016.
23. ^ "Google terrain map". Archived from the original on September 25, 2023. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
24. ^ a b "Facts about Lake Tahoe". USGS. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved May 12, 2007.
25. ^ "The General Sherman Tree". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on March 15, 2010.
26. ^ Sierra National Forests Indicator Species Amendment Final Environmental Impact Statement (PDF) (Report). p. 5\. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 16, 2021. Retrieved May 10, 2020.
27. ^ "Forest Service Proposes to Change Designation of Bighorn Sheep Zoological Areas". United States Forest Service. September 25, 2010. Archived from the original on October 5, 2011. Retrieved January 23, 2011.
28. ^ a b Stevens, CH; Greene, DC (2000). "Geology of Paleozoic rocks in eastern Sierra Nevada roof pendants, California". Geological Society of America. Field Guide 2.
29. ^ "Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Mount Morrison Quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 20, 2015. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
30. ^ a b Unger, Tanya S. "Mesozoic Plutonism in the Sierra Nevada Batholith". Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
31. ^ Shaffer, Jeffrey. "Evolution of the Yosemite Landscape – The Nevadan Orogeny". One Hundred Hikes in Yosemite. Archived from the original on April 24, 2011.
32. ^ Blakely, Ron. "Geologic History of Western US". Archived from the original on June 22, 2010. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Schoenherr, Allan A. (1995). A Natural History of California. UC Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06922-0.
34. ^ Ernst, W. G. (July 1, 2009). "Rise and fall of the Nevadaplano". International Geology Review. 51 (7–8): 583–588\. Bibcode:2009IGRv...51..583E. doi:10.1080/00206810903063315. ISSN 0020-6814. S2CID 129541879. Archived from the original on September 20, 2021. Retrieved September 20, 2021.7–8&rft.pages=583-588&rft.date=2009-07-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/00206810903063315&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129541879#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0020-6814&rft_id=info:bibcode/2009IGRv...51..583E&rft.aulast=Ernst&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00206810903063315&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sierra+Nevada" class="Z3988">
35. ^ Henry, C. D.; Hinz, N. H.; Faulds, J. E.; Colgan, J. P.; John, D. A.; Brooks, E. R.; Cassel, E. J.; Garside, L. J.; Davis, D. A.; Castor, S. B. (February 1, 2012). "Eocene-Early Miocene paleotopography of the Sierra Nevada-Great Basin-Nevadaplano based on widespread ash-flow tuffs and paleovalleys". Geosphere. 8 (1): 1–27\. Bibcode:2012Geosp...8....1H. doi:10.1130/GES00727.1. ISSN 1553-040X.
36. ^ Bateman, P.C.; Wahrhaftig, C. (1966). Geology of the Sierra Nevada in Geology of Northern California. California Division of Mines and Geology. pp. 107–172.
37. ^ Joel Michaelsen. "Basin and Range (Transierra) Region Physical Geography". Archived from the original on July 27, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2010.
38. ^ Wakabayashi, J. (2013). "Paleochannels, stream incision, erosion, topographic evolution, and alternative explanations of paleoaltimetry, Sierra Nevada, California". Geosphere. 9 (2): 191–215\. Bibcode:2013Geosp...9..191W. doi:10.1130/GES00814.1.
39. ^ Beeson, Helen W; McCoy, Scott W (2022). "Disequilibrium river networks dissecting the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, record significant late Cenozoic tilting and associated surface uplift". GSA Bulletin. 134 (11–12): 2809–2853\. Bibcode:2022GSAB..134.2809B. doi:10.1130/B35463.1.11–12&rft.pages=2809-2853&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info:doi/10.1130/B35463.1&rft_id=info:bibcode/2022GSAB..134.2809B&rft.aulast=Beeson&rft.aufirst=Helen+W&rft.au=McCoy,+Scott+W&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sierra+Nevada" class="Z3988">
40. ^ Mulch, Andreas; Graham, Stephan A; Chamberlain, C. Page (2006). "Hydrogen isotopes in Eocene river gravels and paleoelevation of the Sierra Nevada". Science. 313 (5783): 87–89\. Bibcode:2006Sci...313...87M. doi:10.1126/science.1125986. PMID 16825568.
41. ^ Gabet, E.J.; Miggins, D. (2020). "Minimal net incision of the northern Sierra Nevada (California, USA) since the Eocene-early Oligocene". Geology. 48 (10): 1023–1027\. Bibcode:2020Geo....48.1023G. doi:10.1130/G47902.1.
