Sociology of food

Study of food as it relates to society

Further information: Index of sociology of food articles

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The sociology of food is the study of food and how it relates to the history, progression, and future development of society. Studies includes the production and consumption of food as well as its medical, spiritual and ethical applications.

The aspect of food distribution in societies can be examined through the analysis of the changes in the food supply chain. Globalization in particular has significant effects on the food supply chain by enabling scale effect in the food distribution industry.[1]

## Food distribution

[edit]

### Impact from scale effects

[edit]

Scale effects resulting from centralized acquisition purchase centres in the food supply chain favor large players such as big retailers or distributors in the food distribution market. This is due to the fact that they can utilize their strong market power and financial advantage over smaller players. Having both strong market power and greater access to the financial credit market meant that they can impose barriers to entry and cement their position in the food distribution market. This would result in a food distribution chain that is characterized by large players on one end and small players choosing niche markets to operate in on the other end. The existence of smaller players in specialized food distribution markets could be attributed to their shrinking market share and their inability to compete with the larger players due to the scale effects. Through this mechanism, globalization has displaced smaller role players.[2] Another mechanism troubling the specialized food distribution markets is the ability of distribution chains to possess their own brand. Stores with their own brand are able to combat price wars between competitors by lowering the price of their own brand, thus making consumers more likely to purchase goods from them.[3]

### Early history and culture

[edit]

In the early stages of humanity, food served the sole purpose of nourishment and survival. Food was a source of energy obtained by hunting and gathering, a labor intensive process, which required early humans to eat a calorie rich diet.

These developments eventually lead to agriculture, which also goes into the labor for food and the economic part of the sociology of food. As the years went on, food became more and more of a way to bring cultures and people together. In many cultures, food is what brings people together. This carried for centuries. From the homo-sapiens hunting and gathering, to the colonists to the New World sharing a feast with the Native Americans (that has been revived as a tradition named Thanksgiving[4]), to the popularization of restaurants/eating out in the last several decades and the togetherness that comes with eating; these developments now show communication and connectivity relating to food. According to sociologists, there are different groups of food that are divided up by their purpose and meaning. There are cultural super foods, which are the staples for a culture. There are prestige foods, which reflect economic status, and body image food which is mainly consumed for the betterment of the body. Sympathetic foods are eaten for an acclaimed desirable property, like a superstition. Lastly, there are physiological foods, which are consumed for a specific health reason (like what a pregnant woman eats for a healthy pregnancy). These different categories help researchers and sociologists study culture in the perspective of food. It often shows how food grows, molds and changes with society. For example, if someone believes in homeopathy, that would fall under the sympathetic foods or physiologic foods. This is because they are consumed for their properties and beliefs of what it could do. Another example of one of these categories of foods would be caviar or oysters for the prestige foods because they are often more expensive and those who consume it and purchase it do so to show their socioeconomic status, or SES.

### Sociological perspectives

[edit]

Through the lens of a symbolic interactionist, there are many symbols that have to do with the sociology of food. Food, in many cultures, brings people together and connects them on multiple different levels. For example, the tradition of eating with the family around the table. It represents togetherness with one and another and communication. Food itself could symbolize something greater than what it is. In America, fast food could represent the busy family that needs a quick dinner to some. To others, however, it could display the “McDonaldization Theory” which centers around the idea of, specifically American, consumption. Another example of how the sociology of food can be symbolized would be making the food from scratch. This definitely goes along with the family. With other theories of sociology, conflict theory also pertains to the sociology of food. As mentioned before, food was first and foremost used for nourishment and means of survival. Due to this, that can fall under conflict theory. The roles of the hunter and gather meant that early humans had to fight and forage to survive. The conflict could also display the survival of the fittest, because there was a conflict for getting food and nourishment, only the ones who were able to prevail and provide nourishment for themselves and their families survived. This evolved into what it is today, with people having jobs to make a living for themselves, which goes into food and nourishment.[5]

### Psychology and disorders

[edit]

