Sino-Latin America relations

This article needs to be updated. Please help update this to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2019)

|

Latin America

Two Chinas (PRC and ROC)

Sino-Latin America relations are relations between China — which is by defined as either the People's Republic of China (PRC, China) or the Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan) — and the countries of Latin America. Such relations have become increasingly important between the region and Latin America.[1]

Bilateral relations

China–Latin American relations

Latin America |
China

Bilateral relations

Taiwan–Latin American relations

Latin America |
Taiwan

Politics of China

Leadership

Leadership generations
Succession of power

* Hu–Wen Administration (2002-2012)
* Xi–Li Administration (2012-2017)
* Xi Administration (since 2017)
* 4th Leadership Core: Xi Jinping
* 20th Party Politburo: Xi Jinping
* 14th State Council: Li Qiang
* Current state leaders
* Current provincial leaders

National leaders
Orders of precedence

* Paramount leader: Xi Jinping

First lady: Peng Liyuan

* Communist Party leader: Xi Jinping
* State representative: Xi Jinping
* Head of government: Li Qiang
* Congress Chairman: Zhao Leji
* Conference Chairman: Wang Huning
* Commander-in-chief: Xi Jinping
* Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members

Related systems

* Unified power
* Democratic centralism
* Collective leadership
* Organization Department
* Elections
* Civil service

* Constitution
* Law

* Constitution

Previous constitutions

* 1954
* 1975
* 1978

* "People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1)

* Democratic centralism (Article 3)
* Constitutional oath of office (Article 27)
* Protection of human rights (Article 33)
* Freedom of religion (Article 36)
* Highest state organ of power (Article 57)

* * *

* Chinese legal system
* Civil law tradition
* Socialist law tradition
* Laws
* Legislation Law
* List of statutes

* * *

* General Principles of the Civil Law (to 2020)
* Civil Code (From 2021)
* Marriage Law
* Labour law
* Labour Law
* Labour Contract Law
* Property law
* Property Law
* Intellectual property law
* Patent law

* * *

* Administrative law
* Administrative Procedure Law

* * *

* Criminal law
* Capital punishment
* Capital offences
* Death sentence with reprieve

Communist Party

History

* Principal leaders

Constitution & ideology

*     * Admission Oath (Article 6)
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Mao Zedong Thought
* Deng Xiaoping Theory

Primary stage of socialism
Four Cardinal Principles
* Three Represents
* Scientific Outlook on Development

Harmonious Socialist Society

* Xi Jinping Thought

Chinese Dream
Four Comprehensives
Two Establishes and Two Safeguards
* Democracy

Organization

*     * National Party Congress (20th)
* Central Committee (20th)

General Secretary (list)

Xi Jinping
* Central Politburo (20th)

Standing Committee (20th)

* Central Secretariat (20th)
* Central Military Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice Chairmen:

Zhang Youxia, He Weidong
* National Security Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice-Chairman:

Li Qiang, Zhao Leji, Cai Qi

Office Chief: Cai Qi

* Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Directors:

Li Qiang, Wang Huning, Cai Qi

Secretary-General: Wang Huning

* Financial & Economic Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Director: Li Qiang

Office Chief: He Lifeng

* General Office

Director: Cai Qi
* Office of the General Secretary

Chief: Cai Qi
* Central Guard Bureau
* Central Guard Unit
* Office of the Central Secrecy Commission
* Organization Department

Head: Li Ganjie
* Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (20th)
* Standing Committee (20th)

Secretary: Li Xi
* Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
* Central Leading Group for Inspection Work

Leader: Li Xi

* * *

* Provincial committee
* Standing committee

Secretary
Deputy secretaries
* Party group

National People's Congress (14th)

* Elections
* Standing Committee (14th)
* Council of Chairpersons

Chairman: Zhao Leji

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Li Hongzhong
Secretary-General: Liu Qi
* Special Committees
1. Ethnic Affairs
2. Constitution and Law
3. Supervisory and Judicial Affairs
4. Financial and Economic Affairs
5. Education, Science, Culture and Public Health
6. Foreign Affairs
7. Overseas Chinese Affairs
8. Environment Protection and Resources Conservation
9. Agriculture and Rural Affairs
10. Social Development Affairs
* Presidium