42. ^ Cassel, E.J.; Graham, S.A.; Chamberlain, C.P. (2009). "Cenozoic tectonic and topographic evolution of the northern Sierra Nevada, California, through stable isotope paleoaltimetry in volcanic glass". Geology. 37 (6): 547–550\. Bibcode:2009Geo....37..547C. doi:10.1130/G25572A.1.
43. ^ "1872 Lone Pine Earthquake". Sierra Nevada Virtual Museum. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved May 31, 2010. "Few people ever see a mountain range grow, but on March 26, 1872, the 300 residents of Lone Pine, California, did."
44. ^ "Average Annual Precipitation". Sierra Nevada Photos. Archived from the original on February 22, 2008. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
45. ^ "Weather". Yosemite. National Park Service. Archived from the original on October 9, 2016. Retrieved October 8, 2016.
46. ^ "Water—Most of California's Water Comes from the Sierra Nevada" (PDF). Sierra Nevada Conservancy. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 18, 2010. Retrieved June 9, 2010.
47. ^ "Climatology by state based on climate division data: 1971–2000". NOAA Earth Systems Research Laboratory. Archived from the original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved July 11, 2010.
48. ^ Grubišic, Vanda; Billings, Brian J. (2006). Sierra Rotors: A Comparative Study of Three Mountain Wave and Rotor Events (PDF). 12th Conference on Mountain Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 5, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2010.
49. ^ Ruscha, Charles P. Jr. (February 1976). "Forecasting the Mono Wind" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NWS WR-105. Retrieved November 22, 2021.
50. ^ Schoenmann, Joe. "The Nevada Triangle: A Graveyard For Planes". knpr.org. Archived from the original on March 2, 2019. Retrieved March 18, 2019.
51. ^ Winter, Stuart (January 3, 2010). "Mystery of the Nevada Triangle". Sunday Express. Archived from the original on August 20, 2015. Retrieved September 15, 2015.
52. ^ Pupp, Martin (director) (December 1, 2014). The Missing Evidence: Nevada Triangle (TV series episode). Archived from the original on September 2, 2015. Retrieved September 15, 2015.
53. ^ Fites-Kauffman, J.; P. W. Rundel; N. Stephenson; D. A. Weixelman (2007). "Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges". In Barbour, M.G.; Keeler-Wolf, T.; Schoenherr, A.A. (eds.). Terrestrial vegetation of California (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA, USA: University of California Press. pp. 460–501.
54. ^ Hoffmann, Charles F. (1868). "Notes on Hetch-Hetchy Valley". Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 1 (3:5): 368–370\. Archived from the original on May 9, 2011. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
55. ^ Drake, Bill (2000). "Ancient petroglyph makers of the Northern Sierra". sierrarockart.org. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008.
56. ^ "Prehistoric Context" (PDF). Idaho-Maryland Mine Project, Master Environmental Assessment. cityofgrassvalley.com. June 2006. p. 2\. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 5, 2010. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
57. ^ a b c Wuerthner, George (1994). Yosemite: A Visitors Companion. Stackpole Books. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-8117-2598-9.
58. ^ a b c Schaffer, Jeffrey P. (1999). Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails. Berkeley: Wilderness Press. ISBN 978-0-89997-244-2.
59. ^ Kiver, Eugene P.; Harris, David V. (1999). Geology of U.S. Parklands (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-33218-3.
60. ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (March 1925). "Exploration of the Sierra Nevada". California Historical Society Quarterly. 4 (1): 3–58\. doi:10.2307/25177743. hdl:2027/mdp.39015049981668. JSTOR 25177743. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
61. ^ Frémont's "Long Camp". 2007 [1999]. Archived from the original on August 19, 2017. Retrieved May 29, 2010.
62. ^ "California Historic Gold Mines" (PDF). State of California. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 14, 2006.
63. ^ a b Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1889). History of California, Volume 23: 1843–1850. San Francisco: The History Company. pp. 32–34.
64. ^ a b c Starr, Kevin (2005). California: a history. New York: The Modern Library.
65. ^ Holliday, J. S. (1999). Rush for riches; gold fever and the making of California. Oakland, California, Berkeley and Los Angeles: Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press. p. 60.