Eating disorders are symbolic of the sociology of food.[6] They represent how much forced control (or the lack thereof) someone can have over themselves about something so essential for survival.[7][8] Eating disorders do not limit themselves to Anorexia. These disorders include bulimia and Binge Eating Disorder (binge eating) as well.[9] People with such disorders often use food as a reward.[10] In other cases they see food as something to avoid, even though they need it for survival.[11] The relationship that people share with their food is always varied and is a very complex topic.[12] From a sociological standpoint, media has a lot to do with this.[13][14] Not only does this have to with the sociology of food, but it has to do with how media represents society as a whole. Both men and women, (but majorly women) [15] see targeted and inaccurate representations of "the perfect body",[16] leading them to want to have a body more like the one considered normal. In disorders like Anorexia Nervosa or Bulimia Nervosa/Bulimia, patients have an intense fear of gaining weight and consuming calories. These disorders go on to represent the damaged relationship people share with their food and their weight, and how it is always attached to negativity in popular media. Inaccurate representation leads people to focus more and more on their external appearance as opposed to them taking into consideration their absolute need for nourishment. The false image shown publicly of what a perfect body looks like and how it is affected by consuming as many calories as a person normally might, has led to Anorexia Nervosa being the mental health disorder with the highest mortality rate.[17] Many people in society and the way society is developing have what is called body dysmorphia. Body dysmorphia disorder is a mental health condition where a person spends a lot of time worrying about flaws in their appearance.[18] Body image has become a problem surrounding this topic as social media can show unrealistic standards related to eating issues/disorders and the sociology based on food consumption.

### Dieting

[edit]

The fad of diets has been around for centuries,[19] but the obsession with being thin and slim only really began trending in mainstream media in the 1990s,[20] for example, through trends, such as heroin chic.[21] Historically, if a woman was large and plump, it showed that she was getting taken care of. It showed her wealth because she could afford to eat, as opposed to a peasant who did not have the luxury to readily available meals.[22] The desired woman was not stick thin. The notable change began in the 1920s era were the “boyish” figure became the most desired for a woman.[23] Later, going into the 1960s, models like Twiggy made headlines about how thin she was, and many women strived to be like her body type.[24] This carried on to the 1980s where dieting (like the South Beach Diet and Weight Watchers) grew in popularity, along with the popularization of working out and work out videos.[25][26] This was the start of mainstream dieting fads.[27] Among these, others like the Atkins diet, Jenny Craig, and paleo began to take popularity.[28][29] As of early-mid-2010s, other diets became mainstream. This included vegetarianism, dairy-free, veganism, raw diets, and gluten-free.[30][31] There are many reasons why someone would choose a certain type of diet: moral reasons, digestive issues, outside influence, or religious influence.[32][33] The similarities and changes in the modern diet or communities and the effect of globalization on food production and supply. An important factor mentioned states, from the effect of globalization on food production and supply to evolving cultural responses to food – including cooking and eating practices, the management of consumer anxieties, and concerns over obesity and the medicalization of food – the first part examines how changing food practices have shaped and are shaped by wider social trends.[34]

### Obesity

[edit]

The evolution of the American diet and the resulting rise in obesity is a clear example on how food shapes society and daily life.[35] Due to the fast-paced lives that many Americans have, fast food and prepackaged foods with higher caloric density have grown in popularity.[36] The environment in which people with certain socioeconomic backgrounds live also heavily affect the type of food they consume,[37] as high-calorie and low-nutritional food tend to be cheaper and easier to find.[38] Lack of physical fitness is also a crucial aspect that is adding to the obesity epidemic.[39][40] Studies have found that a neighborhood's walkability and access to recreation activities is correlated with increased exercise[41] and decreased risk of obesity.[42] There has been progress on combating America's obesity problem, with programs being put in place to help promote healthy eating and fitness.[43][44][45]

The effects of obesity.

## References

[edit]

* Beardsworth, Alan, and Keil, Teresa. Sociology on the Menu : An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society (1). London, US: Routledge, 2002. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 21 November 2016.
* Caplan, Pat, ed. Food, Health and Identity (1). London, US: Routledge, 2013. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 7 December 2016.
* Halkier, Bente. Consumption Challenged : Food in Medialised Everyday Lives. Farnham, GB: Routledge, 2010. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 7 December 2016.
* Institute of Medicine. Hunger and Obesity : Understanding a Food Insecurity Paradigm—Workshop Summary. Washington, US: National Academies Press, 2011. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 7 December 2016.
* Lupton, Deborah. Food, the Body and the Self. London, GB: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1996. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 21 November 2016.
* Marsden, Terry, and Cavalcanti, Josefa Salete Barbosa, eds. Research in Rural Sociology and Development : Labor Relations in Globalized Food. Bingley, GB: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2014. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 21 November 2016.
* Ritzer, George. Explorations in the Sociology of Consumption : Fast Food, Credit Cards and Casinos. London, GB: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2001. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 21 November 2016.

