Socialism in Finland

History of socialism in Finland

Socialism in Finland is thought to stretch back to the latter half of the 19th century in the Grand Duchy of Finland, with the radicalization of the labour movement and increasing industrialization of Finland. Socialism still has an effect on current Finnish politics, with many different socialist parties in Finland.

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## History

[edit]

### Wrightian era

[edit]

The beginnings of the labour movement began in the late 1800s with the establishment of workers' associations. The first of these was the Helsinki Workers' Association [fi] in 1883 and it did not originally believe in socialist values. Instead many labour associations and unions were founded by members of the Bourgeoisie. These Labour unions supported the Wrightian labour movement [fi], a socially liberal social movement that sought to advance liberal interests and cooperation, such as cooperation with the temperance and feminist movement. The man behind this labour movement was Viktor Julius von Wright [fi], a small industrialist who had grown worried by the rise of socialism during his visit to Germany, and Denmark and intended to curb the rise of socialism in Finland by fixing some of the ills brought about by industrialisation, while keeping control of the movement in the hands of the upper classes. The labour movement was inspired by the Danish Arbejderforeningen af 1860 [da] and German State Socialism.[1][2]

During the Wrightian era the labour movement grew rapidly in geographic terms and by the end of the 1880s most large towns had their own association. In the mid 1890s even most small industrial towns had one. Membership however was not as widespread and altogether the workers' movement had mobilized less than 5,000 people.[2]

Along with organizational structure another significant achievement of the Wrightian era was the founding of working-class newspapers and magazines. Papers like Arbetaren–Työmies [fi] routinely published articles about European socialists and their methods – such as strikes – which introduced these ideas to Finnish workers as well, and unlike conservative newspapers did not explicitly condemn them.[2]

Exposure to foreign influences slowly radicalized the Finnish workers' movement during the first of the half 1890s while workers themselves began occupy more central positions in the movement. The Wrightian era saw its end at Second Workers' Association Assembly held in Tampere in 1896, in which more socialist ideas were adopted in the workers' associations.[1][3]

Another significant step towards political independence was taken in the lead-up to the elections for the Diet of 1899. The First Russification Period had begun and the bourgeoisie in particular wanted to present a unified front towards Russia, while the radical wing of the workers' movement wanted to abstain from the election completely as a protest against the delays met by the new suffrage act. The radical wing won the debate inside the movement, and many old Wrightians – including von Wright himself – left. In the fallout of this final political divide between the working class and the bourgeoisie, the workers decided to found their own party, the Finnish Labour Party.[4]

The founding congress of Social Democratic Party of Finland, Turku, July 1899.

The Finnish Labour Party was founded based on the principles of the mainstream labour movement. The Labour Party adopted the following program as immediate and necessary goals of the movement, with later goals to be debated upon:[5]

* General, equal, and direct voting rights for all Finnish citizens aged 21 and over, regardless of gender, in all elections and votes. Proportional representation system. Two-year legislative terms. Elections and votes to be held on a legally designated rest day.
* Legislation and the right of self-taxation for the people through the Parliament.
* Complete freedom of association, assembly, expression, and press.
* Working hours to be reduced to 8 hours. The maximum working hours and minimum hourly wage for state and municipal work to be implemented immediately.
* General compulsory education. Free education in all institutions. Primary school to be organized as the foundational school for all higher institutions.
* The military burden to be greatly reduced, and the idea of peace to be developed and practically implemented.
* Complete equality between men and women.
* A general prohibition law on the production and sale of alcoholic beverages to be enacted.
* Labor protection legislation to be developed. The number of labor inspectors to be significantly increased, and assistants from the working class to be appointed for them. Female inspectors to be appointed as well.
* Gradually increasing income and inheritance taxes. Elimination of all indirect taxes.
* Workers' insurance to be taken under state care.
* Free legal proceedings and free medical assistance.
* The position of movable population tenants and smallholders to be improved.

### General Strike of '05

[edit]

#### Background

[edit]

The labour movement in Finland began to gain new found popularity in Finland due to the attempted Russification of Finland (1899–1905), defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and growing class consciousness amongst Finns.[6] The Social Democrats grew fast in popularity and were unordinary compared to the Russian Socialists, who were forced to operate underground.[7] All camps of the political spectrum grew to disdain the Russian Governorship, especially the nationalists, leading to the assassination of Nikolai Bobrikov by Eugen Schauman.[6]

In August, a large number of workers and students had demanded universal voting rights, this led to worries in the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, who began demanding the resignation of the Old Finnish Party government.

