South Africa

Country in Southern Africa

This article is about the country. For the geographical area, see Southern Africa. For other uses, see South Africa (disambiguation).

"Mzansi" redirects here. For other uses, see Mzansi (disambiguation).

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|

Republic of South Africa

10 other official languages[1]

* | Afrikaans:| Republiek van Suid-Afrika

|

Zulu:| iRiphabhuliki yaseNingizimu Afrika
Xhosa:| iRiphabhlikhi yoMzantsi Afrika
Pedi:| Repabliki ya Afrika-Borwa
Southern Sotho:| Rephaboliki ya Afrika Borwa
Tswana:| Rephaboliki ya Aforika Borwa
Tsonga:| Riphabliki ya Afrika Dzonga
Swati:| iRiphabhulikhi yaseNingizimu-Afrika
Venda:| Riphabuḽiki ya Afurika Tshipembe
Southern Ndebele:| iRiphabliki yeSewula Afrika

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: "ǃke e: ǀxarra ǁke" (ǀXam)
"Unity in diversity"
Anthem: "National anthem of South Africa"

Show globe

Show map of South Africa

Capital|

* Pretoria (executive)[a][4]
* Cape Town (legislative)[b][4]
* Bloemfontein (judicial)[c][4]

Largest city| Johannesburg[2]
Official languages| 12 languages[5][6]

* Afrikaans
* English
* Ndebele
* Sepedi
* Sesotho
* Setswana
* South African Sign Language
* Swazi
* Tshivenda
* Xhosa
* Xitsonga
* Zulu

Languages with special status[5]

* Khoe languages
* Nama
* Khoisan languages
* German
* Greek
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Portuguese
* Telugu
* Tamil
* Urdu
* Arabic
* Hebrew
* Sanskrit

Ethnic groups

(2022[7])

* 81.4% Black
* 8.2% Coloured
* 7.3% White
* 2.7% Indian or Asian
* 0.4% other

Religion

(2022)[8]

* 85.3% Christianity
* 7.8% traditional faiths
* 3.1% no religion
* 1.6% Islam
* 1.1% Hinduism
* 1.1% other

Demonym(s)|

* South African

Government| Unitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency

• President

| Cyril Ramaphosa

• Deputy President

| Paul Mashatile

• Speaker of the National Assembly

| Thoko Didiza

• Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces

| Refilwe Mtsweni-Tsipane

• Chief Justice

| Mandisa Maya
Legislature| Parliament

• Upper house

| National Council of Provinces

• Lower house

| National Assembly
Independence

from the United Kingdom

• Union

| 31 May 1910

• Statute of Westminster

| 11 December 1931

• Republic

| 31 May 1961

• Current constitution

| 4 February 1997
Area

• Total

| 1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi) (24th)

• Water (%)

| 0.380
Population

• 2024 estimate

|  63,015,904[9] (23rd)

• 2022 census

|  62,027,503[10] (23rd)

• Density

| 50.8/km2 (131.6/sq mi) (169th)
GDP (PPP)| 2025 estimate

• Total

|  $1.030 trillion[11] (33rd)

• Per capita

|  $16,010[11] (107th)
GDP (nominal)| 2025 estimate

• Total

|  $418.05 billion[11] (40th)

• Per capita

|  $6,520[11] (108th)
Gini (2017)|  67.0[12]
very high inequality
HDI (2023)|  0.741[13]
high (106th)
Currency| South African rand (ZAR)
Time zone| UTC+2 (SAST)
Date format| Short formats:

* yyyy/mm/dd[14]
* yyyy-mm-dd[15]

Calling code| +27
ISO 3166 code| ZA
Internet TLD| .za

South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa.[d] Its nine provinces are bounded to the south by 2,798 kilometres (1,739 miles) of coastline that stretches along the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean;[18][19][20] to the north by the neighbouring countries of Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe; to the east and northeast by Mozambique and Eswatini; and it encloses Lesotho.[21] Covering an area of 1,221,037 square kilometres (471,445 square miles), the country has a population of over 63 million people. Pretoria is the administrative capital, while Cape Town, as the seat of Parliament, is the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein is regarded as the judicial capital.[22] The largest, most populous city is Johannesburg, followed by Cape Town and Durban.

Archaeological findings suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa about 2.5 million years ago, and modern humans inhabited the region over 100,000 years ago. The first known people were the indigenous Khoisan, and Bantu-speaking peoples from West and Central Africa later migrated to the region 2,000 to 1,000 years ago. In the north, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe formed in the 13th century. In 1652, the Dutch established the first European settlement at Table Bay, Dutch Cape Colony. Its invasion in 1795 and Battle of Blaauwberg in 1806 led to British occupation. The Mfecane, a period of significant upheaval, led to the formation of various African kingdoms, including the Zulu Kingdom. The region was further colonised, and the Mineral Revolution saw a shift towards industrialisation and urbanisation. Following the Second Boer War, the Union of South Africa was created in 1910 after the amalgamation of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange River colonies, becoming a republic after the 1961 referendum. The multi-racial Cape Qualified Franchise in the Cape was gradually eroded, and the vast majority of Black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994.

The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation. After a largely non-violent struggle by the African National Congress and other anti-apartheid activists both inside and outside the country, the repeal of discriminatory laws began in the mid-1980s. Universal elections took place in 1994, following which all racial groups have held political representation in the country's liberal democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces.

South African society encompasses a variety of cultures, languages, and religions; the country is often called the "rainbow nation" to describe its multiracial, multicultural diversity, especially in the wake of apartheid.[23] Recognised as a middle power in international affairs, South Africa maintains significant regional influence and is a member of BRICS+, the African Union, SADC, SACU, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the G20.[24][25] A developing, newly industrialised country, it has the largest economy in Africa by nominal GDP,[26][27] is tied with Ethiopia for the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa,[28] and is a biodiversity hotspot with unique biomes, plant, and animal life. Since the end of apartheid, government accountability and quality of life have substantially improved for non-white citizens.[29] However, crime, violence, poverty, and inequality remain widespread, with about 32% of the population unemployed as of 2024[update],[30][31] while some 56% lived below the poverty line.[32][33] Having the highest Gini coefficient of 0.63, South Africa is considered one of the most economically unequal countries in the world.[34][35]

## Etymology

[edit]

See also: List of official names of South Africa

The name "South Africa" is derived from the country's geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation, the country was named the Union of South Africa in English and Unie van Zuid-Afrika in Dutch, reflecting its origin from the unification of four British colonies. Since 1961, the long formal name in English has been the "Republic of South Africa" and Republiek van Suid-Afrika in Afrikaans. The country has an official name in 12 official languages.[36][37]

Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun uMzantsi meaning "south", is a colloquial name for South Africa,[38][39] while some Pan-Africanist political parties prefer the term "Azania".[40]

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of South Africa

### Prehistoric archaeology

[edit]