66. ^ Brands, H. W. (2003). The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream. New York: Anchor (reprint ed.).
67. ^ a b c d Rawls, James J.; Orsi, Richard J., eds. (1999). A golden state: mining and economic development in Gold Rush California (California History Sesquicentennial Series, 2). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
68. ^ "Mining History and Geology of the Mother Lode". Archived from the original on December 3, 2006.
69. ^ Moore, James G. (2000). Exploring the Highest Sierra. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3703-6.
70. ^ Muir, John (1911). My First Summer in the Sierra. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-1-883011-24-6. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
71. ^ Leonard, Brendan (n.d.). "Famous U.S. Summits: Mount Whitney, California". REI Co-op Journal. www.rei.com/blog: REI Co-op. Archived from the original on July 16, 2018. Retrieved July 16, 2018.
72. ^ a b Johnston, Hank (1997). The Whistles Blow No More. Stauffer Publishing. ISBN 0-87046-067-6.
73. ^ Straka, Tom; Wynn, Bob (January 17, 2018). "Square-Set Timbering and the V-Flume Kept the Comstock Lode Running Strong". History.net. HistoryNet LLC. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2022. "The Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the Sierras. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected. When once it is planted in the lower levels, it never again sees the light of day. …For a distance of 50 or 60 miles, all the hills of the eastern slope of the Sierras have been to a great extent denuded of trees of every kind; those suitable only for wood as well those fit for the manufacture of lumber for use in the mines."
74. ^ Johnston, Hank (2011). Rails to the Minarets: The Story of the Sugar Pine Lumber Company (Fourth Edition (Revised) ed.). Fish Camp, California: Stauffer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9846848-0-9.
75. ^ Horace, Greely (1859). Overland Journey: New York to San Francisco the Summer of 1859. New York: C.M. Saxton, Barker & Company. p. 280\. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
76. ^ Zimmerman, Robert (Fall 1998). "Log Flume". American Heritage's Invention and Technology. American Heritage. Archived from the original on November 20, 2022. Retrieved December 23, 2022.
77. ^ McDougall Weiner, Jackie (2009). Timely Exposures: The Life and Images of C.C. Curtis, Pioneer California Photographer. Tulare, California: Tulare County Historical Society.
78. ^ Simpson, John W. (2005). Dam!: Water, Power, Politics, and Preservation in Hetch Hetchy and Yosemite National Park. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42231-7.
79. ^ Righter, Robert W. (2005). The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531309-3.
80. ^ "Stream and Ground-Water Monitoring Program, Lake Tahoe Basin, Nevada and California". USGS. Archived from the original on May 30, 2010. Retrieved May 31, 2010.
81. ^ "Construction Monitoring". Tahoe Regional Planning Agency. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011.
82. ^ Starr, Walter A. (November 1947). "Trails". Sierra Club Bulletin. 32 (10).
83. ^ a b c Marsh, Steve (2015). "The High Sierra Piute Highway" (PDF). US Forest Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 15, 2021. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
84. ^ "Trail Over Mountains Supported". Los Angeles Times. June 15, 1923. p. II10.
85. ^ "See It All in the Sierra". The Fresno Bee. October 24, 1976.
86. ^ a b "Forest Issues - CSERC". CSERC. December 16, 2014. Archived from the original on January 21, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
87. ^ "2014 Grazing Report Released by CSERC - CSERC". CSERC. Archived from the original on February 2, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
88. ^ Yoon, Jin-Ho; Wang, S.-Y. Simon; Gillies, Robert R.; Hipps, Lawrence; Kravitz, Ben; Rasch, Philip J. (2015). "Extreme Fire Season in California: A Glimpse Into the Future?". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 96 (11): S5 – S9. Bibcode:2015BAMS...96S...5Y. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00114.1. ISSN 1520-0477. OSTI 1240234. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
89. ^ Pierce, Jennifer L.; Meyer, Grant A.; Timothy Jull, A. J. (November 4, 2004). "Fire-induced erosion and millennial-scale climate change in northern ponderosa pine forests". Nature. 432 (7013): 87–90\. Bibcode:2004Natur.432...87P. doi:10.1038/nature03058. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15525985. S2CID 1452537.