State representative

*     * President (list): Xi Jinping

* Presidential Office

Chief: Cai Qi
* Vice President: Han Zheng

Executive organ

*     * State Council (Central People's Government)
* Li Qiang Cabinet

Premier (list): Li Qiang

Vice-Premiers (list)

* Ding Xuexiang
* He Lifeng
* Zhang Guoqing
* Liu Guozhong

State Councilors

* Wang Xiaohong
* Wu Zhenglong
* Shen Yiqin

Secretary-General: Wu Zhenglong

* Cabinet-level departments
* National Development & Reform Commission
* Central bank
* National Audit Office
* General Office

Secretary-General
Deputy Secretaries-General
* State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission
* most Central Enterprises

Military organ

*     * Central Military Commission (CMC)

Chairman (supreme commander):

Xi Jinping
Vice Chairmen:

* Zhang Youxia
* He Weidong

Members:

* Liu Zhenli
* Miao Hua
* Zhang Shengmin

Departments:
1. General Office

Director: Zhong Shaojun
2. Joint Staff Dept.

Chief: Liu Zhenli
3. Political Work Dept.

Director: Miao Hua
4. Logistic Support Dept.

Director: Zhang Lin
5. Equipment Development Dept.

Director: Xu Xueqiang
6. Training and Administration Dept.

Director: Wang Peng
7. National Defense Mobilization Dept.

Director: Liu Faqing
8. Discipline Inspection Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
9. Politics and Legal Affairs Commission
10. Science and Technology Commission
11. Strategic Planning Office
12. Reform & Organizational Structure Office
13. Int'l Military Cooperation Office
14. Audit Office
15. Offices Administration Agency
National armed forces:

People's Liberation Army

Theater commands
People's Armed Police

China Coast Guard
Militia
* State Council

National Defense Mobilization Commission

Chairman: Li Qiang

Ministry of National Defense

Minister: Dong Jun

Ministry of Veterans Affairs
State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense

Military history
* Armed conflicts
* Military modernization
* Military reform since 2015
* CMC Leading Group for Military Reform

Leader: Xi Jinping

Supervisory organ

*     * National Supervisory Commission

Director: Liu Jinguo

* * *

* Corruption in China
* Anti-corruption campaign since 2012

* * *

* Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)

* * *

* Commission Against Corruption (Macau)

Judicial organs

*     * Supreme People's Court

President: Zhang Jun

People's Courts Judicial Police
* Supreme People's Procuratorate

Prosecutor General: Ying Yong

People's Procuratorates Judicial Police

* * *

* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Court of Final Appeal
* Department of Justice
* Prosecutions Division
* Law enforcement in Hong Kong
* Security Bureau
* Regular Disciplined Services
* Hong Kong Police Force

* * *

* Judiciary of Macau
* Court of Final Appeal
* Public Prosecutions Office
* Secretariat for Security
* Macau Security Force
* Unitary Police Services [zh]
* Public Security Police
* Judiciary Police [zh]

United front

* Political Consultative Conference
* National Committee

Chairman: Wang Huning

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Shi Taifeng
Secretary-General: Wang Dongfeng
* Political parties:

CCP (ruling)

United Front Work Department

Head: Shi Taifeng

* RCCK
* CDL
* CNDCA
* CAPD
* CPWDP
* CZGP
* JS
* TDSL

Historical parties:

* KMT
* CDSP
* YCP

* Federation of Industry and Commerce
* People's organizations

* Law enforcement

* CCP Central Politics and Law Commission

Secretary: Chen Wenqing

* Ministry of Public Security

Minister: Wang Xiaohong

Public Security Organs People's Police
* State Immigration Administration
* Local public security bureaus
* Ministry of State Security

Minister: Chen Yixin

State Security Organs People's Police
* Ministry of Justice

Minister: He Rong

Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police
* Bureau of Prison Administration [zh]
* Office for Safeguarding National Security

* * *

* Urban Management (chengguan)