Front of Maropeng at the Cradle of Humankind

South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human-fossil sites in the world.[41][42][43] Archaeologists have recovered extensive fossil remains from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has been branded "the Cradle of Humankind". The sites include Sterkfontein, one of the richest sites for hominin fossils in the world, as well as Swartkrans, Gondolin Cave, Kromdraai, Cooper's Cave and Malapa. Raymond Dart identified the first hominin fossil discovered in Africa, the Taung Child (found near Taung) in 1924. Other hominin remains have come from the sites of Makapansgat in Limpopo Province; Cornelia and Florisbad in Free State Province; Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal Province; Klasies River Caves in Eastern Cape Province; and Pinnacle Point, Elandsfontein and Die Kelders Cave in Western Cape Province.[44]

These finds suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa from about three million years ago, starting with Australopithecus africanus,[45] followed by Australopithecus sediba, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo helmei, Homo naledi and modern humans (Homo sapiens). Modern humans have inhabited Southern Africa for at least 170,000 years. Various researchers have located pebble tools within the Vaal River valley.[46][47]

### Bantu expansion

[edit]

Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the former capital of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe

Main article: Bantu expansion

Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples, who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were present south of the Limpopo River (now the northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe) by the 4th or 5th century AD. The Bantu slowly moved south. The earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050 AD.[48] The southernmost group was the Xhosa people, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan people. The Xhosa reached the Great Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger Iron Age populations displaced or assimilated earlier peoples. In Mpumalanga Province, several stone circles have been found along with a stone arrangement that has been named Adam's Calendar, and the ruins are thought to be created by the Bakone, a Northern Sotho people.[49][50]

### Mapungubwe

[edit]

Around 1220, in the Limpopo-Shashe Basin, the elite of K2 moved to settle the flat-topped summit of Mapungubwe Hill, with the population settling below. Rainmaking was crucial to the development of sacral kingship. By 1250, the capital had a population of 5000 and the state covered 30,000 km2 (11,500 square miles), growing wealthy through the Indian Ocean trade. The events around Mapungubwe's collapse circa 1300 are unknown, however trade routes shifted north from the Limpopo to the Zambezi, precipitating the rise of Great Zimbabwe. The hill was abandoned and Mapungubwe's population scattered.[51]

### Portuguese exploration

[edit]

See also: Portuguese discoveries

Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias planting the cross at Cape Point after being the first to successfully round the Cape of Good Hope

In 1487, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa.[52] On 4 December, he landed at Walfisch Bay (now known as Walvis Bay in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão (Cape Cross, north of the bay). Dias continued down the western coast of southern Africa. After 8 January 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as, what he called, Rio do Infante, probably the present-day Groot River, in May 1488. On his return, he saw the cape, which he named Cabo das Tormentas ('Cape of Storms'). King John II renamed the point Cabo da Boa Esperança, or Cape of Good Hope, as it led to the riches of the East Indies.[53] Dias' feat of navigation was immortalised in Luís de Camões' 1572 epic poem, Os Lusíadas.

### Dutch colonisation

[edit]

Main articles: Dutch Cape Colony and Boer Republics

Charles Davidson Bell's 19th-century painting of Jan van Riebeeck, who founded the first European settlement in South Africa, arriving in Table Bay in 1652

In 1595, the Dutch made their first contact with the coast of Southern Africa. With Portugal's maritime power declining in the early 17th century, English and Dutch merchants competed to dislodge Portugal's lucrative monopoly on the spice trade.[54] British East India Company representatives sporadically called at the cape in search of provisions from as early as 1601 but later came to favour Ascension Island and Saint Helena as ports of refuge.[55] Dutch interest was aroused after 1647, when two employees of the Dutch East India Company were shipwrecked at the cape for several months. The sailors were able to survive by obtaining fresh water and meat from the natives.[55] They also sowed vegetables in the fertile soil.[56] Upon their return to Holland, they reported favourably on the cape's potential as a "warehouse and garden" for provisions to stock passing ships for long voyages.[55]

In 1652, a century and a half after the discovery of the cape sea route, Jan van Riebeeck established a victualling station at the Cape of Good Hope, at what would become Cape Town, on behalf of the Dutch East India Company.[57][58] In time, the cape became home to a large population of vrijlieden, also known as vrijburgers (lit. 'free citizens'), former company employees who stayed in Dutch overseas territories after serving their contracts.[58] Dutch traders also brought thousands of enslaved people to the fledgling colony from present-day Indonesia, Madagascar, and eastern Africa.[59] Some of the earliest mixed race communities in the country were formed between vrijburgers, enslaved people, and indigenous peoples.[60] This led to the development of a new ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds, most of whom adopted the Dutch language and Christian faith.[60]

Conflicts over resources between South Africa's indigenous Khoisan people and Dutch settlers began in the 17th century and continued for centuries.[61]

Dutch colonists' eastward expansion caused wars with the southwesterly migrating Xhosa nation, known as the Xhosa Wars, as both sides competed for the pastureland near the Great Fish River, which the colonists desired for grazing cattle.[62] Vrijburgers who became independent farmers on the frontier were known as Boers, with some adopting semi-nomadic lifestyles being denoted as trekboers.[62] The Boers formed loose militias, which they termed commandos, and forged alliances with Khoisan peoples to repel Xhosa raids.[62] Both sides launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades.[62]

### British colonisation, the Mfecane, and the Great Trek

[edit]

Main articles: Mfecane, Invasion of the Cape Colony, Cape Colony, Great Trek, British Bechuanaland, and Colony of Natal

Depiction of a Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838

Great Britain occupied Cape Town between 1795 and 1803 to prevent it from falling under the control of the French First Republic, which had invaded the Low Countries.[62] After briefly returning to Dutch rule under the Batavian Republic in 1803, the cape was occupied again by the British in 1806.[63] Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it was formally ceded to Great Britain and became an integral part of the British Empire.[64] British emigration to South Africa began around 1818, subsequently culminating in the arrival of the 1820 Settlers.[64] The purpose of inducing new colonists to settle was primarily to increase the size of the European workforce and to bolster frontier regions against Xhosa incursions.[64]

In the early 1800s, the Mfecane (lit. 'crushing') saw a heightened period of conflict, migration, and state formation among native groups, caused by the complex interplay of international trade, environmental instability, and European colonisation.[65] Chiefdoms grew wealthier and competed over trade routes and grazing land, leading to the formation of the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa Paramountcies in the east.[66] Ndwandwe defeated Mthethwa which split into different groups, one of which was led by Shaka of the amaZulu.[67] The 1810s saw the fourth and fifth Xhosa Wars as British colonisation expanded.[68] Ndwandwe splintered amid costly raids and Shaka's Zulu Kingdom rose to fill the power vacuum.[67] The Gaza kingdom formed. The Zulu totally defeated the Ndwandwe, however were repelled by Gaza.[69][70]

1876 map of South Africa

During the early 19th century, many Dutch settlers departed from the Cape Colony, where they had been subjected to British control, in a series of migrant groups who came to be known as Voortrekkers, meaning "pathfinders" or "pioneers". They migrated to the future Natal, Free State, and Transvaal regions. The Boers founded the Boer republics: the South African Republic, the Natalia Republic, and the Orange Free State.[71] In the interior, the Cape Colony expanded at the expense of the Batswana and Griqua, and Boer expansion caused great instability in the Middle Orange River region.[72] The Matabele kingdom came to dominate the eastern interior, and raided the Venda kingdom.[73] The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started the Mineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration. This intensified British subjugation of the indigenous people. The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British.[74]

On 16 May 1876, President Thomas François Burgers of the South African Republic declared war against the Pedi people. King Sekhukhune managed to defeat the army on 1 August 1876. Another attack by the Lydenburg Volunteer Corps was also repulsed. On 16 February 1877, the two parties signed a peace treaty at Botshabelo.[75] The Boers' inability to subdue the Pedi led to the departure of Burgers in favour of Paul Kruger and the British annexation of the South African Republic. In 1878 and 1879 three British attacks were successfully repelled until Garnet Wolseley defeated Sekhukhune in November 1879 with an army of 2,000 British soldiers, Boers and 10,000 Swazis.