## See also

[edit]

* Society portal
* Food portal
* Agriculture and Agronomy portal

* Food studies
* Food industry
* Index of sociology of food articles

## Further reading

[edit]

* Carolan, M. 2012, The sociology of food and agriculture, Routledge, New York;London;.
* Beardsworth, Alan & Keil Teresa. 1997, Sociology on the Menu: An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-11424-1
* Germov, John. 2004. A Sociology of Food & Nutrition: The Social Appetite, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-551625-7
* Kingsolver, Barbara. 2007. Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life, Harpercollins, ISBN 0-06-085255-0
* Levenstein, Harvey. 1988, Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-504365-0
* McIntosh Alex, 1996, Sociologies of Food and Nutrition. Environment, Development, and Public Policy, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4899-1387-6
* Nestle, Marion. 2003, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, Univ of California Press, ISBN 0-520-24067-7
* Mennell, Stephen. 1993. The Sociology of Food: Eating, Diet and Culture, SAGE Publications, ISBN 0-8039-8839-7
* Poulain, Jean Pierre, 2017, The Sociology of Food: Eating and the Place of Food in Society, Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1472586216,
* Ritzer, George. 2007, The McDonaldization of Society, SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-1-4129-5429-7
* Schlosser, Eric. 2001. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All American Meal, HarperCollins ISBN 0-395-97789-4

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Food - Sociology - Oxford Bibliographies - obo". www.oxfordbibliographies.com. Retrieved 2020-02-25.
2. ^ MANUEL BELO MOREIRA, Changes in Food Chains in the Context of Globalization, Int. Jrnl. of Soc. of Agr. & Food, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 134–148
3. ^ Vizard, Sarah. "Supermarkets' new price war risks damaging relations with food brands and consumers." Marketing Week Online 24 Apr. 2014. General OneFile. Web. 5 Nov. 2015.
4. ^ Siskind, Janet (1992). "The Invention of Thanksgiving". Critique of Anthropology. 12 (2): 167–191\. doi:10.1177/0308275X9201200205. S2CID 140389022.
5. ^ "Sociology of food - Short Notes for Sociology". www.sociologyguide.com. Retrieved 2020-02-25.
6. ^ "How big brands are helping consumers shift to healthier eating options". Reuters Events. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
7. ^ "Eating Disorders Awareness Week: The Psychology behind Eating Disorders, and How to Treat Them". The Chelsea Psychology Clinic. 2019-02-25. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
8. ^ Hendriksen, Savvy Psychologist Ellen. "The Mindset of Eating Disorders". Scientific American. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
9. ^ "Types of Eating Disorder". Beat. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
10. ^ "Reward". National Eating Disorders Association. 2019-08-22. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
11. ^ "Eating Disorders: About More Than Food". National Institute of Mental Health. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
12. ^ "This Is What It Looks Like to Have a 'Normal' Relationship With Food". SELF. 2019-01-10. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
13. ^ "A New Relationship Between Social Media and Food | SupermarketGuru". www.supermarketguru.com. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
14. ^ Jonk, Hiwot (2021-03-01). "Has Social Media Eroded our Relationship with Food?". Mysite. Archived from the original on 2022-10-21. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
15. ^ "Why are women more vulnerable to eating disorders? Brain study sheds light". 16 October 2016.
16. ^ d'Amour, Sarah; Harris, Laurence R. (2019). "The Representation of Body Size: Variations with Viewpoint and Sex". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 2805. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02805. PMC 6929680. PMID 31920848.
17. ^ "Anorexia Nervosa – Highest Mortality Rate of Any Mental Disorder: Why?".
18. ^ "Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)". nhs.uk. 2021-02-10. Retrieved 2022-12-14.
19. ^ Saner, Emine. "People Have Been Crash Dieting For Over 2,000 Years". Business Insider. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
20. ^ "A Look At 'Heroin Chic' And The Glamorization Of Drug Use In The 90s". The Recovery Village Drug and Alcohol Rehab. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
21. ^ Dazed (2022-02-10). "BBLs are over, eye bags are in, smoking is back. Is heroin chic next?". Dazed. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
22. ^ "'People think a bigger belly is a sign of wealth'". the Guardian. 2005-05-16. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
23. ^ Edwards, Vanessa Van (2016-05-10). "Beauty Standards: See How Body Types Change Through History". Science of People. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
24. ^ Hall, Carla (1991-10-11). "THE SKINNY ON TWIGGY". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
25. ^ "Fad Diets of the 90s | Santa Cruz CORE Fitness + Rehab". 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
26. ^ "These '70s and '80s Fad Diets Are Too Freaking Hard To Follow". So Yummy. 2019-08-30. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