Propaganda

* Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture

Leader: Cai Qi

Deputy Leaders: Li Shulei, Shen Yiqin

* Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization

Director: Cai Qi

Deputy Director: Li Shulei

* Central Propaganda Department

Head: Li Shulei

* National Press and Publication Administration
* China Film Administration
* State Council Information Office
* China Daily
* Ministry of Culture and Tourism
* National Radio and Television Administration
* China Media Group
* China Central Television
* China Global Television Network
* China National Radio
* China Radio International
* Xinhua News Agency
* Reference News
* China News Service
* People's Daily
* Global Times
* China Today

* * *

* Censorship in China
* Radio jamming
* Overseas censorship of Chinese issues
* Media of China
* Internal media
* Publishing industry in China

* * *

* Internet in China
* Internet censorship
* Great Firewall
* Great Cannon
* Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission

Director: Cai Qi

* Cyberspace Administration of China

Director: Zhuang Rongwen

* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs

Leader: Ding Xuexiang
* HK & Macau Affairs Office

Director: Xia Baolong
* Hong Kong Liaison Office
* Macau Liaison Office
* One country, two systems
* Special administrative regions

* * *

* Hong Kong Basic Law
* Chief Executive: John Lee Ka-chiu
* Hong Kong SAR Government
* Politics of Hong Kong
* Pro-Beijing camp
* Pro-democracy camp
* Independence movement
* Mainland & HK CEPA

* * *

* Macao Basic Law
* Chief Executive: Ho Iat-seng
* Macau SAR Government
* Politics of Macau
* Mainland & Macau CEPA

Cross-Strait relations

* Cross-Strait relations
* Chinese Civil War
* One China
* Political status of Taiwan
* Republic of China on Taiwan
* Taiwan Area
* "Taiwan Province", PRC
* Taiwan independence movement
* Anti-Secession Law
* Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement
* Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement
* Chinese unification

* * *

* Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs

Leader: Xi Jinping
Deputy Leader: Wang Huning
* Taiwan Affairs Office

Director: Song Tao
* Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits

Foreign relations

* Central Foreign Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping
Deputy Director: Li Qiang
Secretary-General: Wang Yi
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Minister: Wang Yi
Spokespersons
Diplomatic missions

* * *

* Diplomatic missions of China / in China

* * *

* Foreign aid from China / to China
* International Development Cooperation Agency
* Ministry of Commerce
* Exim Bank of China
* China Development Bank
* Belt and Road Initiative
* Silk Road Fund
* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
* BRICS
* New Development Bank

* * *

* Ministry of National Defense
* International Military Cooperation Office

* * *

* NPC Foreign Affairs Committee
* CCP International Department
* State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs
* Overseas Chinese Affairs Office

* * *

* Chinese nationality law
* Chinese passports (Hong Kong; Macau)
* Visa requirements for Chinese citizens (Hong Kong, Macau)
* Visa policy of China (Hong Kong; Macau)
* National Immigration Administration

* * *

* Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
* Panda diplomacy
* Beijing Consensus
* Community of Common Destiny

* * *

* China and the United Nations
* China and the World Trade Organization
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

* * *

* China–Africa relations
* China–Arab relations
* China–Caribbean relations
* China–European Union relations
* China–Latin America relations
* China–Pacific relations
* China–Russia relations
* China–United States relations

Related topics

* Administrative divisions
* Hukou system
* Family planning
* Ethnic minorities

China portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

## Trade

[edit]

Between 2000 and 2009, trade between China and Latin America increased by 1,200% from $10 to $130 billion.[2] According to the Chinese Trade Ministry Counselor Yu Zhong, in 2011 the value of trade increased to $241.5 billion, making China the second largest trading partner of Latin America (the USA is the largest). The top five nations in this China-Latin trade were Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Venezuela and Argentina.[3]

In 2009 7% of Latin America's exports was to China. It consisted largely of raw material and commodities such as copper, iron ore, oil, and soybeans.[4] China was the largest export market for Brazil, Chile, and Peru and the second largest for Argentina, Costa Rica, and Cuba. Four nations contributed 90% of the exports: Brazil (41%), Chile (23.1%), Argentina (15.9%), and Peru (9.3%). Increased Chinese demand has also been argued to increase the commodity prices of Latin American exports.[2] In the case of Brazil the rise of a new middle class has even been seen as due to Chinese commodity demand.[5] On the other hand, a large part of the exports of Costa Rica (which has a Free Trade Agreement with China), El Salvador, and Mexico to China were high-tech manufactured goods.[6]