The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British and the Zulu Kingdom. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as the British High Commissioner to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the Boers, and the Zululand army. The Zulu nation defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana. Eventually Zululand lost the war, resulting in the termination of the Zulu nation's independence.[76]

### Boer Wars

[edit]

Main articles: Boer Wars, First Boer War, and Second Boer War

The Battle of Majuba Hill was the last decisive battle during the First Boer War.

The Boer republics successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880–1881) using guerrilla warfare tactics, which were well-suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the Second Boer War (1899–1902) and, although suffering heavy casualties due to Boer attrition warfare, they were ultimately successful due in part to scorched earth tactics and concentration camps, in which 27,000 Boer civilians died due to a combination of disease and neglect.[77]

South Africa's urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward. After the devastation of the wars, Boer farmers fled into Transvaal and Orange Free State cities and constituted a white urban poor class.[78]

### Independence

[edit]

See also: Union of South Africa, Military history of South Africa during World War I, and Military history of South Africa during World War II

Anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people, including the Native Location Act of 1879 and the system of pass laws.[79][80][81][82][83]

Eight years after the end of the Second Boer War and after four years of negotiation, the South Africa Act 1909 granted nominal independence while creating the Union of South Africa on 31 May 1910. The union was a dominion that included the former territories of the Cape, Transvaal and Natal colonies, as well as the Orange Free State republic.[84] The Natives' Land Act of 1913 severely restricted the ownership of land by blacks; at that stage they controlled only 7% of the country. The amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased.[85]

In 1931, the union became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom with the passage of the Statute of Westminster, which abolished the last powers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to legislate in the country. Only three other African countries—Liberia, Ethiopia, and Egypt—had been independent prior to that point. In 1934, the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. In 1939, the party split over the entry of the union into World War II, as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which National Party followers opposed.[86]

### Apartheid era

[edit]

Main article: Apartheid

Further information: Disinvestment from South Africa

D. F. Malan, the first apartheid-era prime minister (1948–1954)

In 1948, the National Party was elected to power. It strengthened the racial segregation begun under Dutch and British colonial rule. Taking Canada's Indian Act as a framework,[87] the nationalist government classified all peoples into three races (Whites, Blacks, Indians and Coloured people (people of mixed race)) and developed rights and limitations for each. The white minority (less than 20%)[88] controlled the vastly larger black majority. The legally institutionalised segregation became known as apartheid. While whites enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, comparable to First World Western nations, the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy.[89] The Freedom Charter, adopted in 1955 by the Congress Alliance, demanded a non-racial society and an end to discrimination.

On 31 May 1961, the country became a republic following a referendum (only open to white voters) which narrowly passed;[90] the British-dominated Natal province largely voted against the proposal. Elizabeth II lost the title Queen of South Africa, and the last Governor-General, Charles Robberts Swart, became state president. As a concession to the Westminster system, the appointment of the president remained by parliament and was virtually powerless until P. W. Botha's Constitution Act of 1983, which eliminated the office of prime minister and instated a unique "strong presidency" responsible to parliament. Pressured by other Commonwealth of Nations countries, South Africa withdrew from the organisation in 1961. It would rejoin it in 1994, after the end of apartheid.

Despite opposition to apartheid both within and outside the country, the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid. The security forces cracked down on internal dissent, and violence became widespread, with anti-apartheid organisations such as the African National Congress (ANC), the Azanian People's Organisation, and the Pan-Africanist Congress carrying out guerrilla warfare[91] and urban sabotage.[92] The three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter-factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence.[93] Apartheid became increasingly controversial, and several countries began to boycott business with the South African government because of its racial policies. The boycotts and restrictions were later extended to international sanctions and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors.[94][95]

### Post-apartheid

[edit]

Further information: History of South Africa (1994–present)

F.W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela shake hands in January 1992.

The Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith, signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. Ultimately, F.W. de Klerk opened bilateral discussions with Nelson Mandela in 1993 for a transition of policies and government.

In 1990, the National Party government took the first step towards dismantling discrimination when it lifted the ban on the ANC and other political organisations. It released Nelson Mandela from prison after 27 years of serving a sentence for sabotage. A negotiation process followed. With approval from the white electorate in a 1992 referendum, the government continued negotiations to end apartheid. South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994, which the ANC won by an overwhelming majority. It has been in power ever since. The country rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations and became a member of the Southern African Development Community.[96]

In post-apartheid ANC-governed South Africa, unemployment skyrocketed to over 30% and income inequality increased.[97][98] While many black people have risen to middle or upper classes, the overall unemployment rate of black people worsened between 1994 and 2003 by official metrics but declined significantly using expanded definitions.[99] Poverty among white South Africans, which was previously rare, increased.[100] The government struggled to achieve the monetary and fiscal discipline to ensure both redistribution of wealth and economic growth. The United Nations Human Development Index rose steadily until the mid-1990s,[101] then fell from 1995 to 2005 before recovering its 1995 peak in 2013.[102] The fall is in large part attributable to the South African HIV/AIDS pandemic which saw South African life expectancy fall from a high point of 62 years in 1992 to a low of 53 in 2005,[103] and the failure of the government to take steps to address the pandemic in its early years.[104]

Supporters watching the 2010 FIFA World Cup with vuvuzelas in the township of Soweto, a suburb of Johannesburg March in Johannesburg against xenophobia in South Africa, 23 April 2015

In May 2008, riots left over 60 people dead.[105] The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions estimated that over 100,000 people were driven from their homes.[106] The targets were mainly legal and illegal migrants, and refugees seeking asylum, but a third of the victims were South African citizens.[105] In a 2006 survey, the South African Migration Project concluded that South Africans are more opposed to immigration than any other national group.[107] The UN High Commissioner for Refugees in 2008 reported that over 200,000 refugees applied for asylum in South Africa, almost four times as many as the year before.[108] These people were mainly from Zimbabwe, though many also come from Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.[108] Competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing has led to tension between refugees and host communities.[108] While xenophobia in South Africa is still a problem, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2011 reported that recent violence had not been as widespread as initially feared.[108] Nevertheless, as South Africa continues to grapple with racial issues, one of the proposed solutions has been to pass legislation, such as the pending Hate Crimes and Hate Speech Bill, to uphold South Africa's ban on racism and commitment to equality.[109][110]