## External links

[edit]

* Clickable map of Sierra Nevada peaks
* Sierra Nevada info at SummitPost

Sierra Nevada at Wikipedia's sister projects:

* Media from Commons
* Texts from Wikisource
* Travel guides from Wikivoyage

* v
* t
* e

Sierra Nevada

Mountains|

| Peaks >14,000 ft|

* Whitney
* Williamson
* North Palisade
* Sill
* Russell
* Split
* Langley
* Tyndall
* Muir
* Middle Palisade

|
|

Northern peaks|

* Lola
* Castle
* Granite Chief
* Rose
* Tallac
* Pyramid
* Freel

Central peaks|

* Red Lake
* Round Top
* Mokelumne
* Sonora
* Leavitt
* Dana
* Lyell
* Banner
* Ritter
* Mammoth

Southern peaks|

* Humphreys
* Tom
* Bear Creek Spire
* Darwin
* Agassiz
* Kaweah
* Brewer
* Olancha
* Kern
* Double

Climbing|

* Peak list
* First ascents

Passes|

* Fredonyer
* Beckwourth
* Yuba
* Donner
* Mt. Rose
* Spooner
* Echo
* Carson
* Monitor
* Ebbetts
* Sonora
* Tioga
* Minaret
* Kaweah
* Sherman
* Tehachapi

Rivers|

* Feather
* Yuba
* Bear
* American
* Mokelumne
* Cosumnes
* Calaveras
* Stanislaus
* Tuolumne
* Merced
* Chowchilla
* Fresno
* San Joaquin
* Kings
* Kaweah
* Tule
* Kern
* Truckee
* Carson
* Walker
* Owens

Lakes|

* Tahoe
* Aloha
* Echo
* Fallen Leaf
* Spooner
* Mono
* Almanor
* Oroville
* Isabella
* Donner
* Independence
* Shaver
* Huntington
* Florence
* Edison
* Wishon
* Courtright
* Tenaya
* Mammoth
* Bass
* Crowley
* Convict
* Hell for Sure

Protected
areas|

| National parks
and monuments|

* Kings Canyon
* Sequoia
* Yosemite
* Devils Postpile
* Giant Sequoia

|

National forests|

* Eldorado
* Humboldt–Toiyabe
* Inyo
* Lake Tahoe Basin
* Lassen
* Plumas
* Sequoia
* Sierra
* Stanislaus
* Tahoe

Wilderness areas|

* Ansel Adams
* Bright Star
* Bucks Lake
* Carson–Iceberg
* Chimney Peak
* Dinkey Lakes
* Domeland
* Emigrant
* Golden Trout
* Hoover
* Ishi
* Jennie Lakes
* John Krebs
* John Muir
* Kaiser
* Kiavah
* Mokelumne
* Monarch
* Mount Rose
* Owens Peak
* Owens River Headwaters
* Sacatar Trail
* Sequoia-Kings Canyon
* Yosemite

State parks|

* Burton Creek
* Calaveras Big Trees
* D. L. Bliss
* Donner Memorial
* Ed Z'berg Sugar Pine Point
* Emerald Bay
* Grover Hot Springs
* Lake Tahoe Nevada
* Plumas-Eureka
* South Yuba River
* Van Sickle