5% of China's exports went to Latin America in 2009 and consisted mainly of industrial and manufactured goods. Chinese goods are popular in part due to their low costs. Chinese manufacturers are also making substantial efforts to establish themselves as brand names for the new middle class.[2] China is investing in power plants in Brazil, and repairing a railway in Argentina.[7]

According to a 2012 Fitch ratings report, in 2010, 92% of Latin American exports to China were commodities; 85% of Chinese foreign direct investment went to extractive industries as did 60% of Chinese loans. The report stated that the effects are mixed but overall Latin America has benefited from the relationship with China by higher commodity prices, increased growth, increased investment, and improved governmental financials.[8] There are also concerns of environmental impacts related to the huge increase in extractive industries and agriculture by Chinese companies in Latin America, including pollution, deforestation, habitat destruction and rising fossil-fuel emissions.[9]

There have been concerns regarding the relationship due to Latin American dependency on exports of low-value added, highly price volatile commodities that employ relatively few people. Latin American manufacturers have faced increasing competition from China on both domestic and international markets. In some countries there have protests against the raising inflow of Chinese manufactured goods, local Chinese businesses, and perceived loss of manufacturing jobs to China.[2][8]

The book The Dragon in the Room: China and the Future of Latin America found that 92% manufacturing exports from Latin American were in sectors where China was increasing its market share while Latin America was decreasing its share, or where both China and Latin America where increasing their shares but Latin America at a slower rate.[10] Several experts have even argued that the long-term outlooks for Latin American manufacturing are poor and other sources for growth and trade such as services should be sought.[5]

After the 2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence many Chinese investment projects in Latin America were canceled or have slowed.[11] These include the Nicaragua Canal.

## Political

[edit]

China has been seen as an alternative to the United States and Europe by Latin American nations for support in the international community, for funding of infrastructure and humanitarian aid, and for creating economic growth. The number of high-level meetings between Chinese and Latin American officials have rapidly increased. These have been accompanied by several bilateral agreements.[2] The creation of the BRICS group also helped to increase relations between China and Brazil.

Leaked diplomatic cables describe a divided Latin American opinion regarding China. Neil Dávila, head of Mexico's federal agency for promoting foreign commerce and investments, stated "We do not want to be China's next Africa," reflecting a common concern regarding the effects of Chinese involvement in Africa. Colombia, Brazil, and Chile also expressed concerns while Venezuela and Argentina were convinced that dependency on the United States must end and saw China as the greatest opportunity for their exports. Chinese officials in response has accused US diplomats of spreading mistrust and Chinese Vice-president Xi Jinping in 2009 in Mexico stated that "China does not export revolution. China exports neither hunger nor poverty. We do not cause problems. What more can be said of us?"[12]

Many of the nations that continue to have official diplomatic relations with Taiwan are in Central America and the Caribbean. Taiwan has previously offered military exchanges and training as well as economic aid in return but has more recently had difficulty competing with China's economic incentives and in 2008 officially abandoned this "checkbook diplomacy". The remaining pro-Taiwan nations have been seen as waiting for better Chinese offers.[2]

The formation of Community of Latin American and Caribbean States was warmly welcome by China in 2011. Hugo Chavez read aloud a letter from China's President Hu Jintao congratulating the leaders on forming the new regional bloc.[13] On January 8, 2015, the 1st China-CELAC Forum opened at the Great Hall of the People in China.[14]

In January 2019, numerous countries including the US recognized the legitimacy of opposition leader Juan Guaido as President of Venezuela. The PRC issued an official statement condemning American intervention in the internal affairs of Venezuela, supporting Nicolás Maduro in the struggle for the Venezuelan presidency.[15]

## Military

[edit]

Military relationships have been mainly through military-to-military contacts. In particular Venezuela, Chile, Bolivia, and Cuba have had frequent official military visits, exchange of military officers, and navy port calls. South American countries such as Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and Argentina are buying Chinese weapons.[16][17] Chile, Ecuador and Peru were visited by a Chinese flotilla in 2009.[18]

In 2011 China and Bolivia signed a military-to-military cooperation agreement.[2]