On 14 February 2018, Jacob Zuma resigned the presidency. On 15 February, ANC president Cyril Ramaphosa became President of South Africa. On 16 March 2018, just over a month after President Jacob Zuma resigned from the presidency, National Director of Public Prosecutions Shaun Abrahams announced that Zuma would again face prosecution on 16 criminal charges – 12 charges of fraud, two of corruption, and one each of racketeering and money laundering, just as in the 2006 indictment. A warrant was issued for his arrest in February 2020 after he failed to appear in court. In 2021, he was found guilty of contempt of court and sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment. In response, supporters of Zuma engaged in protests which led to riots leaving 354 people dead.[111]

South Africa went through a period political and economic crisis since 2020 in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic with some international institutions, businesses and political figures stating that the country could decline due to high unemployment, low business investment, political corruption, and state capture.[112][113][114] The country has been undergoing an energy crisis since 2007, resulting in routine rolling electricity blackouts due to loadshedding.[115] According to the International Monetary Fund, South Africa is suffering from "massive corruption" and state capture.[116] One of the main causes of instability in South Africa is land distribution, black South Africans own 4% of the land despite making up 80% of the population, while white South Africans control 75% of privately owned land. This is a remnant of the apartheid Bantustan system where black Africans were forced into reservations.[117][118][119] Since 1998, the South African government has settled 80,000 land claims from people who had been evicted from land by the previous government. In 90% of the land claim cases, people chose money instead of land.[120]

The Zondo Commission, established in 2018 in order to investigate allegations of corruption and state capture released its findings in 2022, found corruption at every level of government, including Transnet, Eskom, and Denel, as well as law enforcement. It documented evidence of systemic corruption, fraud, racketeering, bribery, money laundering, and state capture. It investigated the African National Congress party and Jacob Zuma, whom it concluded were complicit in state capture through their direct assistance to the Gupta family.[121][122]

South Africa has maintained a position of neutrality in regards to the Russia invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and the ongoing war. On 29 December 2023, South Africa formally submitted its case to the International Court of Justice regarding Israel's conduct in the Gaza Strip as part of the Gaza war, alleging that Israel had committed and was committing genocide against Palestinians in the Gaza Strip.[123][124]

Following the 2024 general elections, the African National Congress saw its share of the national vote fall below 50% for the first time since the end of Apartheid, though it remained the single largest party in the South African Parliament.[125] President Ramaphosa announced a national unity government, the first since the Cabinet of Nelson Mandela, and entered a deal with the Democratic Alliance, the previous main opposition party, and other minor parties.[126] Ramaphosa was reelected for a second term in office by the National Assembly against the leader of the Economic Freedom Fighters, Julius Malema.[127]

## Geography

[edit]

Main article: Geography of South Africa

Satellite image of South Africa

South Africa is in southernmost Africa, with a coastline that stretches more than 2,500 km (1,553 mi) and along two oceans (the South Atlantic and the Indian). At 1,219,912 km2 (471,011 sq mi),[128] South Africa is the 24th-largest country in the world.[129] Excluding the Prince Edward Islands, the country lies between latitudes 22° and 35°S, and longitudes 16° and 33°E. The interior of South Africa consists of a large, in most places almost flat, plateau with an altitude of between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and 2,100 m (6,900 ft). It is highest in the east and slopes gently downwards towards the west and north, and slightly to the south and south-west.[130] This plateau is surrounded by the Great Escarpment[131] whose eastern, and highest, stretch is known as the Drakensberg.[132] Mafadi in Drakensberg at 3,450 m (11,320 ft) is the highest peak. The KwaZulu-Natal–Lesotho international border is formed by the highest portion of the Great Escarpment which reaches an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[133]

The south and south-western parts of the plateau (at approximately 1,100–1,800 m above sea level) and the adjoining plain below (at approximately 700–800 m above sea level - see map on the right) is known as the Great Karoo, which consists of sparsely populated shrubland. To the north, the Great Karoo fades into the more arid Bushmanland, which eventually becomes the Kalahari Desert in the north-west of the country. The mid-eastern and highest part of the plateau is known as the Highveld. This relatively well-watered area is home to a great proportion of the country's commercial farmlands and contains its largest conurbation (Gauteng). To the north of Highveld, from about the 25° 30' S line of latitude, the plateau slopes downwards into the Bushveld, which ultimately gives way to the Limpopo River lowlands or Lowveld.[131]

The coastal belt, below the Great Escarpment, moving clockwise from the northeast, consists of the Limpopo Lowveld, which merges into the Mpumalanga Lowveld, below the Mpumalanga Drakensberg (the eastern portion of the Great Escarpment).[134] This is hotter, drier and less intensely cultivated than the Highveld above the escarpment.[131] The Kruger National Park, located in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in north-eastern South Africa, occupies a large portion of the Lowveld covering 19,633 square kilometres (7,580 sq mi)[135]

Drakensberg, the eastern and highest portion of the Great Escarpment which surrounds the east, south and western borders of the central plateau

The coastal belt below the south and south-western stretches of the Great Escarpment contains several ranges of Cape Fold Mountains which run parallel to the coast, separating the Great Escarpment from the ocean.[136][137] (These parallel ranges of fold mountains are shown on the map, above left. Note the course of the Great Escarpment to the north of these mountain ranges.) The land between the Outeniqua and Langeberg ranges to the south and the Swartberg range to the north is known as the Little Karoo,[131] which consists of semi-desert shrubland similar to that of the Great Karoo, except that its northern strip along the foothills of the Swartberg Mountains has a somewhat higher rainfall and is, therefore, more cultivated than the Great Karoo.

The Little Karoo is famous for its ostrich farming around Oudtshoorn. The lowland area to the north of the Swartberg range up to the Great Escarpment is the lowland part of the Great Karoo, which is climatically and botanically almost indistinguishable from the Karoo above the Great Escarpment. The narrow coastal strip between the Outeniqua and Langeberg ranges and the ocean has a moderately high year-round rainfall, which is known as the Garden Route. It is famous for the most extensive areas of forests in South Africa (a generally forest-poor country).

In the south-west corner of the country, the Cape Peninsula forms the southernmost tip of the coastal strip which borders the Atlantic Ocean and ultimately terminates at the country's border with Namibia at the Orange River. The Cape Peninsula has a Mediterranean climate, making it and its immediate surrounds the only portion of Sub-Saharan Africa which receives most of its rainfall in winter.[138][139]

The coastal belt to the north of the Cape Peninsula is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and the first row of north–south running Cape Fold Mountains to the east. The Cape Fold Mountains peter out at about the 32° S line of latitude,[137] after which the Great Escarpment bounds the coastal plain. The most southerly portion of this coastal belt is known as the Swartland and Malmesbury Plain, which is an important wheat growing region, relying on winter rains. The region further north is known as Namaqualand,[140] which becomes more arid near the Orange River. The little rain that falls tends to fall in winter,[139] which results in one of the world's most spectacular displays of flowers carpeting huge stretches of veld in spring (August–September).