27. ^ "A history of diets – from Byron to 5:2". the Guardian. 2013-02-20. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
28. ^ "A History of the Diet By Decade: 11 Food Fads That Promised to Make Us Thin". Vogue. 2016-05-26. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
29. ^ "The 10 Most Famous Fad Diets of All Time". EverydayHealth.com. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
30. ^ "The biggest (and weirdest) wellness trends we all witnessed in the 2010s". Vogue India. 2019-12-20. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
31. ^ "Here Are Diet Trends That Ruled Between 2010 To 2020". HerZindagi English. 2020-12-13. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
32. ^ Capritto, Amanda. "6 common reasons people eat vegan". CNET. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
33. ^ "Why are so many people going gluten-free?". www.piedmont.org. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
34. ^ "Introducing The Sociology of Food and Eating by Anne Murcott". Perlego. Bloomsbury Academic. 7 February 2019. ISBN 978-1-350-02204-1. Retrieved 2022-12-14.
35. ^ "The Making of the Obesity Epidemic". The Breakthrough Institute. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
36. ^ "Fast Food Statistics | October 2022 | The Barbecue Lab". 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
37. ^ Zagorsky, Jay L.; Smith, Patricia K. (November 2017). "The association between socioeconomic status and adult fast-food consumption in the U.S". Economics and Human Biology. 27 (Pt A): 12–25\. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2017.04.004. hdl:2144/40250. ISSN 1873-6130. PMID 28472714. S2CID 23903624.
38. ^ Sanchez, Karlene (2019-02-27). "Fast food accessibility is a public health issue". The Daily Aztec. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
39. ^ Booth, Frank W.; Roberts, Christian K.; Laye, Matthew J. (April 2012). "Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases". Comprehensive Physiology. 2 (2): 1143–1211\. doi:10.1002/cphy.c110025. ISSN 2040-4603. PMC 4241367. PMID 23798298.
40. ^ Bach, Becky (21 April 2013). "Lack of exercise, not diet, linked to rise in obesity, Stanford research shows". News Center (in Samoan). Retrieved 2022-10-21.
41. ^ Orstad, Stephanie L.; McDonough, Meghan H.; James, Peter; Klenosky, David B.; Laden, Francine; Mattson, Marifran; Troped, Philip J. (November 2018). "Neighborhood walkability and physical activity among older women: Tests of mediation by environmental perceptions and moderation by depressive symptoms". Preventive Medicine. 116: 60–67\. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.08.008. ISSN 0091-7435. PMC 6260982. PMID 30092314.
42. ^ SALLIS, JAMES F.; GLANZ, KAREN (March 2009). "Physical Activity and Food Environments: Solutions to the Obesity Epidemic". Milbank Quarterly. 87 (1): 123–154\. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2009.00550.x. ISSN 0887-378X. PMC 2879180. PMID 19298418.
43. ^ CDC (2022-05-21). "CDC-funded state and local programs". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 2024-04-28. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
44. ^ "Obesity Prevention and Healthy Weight Programs". National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
45. ^ Chriqui, Jamie F. (September 2013). "Obesity Prevention Policies in U.S. States and Localities: Lessons from the Field". Current Obesity Reports. 2 (3): 200–210\. doi:10.1007/s13679-013-0063-x. ISSN 2162-4968. PMC 3916087. PMID 24511455.

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Styles|

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Lists|

* List of cuisines
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* Prepared

Related|

* Cookbook
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Sociology

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General aspects|

* Public sociology
* Social research
* Social theory
* Sociological theory
* Sociological practice

Perspectives|

* Conflict theory
* Critical theory
* Structural functionalism
* Positivism
* Social constructionism
* Social darwinism
* Symbolic interactionism

Related fields
and subfields|

* Anthropology
* Comparative sociology
* Criminology
* Cultural anthropology
* Demography
* Historical sociology
* Industrial society
* Marxist sociology
* Political sociology
* Rural sociology
* Social anthropology
* Social movements
* Social psychology
* Sociolinguistics
* Urban sociology

| Sociology of|

* art
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Major theorists|

* Sieyès
* Comte
* Martineau
* Tocqueville
* Marx
* Spencer
* Le Bon
* Ward
* Pareto
* Tönnies
* Veblen
* Simmel
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* Giddens

Methods|

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* Network analysis
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Key themes|

* Society
* Globalization
* Human behavior
* Human environmental impact
* Identity
* Industrial revolutions 3 / 4 / 5
* Popularity
* Social complexity
* Social environment
* Social equality
* Social equity
* Social power
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Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
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