In 2015, China's Paramount leader Xi Jinping and President of Argentina, Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner, announced prospective arms sales and defense cooperation agreements extending beyond the scope of any made between China and a Latin American nation to date. These plans include Argentina’s purchase or coproduction of 110 8×8 VN-1 APCs, 14 JF-17/FC-1 multirole fighters, and five P18 Malvinas class patrol ships.[19][20] While the government of President Mauricio Macri, elected in December 2015, soon dropped the arms purchases from China.[21] that also authorizes construction of satellite tracking facility near Las Lajas, Neuquén; base is managed by People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force.[22][23] Per Argentine ambassador to China, Diego Guelar, China has agreed to use the base only for civilian purposes.[24]

In King George Island, Antarctica, China and Chile share side-by-side military facilities.[18] In 1982, with Pinochet's Chile allowed, China built a Great Wall research station in the Antarctic inside Chile's territorial claims.[25]

## Space

[edit]

China has launched communication satellites (from launch sites in China) for Venezuela,[26] Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil, and Argentina.[27][28]

## Regional organizations

[edit]

In 2004 China joined the Organization of American States as a permanent observer. In 2008 China joined the Inter-American Development Bank as a donor. China has also increased its relationships with CELAC, the Andean Community, PARLACEN, and the Caribbean Community.[2]

## Cultural

[edit]

The PRC actively seeks cultural exchanges with Latin America and CCTV-4 America has extensive Spanish language programming.

## Relations with Latin American countries

[edit]

Relations between China and Latin America

Note: Different political entities have controlled Mainland China: the Empire of China from 221 BC to 12 February 1912, the Republic of China from 12 February 1912 to 7 December 1949, and the People's Republic of China from 7 December 1949 to present. Since 1949, there has been a dispute between the People's Republic of China (PRC), controlling Mainland China, and the Republic of China (ROC), controlling Taiwan, over which government represents China. China was represented in the United Nations by the Republic of China (ROC) from 24 October 1945 to 25 October 1971 and is currently represented by the People's Republic of China (PRC) since 25 October 1971. This list covers diplomatic relations by Latin American countries with China under its different political representations.

Country  | Diplomatic relations began  | Notes

|
|

Argentina | 1945 (ROC)
16 February 1972 (PRC)  | See Argentina–China relations
Bolivia | 1919 (ROC)
9 July 1985 (PRC)  | See Bolivia–China relations
Brazil | 3 October 1881 (Qing)
1928 (ROC)
15 August 1974 (PRC)  | See Brazil–China relations
Chile | 18 February 1915 (ROC)
15 December 1970 (PRC)  | See Chile–China relations
Colombia | 1941 (ROC)
7 February 1980 (PRC)  | See China–Colombia relations
Costa Rica | 1941 (ROC)
1 June 2007 (PRC)  | See China–Costa Rica relations
Cuba | 16 September 1902 (Qing)
1913 (ROC)
28 September 1960 (PRC)  | See China–Cuba relations
Dominican Republic | 1941 (ROC)
1 May 2018 (PRC)  | See China–Dominican Republic relations
Ecuador | 1946 (ROC)
2 January 1980 (PRC)  | See China–Ecuador relations
El Salvador | 1941 (ROC)
21 August 2018 (PRC)  | See China–El Salvador relations
Guatemala | 15 June 1933 (ROC)  | See China–Guatemala relations
Honduras | 9 April 1941 (ROC)
26 March 2023 (PRC)  | See China–Honduras relations
Mexico | 14 December 1899 (Qing)
1928 (ROC)
14 February 1972 (PRC)  | See China–Mexico relations
Nicaragua | 1930 (ROC)
7 December 1985 (PRC)  | See China–Nicaragua relations
Panama | 16 January 1910 (Qing)
1912 (ROC)
12 June 2017 (PRC)  | See China–Panama relations
Paraguay | 8 July 1957 (ROC on Taiwan)  | See China–Paraguay relations
Peru | 26 June 1874 (Qing)
1913 (ROC)
2 November 1971 (PRC)  | See China–Peru relations
Uruguay | 1957 (ROC on Taiwan)
3 February 1988 (PRC)  | See China–Uruguay relations
Venezuela | 1941 (ROC)
28 June 1974 (PRC)  | See China–Venezuela relations

Relations between Taiwan and Latin America

Note: The Republic of China controlled Mainland China from 12 February 1912 to 7 December 1949 and has controlled Taiwan since 7 December 1949. China was represented in the United Nations by the Republic of China (ROC) from 24 October 1945 to 25 October 1971 and is currently represented by the People's Republic of China (PRC) since 25 October 1971. Countries which maintain diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China have to severe diplomatic relations with Taiwan due to the One China policy. Informal relations between Latin American countries and Taiwan are maintained.