#### General Strike

[edit]

On 30 October, a general strike was proclaimed in Helsinki's Senate Square and in Tampere's Keskustori by workers, who were later joined by students.[8] The strike began first with the railway workers and spread further on from there. The strike paralyzed the nation, in which most schools, factories, shops and offices were closed, and the strike shortly later spread to Viipuri, Turku and Oulu.

General strike meeting in Pori, Finland, October 1905.

The goal of the socialist movement had originally been moderate, a simple protest against the Russian Governorship. However, the general strike had moved the Social Democrats towards the left with the influx of new people sympathetic to the cause, in which the moderates and unionists became the minority.[7] Workers' strike committees were established in Tampere, and across many cities "street parliaments" became a common occurrence. All of this was much too radical for many Young Finns and Svecomen.[9] The demands of the Social Democrats had changed, and their new demands such as a unicameral parliament and equal voting rights for all citizens, were too radical for some. Especially to the Young Finns and to the Finland-Swedes, characterized as the most conservative of the radicals, they began to detach themselves from the movement.[9]

National Guards [fi] were created in 1905 as a united front of workers and students against the Russian Governorship.[10] However due to the increasing radicalization of the labour movement, the National Guards split, leading to their eventual separation and the creation of the respective Red Guards and White Guards in Finland.[11] The Red and White Guards were dissolved following the end of the general strike, and would not come back officially until the Finnish Civil War.

Red Declaration of Tampere (1905).

On 1 November, the Red Declaration was issued in Keskustori, Tampere, the declaration demanded for equal voting rights for all citizens, and the disestablishment of the Senate, to be replaced by a National Parliament. These demands were then later sent to Helsinki on 4 November, at which point they were accepted. On November 4 in Rautatientori, Helsinki, a provisional government was elected as required by the Red Declaration.

### Following the Independence of Finland

[edit]

#### The Civil War and Red Finland

[edit]

On 29 January 1918, Red Guards and radicals in the Social Democratic Party succeeded in a plot of occupying the Senate House in Helsinki. A Red Government, called the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic would be declared. The Government would be a socialist state, and the Eduskunta would be replaced by the Central Workers' Council, which supervised the Finnish People's Delegation (Government). The Central Workers' Council would be composed of forty delegates, of which 15 represented the Social Democrats, 10 represented the Finnish Trade Union Federation and Red Guards each, and 5 represented the Helsinki Workers' Council.[12]

The Red Guards would serve as the official military for the state, and would fight the Whites during the Civil War. Around 100,000 people would come to serve in the Red Guard, of which 2,000 were members of the Women's Red Guards.[13] The Constitution for the Red Government was based on the United States and Swiss Constitution and took ideas from the French Revolution.[12] The Red Government would silence criticism by banning anti-revolutionary newspapers such as Det Vita Finland and Valkoinen Suomi.

The Red Government would capitulate on 5 May 1918 during the Battle of Ahvenkoski. Following the capitulation of the Red Government, several prominent socialists would flee Finland to Soviet Russia in fears of persecution. During the Civil War, the Red Guards had committed atrocities known as the Red Terror, where political violence was carried out through executions. Toijala and Kouvola were the centers of terror, where 300–350 Whites were executed between February and April 1918.[14] Around ten priests and ninety moderate socialists were executed by the Red Guards. Sometimes landowners, police officers, industrialists, civil servants and teachers were also executed by the Red Guards.[14]

#### Communist Party of Finland during the Interwar Era

[edit]

Following the Civil War, many of the radical-wing of the Social Democratic Party, fled to Soviet Russia, especially to Soviet Karelia. In 1918, the Communists organized the Communist Party of Finland (SKP) in Moscow. The SKP was banned in Finland for having tried to topple the legitimate government and therefore was made illegal to be a part of. Despite this, the SKP still operated underground in Finland, organizing events at workplaces and at public places. In these meetings illegal revolutionary material would be read. The Communist movement was under strict watch by the Finnish Secret Police/Intelligence Service (Etsivä keskuspoliisi, EK), and Communist meetings would often be broken up and Communists would be sent to prison for treason at Tammisaari or Hämeenlinna.[15]