Communities|

* Angels Camp
* Auburn
* Bridgeport
* Chester
* Colfax
* Grass Valley
* Incline Village
* Jackson
* Kernville
* Loyalton
* Mammoth Lakes
* Mariposa
* Markleeville
* Nevada City
* Oakhurst
* Paradise
* Placerville
* Portola
* Quincy
* San Andreas
* Sonora
* South Lake Tahoe
* Susanville
* Sutter Creek
* Tahoe City
* Tehachapi
* Truckee

Ski areas|

* Alpine Meadows
* Badger Pass
* Bear Valley
* Boreal
* China Peak
* Dodge Ridge
* Donner Ski Ranch
* Heavenly
* Homewood
* June Mountain
* Kirkwood
* Mammoth Mountain
* Northstar
* Sierra at Tahoe
* Palisades Tahoe
* Sugar Bowl
* Tahoe Donner

Trails|

* High Sierra Trail
* John Muir Trail
* Pacific Crest Trail
* Sierra High Route

* v
* t
* e

State of California

Sacramento (capital)

Topics|

* Culture
* food
* music
* languages
* California sound
* sports
* California Dream
* Crime
* Demographics
* Earthquakes
* Economy
* agriculture
* Education
* Education, history of
* Environment
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* ecology
* flora
* fauna
* Government
* Capitol
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* NRHP listings
* Politics
* congressional delegations
* elections
* People
* Protected areas
* state parks
* state historic landmarks
* Symbols
* Transportation
* Water
* Index of articles

Regions|

* Antelope Valley
* Big Sur
* California Coast Ranges
* Cascade Range
* Central California
* Central Coast
* Central Valley
* Channel Islands
* Coachella Valley
* Coastal California
* Conejo Valley
* Cucamonga Valley
* Death Valley
* East Bay (SF Bay Area)
* East County (SD)
* Eastern California
* Emerald Triangle
* Gold Country
* Great Basin
* Greater San Bernardino
* Inland Empire
* Klamath Basin
* Lake Tahoe
* Greater Los Angeles
* Los Angeles Basin
* Lost Coast
* Mojave Desert
* Mountain Empire
* North Bay (SF)
* North Coast
* North County (SD)
* Northern California
* Orange Coast
* Owens Valley
* Oxnard Plain
* Peninsular Ranges
* Pomona Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Sacramento Valley
* Saddleback Valley
* Salinas Valley
* San Fernando Valley
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Peninsula
* San Gabriel Valley
* San Joaquin Valley
* Santa Clara Valley
* Santa Clara River Valley
* Santa Clarita Valley
* Santa Ynez Valley
* Shasta Cascade
* Sierra Nevada
* Silicon Valley
* South Bay (LA)
* South Bay (SD)
* South Bay (SF)
* South Coast
* Southern Border Region
* Southern California
* Transverse Ranges
* Tri-Valley
* Victor Valley
* Wine Country

Metro regions|

* Fresno–Madera
* Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim
* Sacramento–Roseville
* Riverside–San Bernardino–Ontario
* San Diego–Tijuana
* San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland

Counties|

* Alameda
* Alpine
* Amador
* Butte
* Calaveras
* Colusa
* Contra Costa
* Del Norte
* El Dorado
* Fresno
* Glenn
* Humboldt
* Imperial
* Inyo
* Kern
* Kings
* Lake
* Lassen
* Los Angeles
* Madera
* Marin
* Mariposa
* Mendocino
* Merced
* Modoc
* Mono
* Monterey
* Napa
* Nevada
* Orange
* Placer
* Plumas
* Riverside
* Sacramento
* San Benito
* San Bernardino
* San Diego
* San Francisco
* San Joaquin
* San Luis Obispo
* San Mateo
* Santa Barbara
* Santa Clara
* Santa Cruz
* Shasta
* Sierra
* Siskiyou
* Solano
* Sonoma
* Stanislaus
* Sutter
* Tehama
* Trinity
* Tulare
* Tuolumne
* Ventura
* Yolo
* Yuba

Most populous
cities|

* Los Angeles
* San Diego
* San Jose
* San Francisco
* Fresno
* Sacramento
* Long Beach
* Oakland
* Bakersfield
* Anaheim