South Africa also has one offshore possession, the small sub-Antarctic archipelago of the Prince Edward Islands, consisting of Marion Island (290 km2 or 110 sq mi) and Prince Edward Island (45 km2 or 17 sq mi).

### Climate

[edit]

Main article: Climate of South Africa

Köppen climate types of South Africa

South Africa has a generally temperate climate because it is surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, because it is located in the climatically milder Southern Hemisphere, and because its average elevation rises steadily toward the north (toward the equator) and further inland. This varied topography and oceanic influence result in a great variety of climatic zones. The climatic zones range from the extreme desert of the southern Namib in the farthest northwest to the lush subtropical climate in the east along the border with Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. Winters in South Africa occur between June and August. The extreme southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean with wet winters and hot, dry summers, hosting the famous fynbos biome of shrubland and thicket. This area produces much of the wine in South Africa and is known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year. The severity of this wind made passing around the Cape of Good Hope particularly treacherous for sailors, causing many shipwrecks. Further east on the south coast, rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. The annual rainfall increases south of the Lowveld, especially near the coast, which is subtropical. The Free State is particularly flat because it lies centrally on the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 1,740 m (5,709 ft) above sea level and receives an annual rainfall of 760 mm (29.9 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.[141]

The coldest place on mainland South Africa is Buffelsfontein in the Eastern Cape, where a temperature of −20.1 °C (−4.2 °F) was recorded in 2013.[142] The Prince Edward Islands have colder average annual temperatures, but Buffelsfontein has colder extremes. The deep interior of mainland South Africa has the hottest temperatures: a temperature of 51.7 °C (125.06 °F) was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari near Upington,[143] but this temperature is unofficial and was not recorded with standard equipment; the official highest temperature is 48.8 °C (119.84 °F) at Vioolsdrif in January 1993.[144]

Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Extreme weather events are becoming more prominent.[145] This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example with regards to water resources. Speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects, starting with air quality, to temperature and weather patterns, reaching out to food security and disease burden.[146] According to computer-generated climate modelling produced by the South African National Biodiversity Institute,[147] parts of southern Africa will see an increase in temperature by about 1 °C (1.8 °F) along the coast to more than 4 °C (7.2 °F) in the already hot hinterland such as the Northern Cape in late spring and summertime by 2050. The Cape Floral Region is predicted to be hit very hard by climate change. Drought, increased intensity and frequency of fire, and climbing temperatures are expected to push many rare species towards extinction. South Africa has published two national climate change reports in 2011 and 2016.[148] South Africa contributes considerable carbon dioxide emissions, being the 14th largest emitter of carbon dioxide,[149] primarily from its heavy reliance on coal and oil for energy production.[149] As part of its international commitments, South Africa has pledged to peak emissions between 2020 and 2025.[149]

### Biodiversity

[edit]

Main article: Biodiversity of South Africa

See also: Wildlife of South Africa, Protected areas of South Africa, and Marine biodiversity of South Africa

The national animal of South Africa is the Springbok

South Africa signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 4 June 1994 and became a party to the convention on 2 November 1995.[150] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 7 June 2006.[151] The country is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries.[152] Ecotourism in South Africa has become more prevalent in recent years, as a possible method of maintaining and improving biodiversity.

Numerous mammals are found in the Bushveld including lions, African leopards, South African cheetahs, southern white rhinos, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyenas, hippopotamuses and South African giraffes. A significant extent of the Bushveld exists in the north-east including Kruger National Park and the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, as well as in the far north in the Waterberg Biosphere. South Africa houses many endemic species, among them the critically endangered riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticullaris) in the Karoo.

Up to 1945, more than 4,900 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species) had been recorded.[153] In 2006, the number of fungi in South Africa was estimated at 200,000 species but did not take into account fungi associated with insects.[154] If correct, then the number of South African fungi dwarfs that of its plants. In at least some major South African ecosystems, an exceptionally high percentage of fungi are highly specific in terms of the plants with which they occur.[155] The country's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan does not mention fungi (including lichen-forming fungi).[151]

With more than 22,000 different vascular plants, or about 9% of all the known species of plants on Earth,[156] South Africa is particularly rich in plant diversity. The most prevalent biome is the grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia, mainly camel-thorn (Vachellia erioloba). Vegetation is sparse towards the north-west because of low rainfall. There are numerous species of water-storing succulents, like aloes and euphorbias, in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. And according to the World Wildlife Fund, South Africa is home to around a third of all succulent species.[157] The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the north-east of the country, with denser growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.[158]

The fynbos biome, which makes up the majority of the area and plant life in the Cape Floristic Region, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, or three times more plant species than found in the Amazon rainforest,[159] making it among the richest regions on Earth in terms of plant diversity. Most of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African flowering plant group is the genus Protea, with around 130 different species. While South Africa has a great wealth of flowering plants, only 1% of the land is forest, almost exclusively in the humid coastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal, where there are also areas of Southern Africa mangroves in river mouths. Even smaller reserves of forests are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine.

South Africa has lost a large area of natural habitat in the last four decades, primarily because of overpopulation, sprawling development patterns, and deforestation during the 19th century. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.94/10, ranking it 112th globally out of 172 countries.[160] South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion by alien species with many (e.g., black wattle, Port Jackson willow, Hakea, Lantana and Jacaranda) posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. Also, woody plant encroachment of native plants in grasslands poses a threat to biodiversity and related ecosystem services, affecting over 7 million hectares.[161] The original temperate forest found by the first European settlers was exploited until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like real yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African black ironwood (Olea capensis) are under strict government protection. Statistics from the Department of Environmental Affairs show a record 1,215 rhinos were killed in 2014.[162] Since South Africa is home to a third of all succulent species (many endemic to the Karoo), it makes it a hotspot for plant poaching, leading to many species to be threatened with extinction.[157]

## Demographics

[edit]

Main article: Demographics of South Africa

Map of population density in South Africa

* <1 /km2

* 1–3 /km2

* 3–10 /km2

* 10–30 /km2

* 30–100 /km2

* 100–300 /km2

* 300–1000 /km2

* 1000–3000 /km2

* >3000 /km2

South Africa is a nation of about 62 million (as of 2022) people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and religions.[163] The last census was held in 2022, with estimates produced on an annual basis. According to the United Nations' World Population Prospects, South Africa's total population was 55.3 million in 2015, compared to only 13.6 million in 1950.[164] South Africa is home to an estimated five million illegal immigrants, including some three million Zimbabweans.[165][166][167] A series of anti-immigrant riots occurred beginning in May 2008.[168][169]

Statistics South Africa asks people to describe themselves in the census in terms of five racial population groups.[170] The 2022 census figures for these groups were: Black African at 81%, Coloured at 8.2%, White at 7.3%, Indian or Asian at 2.7%, and Other/Unspecified at 0.5%.[10] The first census in 1911 showed that whites made up 22% of the population; this had declined to 16% by 1980.[171]