Country  | Diplomatic relations began  | Diplomatic relations ended  | Maintains unofficial relations  | Notes

|
|
|
|

Argentina | 1945 | 1972 | Yes  | See Argentina–Taiwan relations
Bolivia | 1919 | 1985 | No  | See Bolivia–Taiwan relations
Brazil | 3 October 1881 (Qing)
1928 | 1974 | Yes  | See Brazil–Taiwan relations
Chile | 18 February 1915 | 5 January 1971 | Yes  | See Chile–Taiwan relations
Colombia | 1941 | 1980 | Yes  | See Colombia–Taiwan relations
Costa Rica | 1941 | 6 June 2007 | No  | See Costa Rica–Taiwan relations
Cuba | 16 September 1902 (Qing)
1913 | 1 September 1960 | No  | See Cuba–Taiwan relations
Dominican Republic | 1941 | 1 May 2018 | No  | See Dominican Republic–Taiwan relations
Ecuador | 1946 | 18 November 1971 | Yes  | See Ecuador–Taiwan relations
El Salvador | 1941 | 21 August 2018 | No  | See El Salvador–Taiwan relations
Guatemala | 15 June 1933 | Present  | Official  | See Guatemala–Taiwan relations
Honduras | 9 April 1941 | 26 March 2023 | No  | See Honduras–Taiwan relations
Mexico | 14 December 1899 (Qing)
1928 | 16 November 1971 | Yes  | See Mexico–Taiwan relations
Nicaragua | 1930 | 1985 | No  | See Nicaragua–Taiwan relations
1990 | 9 December 2021
Panama | 16 January 1910 (Qing)
1912 | 13 June 2017 | No  | See Panama–Taiwan relations
Paraguay | 8 July 1957 | Present  | Official  | See Paraguay–Taiwan relations
Peru | 26 June 1874 (Qing)
1913 | 2 November 1971 | Yes  | See Peru–Taiwan relations
Uruguay | 1957 | 1988 | No  | See Taiwan–Uruguay relations
Venezuela | 1941 | 1974 | No  | See Taiwan–Venezuela relations

## See also

[edit]

* China portal
* Taiwan portal
* Latin America portal
* Politics portal

* Chinatowns in Latin America
* Sino-African relations
* Sino-Caribbean relations
* Sino-Pacific relations
* China-LAC Cooperation Fund
* Sino-Latin American Production Capacity Cooperation Investment Fund
* Debt-trap diplomacy