The SKP was a member of the Communist International and its policies were one-to-one with it, and it would often use front organizations, such as the Socialist Workers' Party of Finland (1920–1923) and the Socialist Electoral Organization of Workers and Smallholders (1924–1930).[16] Communist organizations would be officially banned throughout the 1930s with the Communist laws. In the Soviet Union, with Stalin's Great Purge, the influence of the SKP was significantly limited, as leaders and members of the Communist Party were executed/killed.[17]

Central Committee of the Finnish Communist Party in Moscow

The SKP would often send in agents into Finland, trying to influence the public to either bring back the Red Guard or to influence and use other socialist or communist parties as their puppets in elections. However, this did not work, as the EK would often capture their informants and agents.[16]

#### Wartime and Socialism

[edit]

Many socialists and conservatives worked together during the Winter War against the Soviet Union, because they saw the importance in Finnish independence, this led to the rise and creation of organizations such as the Union of Finnish Brothers-In-Arms [fi], these organizations were also made as a counter-balance against the Finland–Soviet Union Peace and Friendship Society, which was a Soviet-backed anti-war propaganda organization.

Following the Winter War, sympathizers to the Soviet Union and her actions were removed from the Social Democratic Party. These sympathizers became known as the "six", and they set up their own faction within parliament known as the 'Socialist parliamentary group'.[18] The Continuation War, was a controversial topic within many mainstream parties, and it was opposed by many socialists, who viewed it as a war of aggression and saw it as unjustifiable for the Finns to be allied with Nazi Germany. This sentiment only grew as the war took more and more of a toll on Finnish living standards and as the war turned to a stalemate in East Karelia, leading to the formation of the Peace opposition group.

During the Continuation War, communists would attempt to organize a resistance movement in Finland to end the war with the Soviet Union. Infrastructure sabotage and espionage for the Soviet Union was the main method of resistance, however for Soldiers who refused to enter service and fight in East Karelia against the Soviet Union became known as the Metsäkaarti (Forest Guard).[19] Olavi Laiho, who led the Forest Guards in Turku,[20] was a communist that spied for the Soviet Union, and also the last Finn to be executed.[21] During the Continuation War and the Lapland War, there were 32,186 deserters, of which a large amount were communists, or at least anti-fascists, mostly refusing service due to Finland's Brothers-in-Arms policy with Nazi Germany. In Hämeenkyrö, Kittilä and Kolari were the largest concentrations of deserters or Forest Guards,[22] there were an approximate 100 Forest Guards, which represented around 10% of the reservists in the municipality.[19] In Tampere, a socialist youth resistance movement would oppose the war by performing domestic terrorism against trains and public infrastructure.[23]

### Cold War

[edit]

#### Social Democrats

[edit]

The Social Democratic Party during the 1950s and 1960s was at fray with the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc, due to its party election of 1957 choosing Väinö Tanner to its leadership, who was a convicted war criminal.[24] This alongside other 'mishaps' by the Social Democrats led to the Night Frost Crisis, which led to crisis within the Social Democrats due to the Soviet Union not accepting the authority of their government. The Social Democrats began to skew their foreign policy to be more favourable to the Eastern Bloc and the USSR, in hopes of warming relations with the Soviet Union.[25] The Social Democrats, from the 1950s to the 1960s would cooperate with the National Coalition Party, this phenomenon would be called the Aseveliakseli [fi], or the Brothers-in-Arms Axis. In 1961, the Social Democrats alongside most other parties in Parliament, would form a united front against Urho Kekkonen, to prevent his reelection, this was called the Honka Front [fi], named after Olavi Honka, however Honka gave up on his election campaign against Kekkonen due to the Note Crisis.

Kliment Voroshilov, Nikita Khrushchev, and Urho Kekkonen in November 1960.