South Africa hosts a sizeable refugee and asylum seeker population. According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, this population numbered approximately 144,700 in 2007.[172] Groups of refugees and asylum seekers numbering over 10,000 included people from Zimbabwe (48,400), the DRC (24,800), and Somalia (12,900).[172] These populations mainly lived in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban, Cape Town, and Port Elizabeth.[172]

### Languages

[edit]

Main article: Languages of South Africa

Map showing the dominant South African languages by area

* Zulu (24.4%)

* Xhosa (16.0%)

* ⁠Afrikaans (13.5%)

* English (9.6%)

* Pedi (9.1%)

* Tswana (8.0%)

* Southern Sotho (7.6%)

* Tsonga (4.5%)

* Swazi (2.5%)

* Venda (2.4%)

* Southern Ndebele (2.1%)

* None dominant

* Areas of little or no population

South Africa has 12 official languages:[6] Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans, English, Pedi,[173] Tswana, Southern Sotho, Tsonga, Swazi, Venda, and Southern Ndebele (in order of first language speakers), as well as South African Sign Language which was recognised as an official language in 2023.[6] In this regard, it is fourth only to Bolivia, India, and Zimbabwe in number. While all the languages are formally equal, some languages are spoken more than others. According to the 2022 census, the three most spoken first languages are Zulu (24.4%), Xhosa (16.6%), and Afrikaans (10.6%).[10] Although English is recognised as the language of commerce and science, it is only the fifth most common home language, that of only 8.7% of South Africans in 2022; nevertheless, it has become the de facto lingua franca of the nation.[10] Estimates based on the 1991 census suggest just under half of South Africans could speak English.[174] It is the second most commonly spoken language outside of the household, after Zulu.[175]

Other languages are spoken, or were widely used previously, including Fanagalo, Khoe, Lobedu, Nama, Northern Ndebele, and Phuthi.[176] Many of the unofficial languages of the San and Khoekhoe peoples contain regional dialects stretching northwards into Namibia and Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct population from the Bantu people who make up most of the Black Africans in South Africa, have their own cultural identity based on their hunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised, and the remainder of their languages are in danger of becoming extinct.

White South Africans may also speak European languages, including Italian, Portuguese (also spoken by black Angolans and Mozambicans), Dutch, German, and Greek, while some Indian South Africans and more recent migrants from South Asia speak Indian languages, such as Gujarati, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. French is spoken by migrants from Francophone Africa.

### Religion

[edit]

Main article: Religion in South Africa

Religion in South Africa (2010)[177]

religion |  | percent
Protestantism |

| 73.2%
No religion |

| 14.9%
Catholicism |

| 7.4%
Islam |

| 1.7%
Hinduism |

| 1.1%
Other faith |

| 1.7%

According to the 2001 census, Christians accounted for 79.8% of the population, with a majority of them being members of various Protestant denominations (broadly defined to include syncretic African-initiated churches) and a minority of Catholics and other Christians. The Christian category includes Zion Christian (11.1%), Pentecostal (Charismatic) (8.2%), Catholic (7.1%), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed (6.7%), and Anglican (3.8%). Members of the remaining Christian churches accounted for another 36% of the population. Muslims accounted for 1.5% of the population, Hindus 1.2%,[178] traditional African religions 0.3% and Judaism 0.2%. 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 0.6% were "other" and 1.4% were "unspecified."[179][178][180][181]

African-initiated churches formed the largest of the Christian groups. It was believed that many of the persons who claimed no affiliation with any organised religion adhered to a traditional African religion. There are an estimated 200,000 traditional healers, and up to 60% of South Africans consult these healers,[182] generally called sangoma ('diviner') or inyanga ('herbalist'). These healers use a combination of ancestral spiritual beliefs and a belief in the spiritual and medicinal properties of local fauna, flora, and funga commonly known as muti ('medicine'), to facilitate healing in clients. Many peoples have syncretic religious practices combining Christian and indigenous influences.[183]

South African Muslims comprise mainly Coloureds and Indians. They have been joined by black or white South African converts as well as those from other parts of Africa.[184] South African Muslims describe their faith as the fastest-growing religion of conversion in the country, with the number of black Muslims growing sixfold, from 12,000 in 1991 to 74,700 in 2004.[184][185]

There is a substantial Jewish population, descended from European Jews who arrived as a minority amongst other European settlers. This population peaked in the 1970s at 118,000, though only around 75,000 remain today, the rest having emigrated, mostly to Israel.[186] Even so, these numbers make the Jewish community in South Africa the twelfth largest in the world.

### Education

[edit]

Main article: Education in South Africa

The University of Cape Town

The adult literacy rate in 2025 was 95%. This was the second-highest in Africa, behind only Seychelles.[187] South Africa has a three-tier system of education starting with primary school, followed by high school, and tertiary education in the form of (academic) universities and universities of technology. Learners have twelve years of formal schooling, from grade 1 to 12. Grade R, or grade 0, is a pre-primary foundation year.[188] Primary schools span the first seven years of schooling.[189] High school education spans a further five years. The National Senior Certificate examination takes place at the end of grade 12 and is necessary for tertiary studies at a South African university.[188] Public universities are divided into three types: traditional universities, which offer theoretically oriented university degrees; universities of technology (formerly called technikons), which offer vocationally-oriented diplomas and degrees; and comprehensive universities, which offer both types of qualification. There are 23 public universities in South Africa: 11 traditional universities, 6 universities of technology, and 6 comprehensive universities. There are also a large amount of FET (Further Education and Training) and TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training) colleges in South Africa.[190][191][192]

Under apartheid, schools for black people were subject to discrimination through inadequate funding and a separate syllabus called Bantu Education which only taught skills sufficient to work as labourers.[193]

In 2004, South Africa started reforming its tertiary education system, merging and incorporating small universities into larger institutions, and renaming all tertiary education institutions "university". By 2015, 1.4 million students in higher education have been aided by a financial aid scheme which was promulgated in 1999.[194]

### Health

[edit]

Main articles: Health in South Africa and Healthcare in South Africa

Tygerberg Hospital in Parow, Cape Town

According to the South African Institute of Race Relations, the life expectancy in 2009 was 71 years for a white South African and 48 years for a black South African.[195] The healthcare spending in the country is about 9% of GDP.[196] About 84% of the population depends on the public healthcare system,[196] which is beset with chronic human resource shortages and limited resources.[197] About 20% of the population use private healthcare.[198] Only 16% of the population are covered by medical aid schemes;[199] the rest pay for private care out-of-pocket or through in-hospital-only plans.[198] The three dominant hospital groups, Mediclinic, Life Healthcare and Netcare, together control 75% of the private hospital market.[198]

#### HIV/AIDS

[edit]

Main article: HIV/AIDS in South Africa

Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. HIV/AIDS has caused a fall in life expectancy.