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Mora, Frank O. (1999). "Sino-Latin American Relations: Sources and Consequences, 1977-1997". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 41 (2): 91–116. doi:10.2307/166408. ISSN 0022-1937. JSTOR 166408.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h Katherine Koleski. Backgrounder: China in Latin America. May 27, 2011. U.S.-China Economic & Security Review Commission. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-16. Retrieved 2012-05-27.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
3. ^ China's trade with Latin America grew in 2011, Indo Asian News Service, Wed 18 Apr, 2012, http://in.news.yahoo.com/chinas-trade-latin-america-grew-2011-050334275.html Archived 2014-08-13 at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Jenkins, Rhys (April 2022). "China's Belt and Road Initiative in Latin America: What has Changed?". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 51 (1): 13–39. doi:10.1177/18681026211047871. ISSN 1868-1026.
5. ^ a b Jordi Zamora. China's double-edged trade with Latin America. Sep 3, 2011. AFP. [1]
6. ^ Ryan Berger. The Fast Ramp-Up. Quarterly Americas. http://www.americasquarterly.org/charticle_winter2012.html Archived 2012-05-02 at the Wayback Machine
7. ^ "China moves into Latin America". The Economist. 2018-02-03. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
8. ^ a b Fitch: China's Economic Rise Provides Mixed Benefits for Latin America, May 9, 2012, http://newamericamedia.org/2011/01/latin-america-divided-over-ties-with-china-growing-suspicions-over-chinese-presence-in-latin-america.php Archived 2014-10-18 at the Wayback Machine, Fitch Ratings, BUSINESS WIRE
9. ^ "Diálogo Chino — China, Latin America and the environment".
10. ^ Kevin P. Gallagher and Roberto Porzecanski. The Dragon in the Room: China and the Future of Latin American Industrialization. 2010. Stanford University Press
11. ^ ROMERO, SIMON (3 October 2015). "China's Ambitious Rail Projects Crash Into Harsh Realities in Latin America". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
12. ^ Louis E.V. Nevaer, "Latin America Divided Over Ties with China," Jan 26, 2011, New American Media, http://newamericamedia.org/2011/01/latin-america-divided-over-ties-with-china-growing-suspicions-over-chinese-presence-in-latin-america.php Archived 2014-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ Dangl, Benjamin. "Leaving Washington's backyard". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2023-12-27.
14. ^ "First Ministerial Meeting of China-CELAC Forum Grandly Opens in Beijing Xi Jinping Attends Opening Ceremony and Delivers Important Speech, Stressing Firm Grasp of New Opportunities in China-CELAC Overall Cooperation to Jointly Write New Chapter of China-CELAC Comprehensive Cooperative Partnership". www.fmprc.gov.cn/. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. 2015-01-08. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
15. ^ "China, Russia side with Maduro as US backs Venezuela challenger". AFP.com. 16 January 2012. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
16. ^ "China selling more military equipment to South American countries". nextbigfuture. July 26, 2015. Retrieved 2019-06-21.
17. ^ "Trade Registers". armstrade.sipri.org.
18. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). www.american.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2022.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
19. ^ "China's Military Agreements with Argentina: A Potential New Phase in China-Latin America Defense Relations". United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission. 2015-05-11. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
20. ^ "Argentina turns to China for arms supply". Nikkei. 2015-04-09. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
21. ^ "Could China Help Ignite a Second War over the Falkland Islands?". National Interest. 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
22. ^ "China Builds Space-Monitoring Base in the Americas". The Diplomat. 2016-05-24. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
23. ^ "China's military-run space station in Argentina is a 'black box'". Reuters. 2019-01-31. Retrieved 2020-01-07.
24. ^ Londoño, Ernesto (July 28, 2019). "From a Space Station in Argentina, China Expands Its Reach in Latin America". The New York Times.
25. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2020.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
26. ^ "China launches Venezuelan remote sensing satellite". gbtimes.com. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
27. ^ Urdinez, Francisco; Knoerich, Jan; Ribeiro, Pedro Feliú (2018-06-01). "Don't Cry for me "Argenchina": Unraveling Political Views of China through Legislative Debates in Argentina". Journal of Chinese Political Science. 23 (2): 235–256. doi:10.1007/s11366-016-9450-y. ISSN 1874-6357. S2CID 148344648.
28. ^ "This Is How China Is Slowly Creeping into Latin America". National Interest. December 28, 2017. Retrieved 2019-06-09.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Sino-Latin America relations

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Hu-DeHart, Evelyn, and Kathleen López. "Asian Diasporas in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Overview." Afro-Hispanic Review (2008): 9-21. in JSTOR
* Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. "Indispensable enemy or convenient scapegoat? A critical examination of sinophobia in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1870s to 1930s." Journal of Chinese Overseas 5.1 (2009): 55–90.
* López, Kathleen M. Chinese Cubans: A Transnational History (2013)
* López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007).
* Meagher, Arnold J. The Coolie trade: the traffic in Chinese laborers to Latin America 1847-1874 (2008).
* Ryan, Keegan D. "The Extent of Chinese Influence in Latin America" (Naval Postgraduate School, 2018) online.
* Young, Elliott. Alien Nation: Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II (2014).
* Erikson; Chen (2007), China, Taiwan, and the Battle for Latin America (PDF), vol. 31, The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, pp. 21 (69–89), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17

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