The Social Democratic Party faced a split in the late 1950s, due to the election of Väinö Tanner. This alongside the feuds of Väinö Leskinen and Aarre Simonen with Emil Skog, who had been the previous leader of the Social Democrats for over ten years and who was criticized for moving increasing right,[26] led to the creation of the Social Democratic Union of Workers and Smallholders (TPSL), a rival social democratic political party which was increasingly more conservative and Pro-Kekkonen. The TPSL continued to operate as a separate political party, holding seats in the Eduskunta, losing all their held seats in the 1970 Finnish parliamentary election, when they only received 1.7% of the national vote, and finally being dissolved in 1972. The party split also caused the disintegration of the trade unionist movement, leading to the cementation of two 'rival' trade unions, that believed in two different variations of social democracy, the Finnish Federation of Trade Unions (SAK) and the Finnish Trade Union Federation (SAJ), which united to form the Central Organization of Finnish Trade Unions in 1969.[27]

#### Finnish People's Democratic League

[edit]

Main article: Finnish People's Democratic League

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2024)

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The Finnish People's Democratic League (SKDL) was founded as a big tent socialist political party after the Continuation War,[28] when Communism had been forcefully relegalized by the Soviet Union as per the stipulations of the Moscow Armistice.[29] The Communists held the most influence and sway within the party, as they made up the majority of the party following the most influential socialists within the party either dying or leaving it.[30] However the variety in Communism was apparent, and this was a major reason for the party not outright merging with the Communist Party of Finland (SKP), who was Marxist-Leninist, which led to fears of the possibility authoritarianism. Despite the opposition to merging the SKP and the SKDL, the two operated together and the SKP held much influence over the SKDL, with the SKP participating in elections on the list of the SKDL.[28]

#### The Communist Party in the Cold War

[edit]

Main article: Communist Party of Finland

Due to the Moscow Armistice, Communism was relegalized in Finland by the Soviet Union.[29] This allowed the Communist Party of Finland (SKP) to reemerge legally and Communists were released from prison after the Continuation War in October 1944.[31] The Communist Party would receive financial assistance from the Soviet Union,[32] and the Communist Party was believed to have approximately 40,000 members in the mid-1960s.[33] The Communist Party would officially believe in Marxism–Leninism until the 1966 Party Assembly, when Aarne Saarinen began to move the party towards Eurocommunism.

In 1990, The Communist Party of Finland (SKP) decided to unite with the Finnish People's Democratic League (SKDL) and Democratic Alternative (DV) to form the Left Alliance, a democratic socialist political party. This marked the end of political activity for the SKP, and the SKP declared bankruptcy in 1992 and was officially dissolved in 1996, then removed from the association register in 1999.[34]

Conflicts over Eurocommunism and the party's relationship with the Soviet Union. Taisto Sinisalo was the main proponent against Eurocommunism and wished to take an even more favourable position towards the Soviet Union than the party already had.[35] Taistoism, a term to refer to the ideology of Sinisalo, was often referred to as Stalinist and was born out of the conflict between Taisto Sinisalo and Arvo Aalto, alongside the Prague Spring, when the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia was extremely controversial, and caused a split within the party when the party officially declared to be against the invasion, and when the Kymenlaakso District of the SKP defended the actions of the Soviet Union.[36] Taistoism was a well-known ideology in Finland, and Sinisalo himself become a well-known person to the public, especially after a Helsingin Sanomat article on the movement and Kulttuuritaistolaisuus (Cultural Taistoism).

Cultural Taistoism was the phenomenon of Taistoist messaging being spread through popular culture, especially in the political music movement of the 1970s in Finland. Love Records, a famous record company known for their Taistoist and Marxist-Leninist songs was highly influential, them alongside individual bands and musical groups such as Agit-prop and KOM-teatteri were known across Finland.[37][38] Thousands of Taistoists would be expelled from the Communist Party throughout 1985–1987, and they would organize into the Communist Party of Finland (Unity) (SKPy).[39] The SKPy which rebranded itself to the Communist Party of Finland in 1994, is the successor of the Communist Party and believes in Marxism-Leninism.

### 21st century

[edit]

#### The Social Democratic Party

[edit]

The Social Democrats in the 21st century advocate for deficit-spending to fund popular social programs, such as universal health care, among other policy ideas.[40] The party is in favor of NATO membership, LGBT rights, such as same-sex adoption rights and for the establishment of an 'environmental administration'.[41]

The Party has held office three times from 1999–, which includes the Lipponen II Cabinet, Rinne Cabinet and the Marin Cabinet.