According to the 2015 UNAIDS medical report, South Africa has an estimated seven million people who are living with HIV – more than any other country in the world.[200] In 2018, HIV prevalence—the percentage of people living with HIV—among adults (15–49 years) was 20.4%, and in the same year 71,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.[201]

A 2008 study revealed that HIV/AIDS infection is distinctly divided along racial lines: 13.6% of blacks are HIV-positive, whereas only 0.3% of whites have the virus.[202] Most deaths are experienced by economically active individuals, resulting in many AIDS orphans who, in many cases, depend on the state for care and financial support.[203] It is estimated that there are 1,200,000 orphans in South Africa.[203]

The link between HIV, a virus spread primarily by sexual contact, and AIDS was long denied by President Thabo Mbeki and his health minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, who insisted that the many deaths in the country are caused by malnutrition, and hence poverty, and not HIV.[204] In 2007, in response to international pressure, the government made efforts to fight AIDS.[205] After the 2009 general elections, President Jacob Zuma appointed Aaron Motsoaledi as the health minister and committed his government to increasing funding for and widening the scope of HIV treatment,[206] and by 2015, South Africa had made significant progress, with the widespread availability of antiretroviral drugs resulted in an increase in life expectancy from 52.1 years to 62.5 years.[207]

### Urbanisation

[edit]

One online database[208] lists South Africa having more than 12,600 cities and towns. The following are the largest cities and towns in South Africa.

* v
* t
* e

Largest cities or towns in South Africa

2016 Community Survey [209], World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision [210]

Rank  | Name | Province | Pop.
1 | Johannesburg | Gauteng | 9,167,045
2 | Cape Town | Western Cape | 4,004,793
3 | Durban | KwaZulu-Natal | 3,661,911
4 | Pretoria | Gauteng | 2,437,000
5 | Gqeberha | Eastern Cape | 1,263,051
6 | Vereeniging | Gauteng | 957,528
7 | Soshanguve | Gauteng | 841,000
8 | East London | Eastern Cape | 810,528
9 | Bloemfontein | Free State | 759,693
10 | Pietermaritzburg | KwaZulu-Natal | 679,766

## Government and politics

[edit]

Main articles: Government of South Africa, Politics of South Africa, Elections in South Africa, and Law of South Africa

See also: LGBT rights in South Africa and Human rights in South Africa

Union Buildings in Pretoria, seat of the executive

Houses of Parliament in Cape Town, seat of the legislature

Constitutional Court in Johannesburg

South Africa is a parliamentary republic, but unlike most such republics, the president is both head of state and head of government and depends for their tenure on the confidence of Parliament. The executive, legislature, and judiciary are all subject to the supremacy of the Constitution of South Africa, and the superior courts have the power to strike down executive actions and acts of Parliament if they are unconstitutional. The National Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, consists of 400 members and is elected every five years by a system of party-list proportional representation. The National Council of Provinces, the upper house, consists of ninety members, with each of the nine provincial legislatures electing ten members.

After each parliamentary election, the National Assembly elects one of its members as president; hence the president serves a term of office the same as that of the Assembly, normally five years. No president may serve more than two terms in office.[211] The president appoints a deputy president and ministers (each representing a department) who form the cabinet. The National Assembly may remove the president and the cabinet by a motion of no confidence. In the most recent election, held on 29 May 2024, the ANC lost its majority for the first time since the end of Apartheid,[212] winning only 40% of the vote and 159 seats, while the main opposition, the Democratic Alliance (DA), won 22% of the vote and 87 seats. uMkhonto weSizwe, a new party founded by former President and ANC leader Jacob Zuma, won 14.6% of the vote and 58 seats, while the Economic Freedom Fighters, founded by Julius Malema, former president of the ANC Youth League who was later expelled from the ANC, won 9.5% of the vote and 39 seats. After the election, the ANC formed a Government of National Unity with the DA and several smaller parties.[213]

South Africa has no legally defined capital city. The fourth chapter of the constitution states "The seat of Parliament is Cape Town, but an Act of Parliament enacted in accordance with section 76(1) and (5) may determine that the seat of Parliament is elsewhere."[214] The country's three branches of government are split over different cities. Cape Town, as the seat of Parliament, is the legislative capital; Pretoria, as the seat of the president and cabinet, is the administrative capital; and Bloemfontein is the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeal, and has traditionally been regarded as the judicial capital;[22] although the highest court, the Constitutional Court of South Africa has been based in Johannesburg since 1994. Most foreign embassies are located in Pretoria.

Since 2004, South Africa has had many thousands of popular protests,[215] some violent, making it, according to one academic, the "most protest-rich country in the world".[216] There have been numerous incidents of political repression as well as threats of future repression in violation of the constitution, leading some analysts and civil society organisations to conclude that there is or could be a new climate of political repression.[217][218]

In 2022, South Africa was placed sixth out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance. South Africa scored well in the categories of Rule of Law, Transparency, Corruption, Participation and Human Rights, but scored low in Safety and Security.[219] In 2006, South Africa became one of the first jurisdictions in the world to legalise same-sex marriage.[220][221]

The Constitution of South Africa is the supreme rule of law in the country. The primary sources of South African law are Roman-Dutch mercantile law and personal law and English Common law, as imports of Dutch settlements and British colonialism.[222] The first European-based law in South Africa was brought by the Dutch East India Company and is called Roman-Dutch law. It was imported before the codification of European law into the Napoleonic Code and is comparable in many ways to Scots law. This was followed in the 19th century by English law, both common and statutory. After unification in 1910, South Africa had its own parliament which passed laws specific for South Africa, building on those previously passed for the individual member colonies. The judicial system consists of the magistrates' courts, which hear lesser criminal cases and smaller civil cases; the High Court, which has divisions that serve as the courts of general jurisdiction for specific areas; the Supreme Court of Appeal; and the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court.

### Foreign relations

[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of South Africa

Ramaphosa and other BRICS leaders during the 15th BRICS Summit in Johannesburg, August 2023

As the Union of South Africa, the country was a founding member of the United Nations (UN), with Prime Minister Jan Smuts writing the preamble to the UN Charter.[223][224] South Africa is one of the founding members of the African Union (AU) and has the largest economy of all the members. It is a founding member of the AU's New Partnership for Africa's Development. After apartheid ended, South Africa was readmitted to the Commonwealth of Nations. The country is a member of the Group of 77 and chaired the organisation in 2006. South Africa is also a member of the Southern African Development Community, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Southern African Customs Union, Antarctic Treaty System, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, G20, G8+5, and the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa.