California portal

* v
* t
* e

State of Nevada

Carson City (capital)

Topics|

* Index
* Geography
* Government
* Delegations
* History
* Nevada Territory
* World War II
* People
* Symbols
* Tourist attractions
* Transportation
* Fauna

Society|

* Abortion
* Culture
* Crime
* Demographics
* Hispanics and Latinos
* Native Americans
* Economy
* Education
* Elections
* Gun laws
* LGBT rights
* Politics

Regions|

* Black Rock Desert
* Eagle Valley
* Great Basin
* Lake Mead
* Lake Tahoe
* Las Vegas Valley
* Mojave Desert
* Pahranagat Valley
* Sierra Nevada
* Trout Creek Mountains
* Truckee Meadows

Metro areas|

* Las Vegas
* Reno

Counties|

* Churchill
* Clark
* Douglas
* Elko
* Esmeralda
* Eureka
* Humboldt
* Lander
* Lincoln
* Lyon
* Mineral
* Nye
* Pershing
* Storey
* Washoe
* White Pine

Cities and
communities|

* Alamo
* Amargosa Valley
* Austin
* Baker
* Battle Mountain
* Beatty
* Boulder City
* Caliente
* Carlin
* Carson City
* Dayton
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* Gardnerville Ranchos
* Gerlach
* Goldfield
* Hawthorne
* Henderson
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* Las Vegas
* Laughlin
* Lovelock
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* North Las Vegas
* Panaca
* Pahrump
* Paradise
* Pioche
* Primm
* Rachel
* Reno
* Spanish Springs
* Sparks
* Spring Creek
* Spring Valley
* Stateline
* Summerlin South
* Sun Valley
* Sunrise Manor
* Tonopah
* Virginia City
* West Wendover
* Winnemucca
* Whitney
* Winchester
* Yerington

Former counties|

* Bullfrog
* Ormsby
* Roop

Nevada portal

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Regions of the United States

Administrative|

| Units|

* U.S. state
* District of Columbia
* Territory
* Insular area
* Minor Outlying Island
* Tribal domestic dependent nations
* Maritime territory

|

Time zones|

* Chamorro
* Samoa
* Hawaii–Aleutian
* Alaska
* Pacific
* Mountain
* Central
* Eastern
* Atlantic

Census|

* West
* Pacific
* Mountain
* Midwest
* E N Central
* W N Central
* Northeast
* New England
* Middle Atlantic
* South
* S Atlantic
* E S Central
* W S Central

Courts of
appeals

* 1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th

Physical|

| Physiographic|

* Pacific Mountain
* Intermontane Plateaus
* Rocky Mountains
* Laurentian Upland
* Interior Plains
* Interior Highlands
* Appalachian Highlands
* Atlantic Plain
* Tidewater

|

Coastal|

* Arctic
* West
* Great Lakes
* Gulf
* East

Historical|

Acquisitions

* Thirteen Colonies
* Northwest Territory
* Southwest Territory
* Louisiana Purchase
* Gadsden Purchase
* Treaty of 1818
* Adams–Onís Treaty
* Texas annexation
* Oregon Treaty
* Mexican Cession
* Alaska Purchase
* Newlands Resolution
* Acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam
* Cession of Tutuila
* Cession of Manu'a
* Annexation of the Indian Territory
* Treaty of the Danish West Indies
* Acquisition of the Northern Mariana Islands

|

Civil War|

* Union
* Border states
* Confederacy
* Old South
* Dixie
* Slave states and free states

Divided|

* Atlantic Northeast
* The Californias
* Columbia District
* Oregon Country
* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole
* Samoan Islands
* Sonoran Desert
* Virgin Islands

Other|

* Appalachia
* Central
* Eastern
* Four Corners
* Great Plains
* High Plains
* Intermountain
* International border states
* Mariana Islands
* Northern
* Northwestern
* Cascadia
* Red states and blue states
* Southeastern
* Southern
* Deep
* Mid
* New
* Solid
* Upland
* Southwestern
* Upper Midwest
* Western

* List
* Category
* Commons

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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