* Socialism portal
* Communism portal
* Politics portal
* Finland portal

## See also

[edit]

* History of socialism
* Far-right politics in Finland

## External links

[edit]

* Proposed Constitution for Red Finland

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "KOSKESTA VOIMAA – VALTA – 1900–1918 – TAMPEREEN TYÖVÄENYHDISTYS". webpages.tuni.fi. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
2. ^ a b c Soikkanen, Hannu (1961). Sosialismin tulo Suomeen. Ensimmäisiin yksikamarisen eduskunnan vaaleihin asti (in Finnish). Porvoo - Helsinki: WSOY. pp. 21–27.
3. ^ "KOSKESTA VOIMAA - VALTA - 1900-1918 - TAMPEREEN TYÖVÄENYHDISTYS". webpages.tuni.fi. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
4. ^ Soikkanen, Hannu (1961). Sosialismin tulo Suomeen. Ensimmaisiin yksikamarisen eduskunnan vaaleihin asti (in Finnish). Helsinki - Porvoo: WSOY. pp. 64–71.
5. ^ "SDP Suomen Sosialidemokraattinen Puolue www.sdp.fi". 28 February 2006. Archived from the original on 28 February 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
6. ^ a b "Suurlakko 1905 | Suojeluskunnat ja Lotta Svärd" (in Finnish). 17 July 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
7. ^ a b "Finland's Revolution". jacobin.com. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
8. ^ "KOSKESTA VOIMAA – VALTA – AIKAKAUSI 1900–1918 – Suurlakko". webpages.tuni.fi. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
9. ^ a b Reitala, Aimo; Apunen, Osmo (1987). Suomen historia: Romantiikasta modernismiin (in Finnish). Weilin + Göös. ISBN 978-951-35-2495-1.
10. ^ "DSpace". helda.helsinki.fi. Retrieved 23 November 2023.
11. ^ Haapala, Pertti; Löytty, Olli; Melkas, Kukku; Tikka, Marko (2008). Kansa kaikkivaltias: Suurlakko Suomessa 1905. Helsinki: Kustannusosakeyhtiö Teos. ISBN 978-951-851-167-3.
12. ^ a b Rinta-Tassi, Osmo (1986). Kansanvaltuuskunta punaisen Suomen hallituksena. Punaisen Suomen historia 1918. Helsinki: Opetusministeriö, Punakaartin historiakomitea. ISBN 978-951-860-079-7.
13. ^ "Finland's Red Women". jacobin.com. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
14. ^ a b Paavolainen, Jaakko (1966). Poliittiset väkivaltaisuudet Suomessa 1918: Punainen terrori (in Finnish). Tammi.
15. ^ Krekola, Joni (2006). Stalinismin lyhyt kurssi: Suomalaiset Moskovan Lenin-koulussa 1926–1938. Bibliotheca historica. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. ISBN 978-951-746-864-0.
16. ^ a b Saarela, Tauno (1996). Suomalaisen kommunismin synty 1918–1923. Helsinki: Kansan Sivistystyön Liitto. ISBN 978-951-9455-55-6.
17. ^ Rentola, Kimmo (1994). Kenen joukoissa seisot? Suomalainen kommunismi ja sota 1937 - 1945 (2. Aufl ed.). Provoo: Söderström. ISBN 978-951-0-19201-6.
18. ^ Mickelsson, Rauli (2007). Suomen puolueet: historia, muutos ja nykypäivä (in Finnish). Vastapaino. ISBN 978-951-768-217-6.
19. ^ a b Selin, Sakari (2011). Kun valtiopetos oli isänmaallinen teko: nuoret sodassa Hitleriä vastaan. Helsinki: Työväen Historian ja Perinteen Tutkimuksen Seura. ISBN 978-952-99991-6-3.
20. ^ Kulomaa, Jukka, ed. (2008). Teloitettu totuus: kesä 1944. Helsingissä: Ajatus. ISBN 978-951-20-7772-4.
21. ^ Heikkilä, Lauri (5 May 2022). "Tiedätkö, milloin Suomessa hirtettiin, mestattiin, poltettiin elävältä tai teloitettiin ampumalla oikeuden päätöksellä viimeisen kerran? – kuolemanrangaistus poistettiin laista vasta 50 vuotta sitten". Suomenmaa.fi (in Finnish). Retrieved 18 August 2024.
22. ^ Rislakki, Jukka (1985). Maan alla: vakoilua, vastarintaa ja urkintaa Suomessa 1941-1944. Helsinki: Love Kirjat. ISBN 978-951-835-099-9.
23. ^ "Tampereen vastarintaliike puolusti rauhaa dynamiitilla". Yle Uutiset (in Finnish). 19 July 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
24. ^ Lyytinen, Eino (1995). Mauno Koivisto: tie politiikan huipulle. Porvoo: Söderström. ISBN 978-951-0-19811-7.
25. ^ Karjalainen, Ahti; Tarkka, Jukka (1989). Presidentin ministeri: Ahti Karjalaisen ura Urho Kekkosen Suomessa (3. painos ed.). Helsingissä: Otava. ISBN 978-951-1-08892-9.
26. ^ Tuominen, Arvo (1976). Ettei totuus unohtuisi (in Finnish). Tammi. ISBN 978-951-30-3775-8.
27. ^ Mickelsson, Rauli (2007). Suomen puolueet: historia, muutos ja nykypäivä (in Finnish). Vastapaino. ISBN 978-951-768-217-6.
28. ^ a b Haikara, Kalevi (1975). Isänmaan vasen laita: SKDL 30 vuotta piikkinä kansakunnan lihassa (in Finnish). Otava. ISBN 978-951-1-02144-5.
29. ^ a b "Välirauha-sopimus". heninen.net. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
30. ^ Viitala, Heikki Mikko (1988). Vasemmistolainen työväenliike Suomessa (in Finnish). Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue. ISBN 978-951-99933-5-5.
31. ^ Leppänen, Veli-Pekka (1994). Ohranasta oppositioon: kommunistit Helsingissä 1944-1951. Helsinki: Kansan Sivistystyön Liitto. ISBN 978-951-9455-41-9.
32. ^ Rentola, Kimmo (1997). Niin kylmää että polttaa: kommunistit, Kekkonen ja Kreml 1947-1958. Helsingissä: Otava. ISBN 978-951-1-14497-7.
33. ^ Benjamin, Roger W.; Kautsky, John H. (1968). "Communism and Economic Development". The American Political Science Review. 62 (1): 110–123\. doi:10.2307/1953329. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1953329.
34. ^ "Yhdistysrekisterin tietopalvelu". Yhdistysrekisterin tietopalvelu (in Finnish). Retrieved 17 August 2024.
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Socialism by country

By country|

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History|

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Regional variants|

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Current and historical
socialist states|

| Africa|

* Angola
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* Burkina Faso
* Congo-Brazzaville
* Egypt
* Ethiopia
* 1974–1987
* 1987–1991
* Guinea
* Libya
* Madagascar
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|

Americas|

* Cuba
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* Nicaragua

Asia|

* Afghanistan
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* 1975–1979
* 1979–1992
* 1982–1992
* China
* Iraq
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* Laos
* Mongolia
* South Yemen
* Syria
* Tuva
* Vietnam
* North Vietnam

| Short-lived|

* Azerbaijan People's Government
* East Turkestan
* Far East
* Fujian
* Gilan
* Inner Mongolia
* Jiangxi
* Kuwait
* Kurdish Republic of Mahabad
* North Korea (1946–1947)
* North Korea (1947–1948)
* Democratic Republic of Yemen
* South Vietnam

|

Europe|

* Albania
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* Czechoslovakia
* Czech Republic
* Slovakia
* East Germany
* Hungary (1949–1989)
* Poland
* Romania
* Soviet Union
* Yugoslavia

| Short-lived|

* Alsace-Lorraine
* Banat
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* Bavaria
* 1918–1919
* 1919
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* Byelorussia (1919)
* Bremen
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* Finland
* 1918
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* Estonia (1918–1919)
* Galicia
* Hungary (1919)
* Ireland
* Naissaar
* Saxony
* Slovakia (1919)
* Tarnobrzeg
* Užice
* Würzburg
* Brussels Soldiers' Council

|

History of socialism

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Socialism in Europe

Sovereign states|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
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* Croatia
* Cyprus
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* Slovenia
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* Turkey
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* United Kingdom

States with limited
recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Kosovo
* Northern Cyprus
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria

Dependencies and
other entities|

* Åland
* Faroe Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Svalbard

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