South Africa has played a key role as a mediator in African conflicts over the last decade, such as in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Comoros, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

President Jacob Zuma and Chinese President Hu Jintao upgraded bilateral ties between the two countries in 2010 when they signed the Beijing Agreement which elevated South Africa's earlier "strategic partnership" with China to the higher level of "comprehensive strategic partnership" in both economic and political affairs, including the strengthening of exchanges between their respective ruling parties and legislatures.[225][226] In 2011, South Africa joined the Brazil-Russia-India-China (BRICS) grouping of countries, identified by Zuma as the country's largest trading partners and also the largest trading partners with Africa as a whole. Zuma asserted that BRICS member countries would also work with each other through the UN, G20, and the India, Brazil South Africa (IBSA) forum.[227]

### Military

[edit]

Main article: South African National Defence Force

Further information: Defence industry of South Africa and South Africa and weapons of mass destruction

South African Air Force Saab Gripen

South African-made Rooivalk attack helicopter

SAS Spioenkop (F147), one of the four Valour-class stealth guided-missile frigates of the South African Navy

The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) serves as the unified armed forces of South Africa. Established in 1994[228][229] it was formed as a volunteer military through the integration of the former South African Defence Force (SADF) and various liberation movement forces.[228] The SANDF is subdivided into four branches, the South African Army, the South African Air Force, the South African Navy, and the South African Military Health Service. As of 2025, it consists of around 75,000 professional soldiers and operates under the authority of the President of South Africa, who serves as the Commander-in-Chief.[230][231]

In recent years, the SANDF has become a major peacekeeping force in Africa,[232] and has been involved in operations in Lesotho, the DRC,[232] and Mozambique,[232] amongst others. It has also served in multinational UN Peacekeeping forces such as the UN Force Intervention Brigade. As of 2025, South Africa spends approximately R57 billion (around US$3.25 billion), which amounts to roughly 0.8% of GDP, on defence.[233] Proposals have been made to raise this allocation to 1.5% of GDP—around R110 billion (about US$6 billion)—to address capability gaps, modernization needs, and regional security responsibilities.[234][235]

South Africa has the most advanced military-industrial complex in Africa and is among the most advanced military industries in the world.[236] The sector is coordinated by the Armaments Corporation of South Africa (Armscor), the state-owned arms procurement agency. The industry consists of over 20 companies, with the largest being Denel, Paramount Group, and Milkor. South Africa's defence industry produces a wide range of military equipment, including missiles, armoured vehicles, attack helicopters, naval vessels, and combat drones.[237][238] As a result of this domestic capability, it is estimated that around 80% of the SANDF's equipment is sourced from the local defence industry.

The Pelindaba Nuclear Research Centre, home to South Africa's first nuclear reactor, SAFARI-1, and formerly used as a storage facility for the country's nuclear weapons programme

South Africa is the only African nation to have successfully developed nuclear weapons. From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the country pursued a weapons of mass destruction programme amid Cold War tensions.[239] Six operational nuclear devices were completed between 1980 and 1990, with a seventh left unfinished before all were voluntarily dismantled in 1991.[240] This made South Africa the first country (followed by Ukraine) to voluntarily renounce and dismantle its nuclear arsenal, joining the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) the same year.[241] South Africa is also alleged to have conducted a nuclear test over the Atlantic in 1979, known as the "Vela incident," although this is officially denied; then-President F.W. de Klerk later asserted that South Africa had "never conducted a clandestine nuclear test".[242][243]

Despite dismantling its arsenal, South Africa's Pelindaba Nuclear Research Centre still stores enriched uranium from the dismantled warheads.[244] This allows the country to maintain the technical capability to redevelop nuclear weapons if it chose to do so. However, the enriched uranium is used primarily for peaceful purposes, including nuclear research and medical isotope production, reflecting South Africa's commitment to the peaceful use of nuclear energy.[245][246] In 2017, South Africa reaffirmed its disarmament stance by signing the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, and ratified it in 2019.[247][248]

### Law enforcement and crime

[edit]

Main articles: Law enforcement in South Africa and Crime in South Africa

Officers of the South African Police Service with Vektor R5 rifles on parade in Johannesburg, 2010

Law enforcement in South Africa is primarily the responsibility of the South African Police Service (SAPS), the national police force with over 1,150 police stations and around 150,950 officers.[249] The SAPS handles crime prevention, investigation, and security nationwide. It has an elite tactical unit, the Special Task Force (STF), specialising in counter-terrorism, counter-insurgency, and hostage rescue operations. In the 2023 International SWAT Competition, the STF ranked 9th out of 55 international law enforcement teams, making it the highest-ranked African police unit and one of the world's best.[250] In addition to formal policing, South Africa has the world's largest private security industry,[251] comprising over 10,000 companies and more than 2.5 million registered personnel,[252] exceeding the combined size of both the national police and military.[253] The private security industry plays a crucial role in supplementing public security amid ongoing concerns about crime and safety.[254]

A warning sign indicating a smash-and-grab hotspot in Retreat, Cape Town, where criminals target motorists by breaking vehicle windows to steal valuables, particularly at traffic lights and intersections

South Africa faces one of the world's highest rates of violent crime and leads Africa in this regard.[255] From April 2017 to March 2018, an average of 57 murders were committed each day, with a murder rate more than five times the global average.[256] Serious crimes such as armed robbery, hijackings, cash-in-transit heists, gang violence, and sexual violence remain critical challenges.[257][258] South Africa has the highest reported rape rate in the world,[259] with tens of thousands of cases annually, though many go unreported.[260] More than 526,000 South Africans were murdered from 1994 to 2019.[261]

Gang violence is a major driver of South Africa's homicide rate, especially in the Cape Flats region of Cape Town, including areas like Manenberg, Hanover Park, and Lavender Hill. Gangs compete violently over territory, drug trafficking routes, extortion, and control of illegal firearms.[262] These conflicts frequently lead to fatal shootings and civilian casualties, with children and bystanders often caught in the crossfire.[263]

Despite efforts to enhance law enforcement and community safety, crime and social tensions persist as major challenges. South Africa's criminal justice system faces ongoing criticism for underreporting, corruption, and inefficiency, fostering public distrust and a culture of impunity. These challenges continue to fuel debates on security, governance, and human rights across the country.[264]

### Administrative divisions

[edit]

Main articles: Administrative divisions of South Africa and Provinces of South Africa

Provinces of South Africa

Each of the nine provinces is governed by a unicameral legislature, which is elected every five years by party-list proportional representation. The legislature elects a premier as head of government, and the premier appoints an Executive Council as a provincial cabinet. The powers of provincial governments are limited to topics listed in the constitution; these topics include such fields as health, education, public housing and transport.

The provinces are in turn divided into 52 districts: 8 metropolitan and 44 district municipalities. The district municipalities are further subdivided into 205 local municipalities. The metropolitan municipalities, which govern the largest urban agglomerations, perform the functions of both district and local municipalities.

Province  | Provincial capital  | Largest city  | Area (km2)[265] | Population (2022)[163]

|
|
|
|

Eastern Cape | Bhisho | Gqeberha | 168,966 | 7,230,204
Free State | Bloemfontein | Bloemfontein | 129,825 | 2,964,412
Gauteng | Johannesburg | Johannesburg | 18,178 | 15,099,422
KwaZulu-Natal | Pietermaritzburg | Durban | 94,361 | 12,423,907
Limpopo | Polokwane | Polokwane | 125,754 | 6,572,720
Mpumalanga | Mbombela | Mbombela | 76,495 | 5,143,324
North West | Mahikeng | Klerksdorp | 104,882 | 3,804,548
Northern Cape | Kimberley | Kimberley | 372,889 | 1,355,946
Western Cape | Cape Town | Cape Town | 129,462 | 7,433,019

## Economy

[edit]

Main article: Economy of South Africa

See also: Economic history of South Africa

The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) is the largest stock exchange on the African continent and the 17th-largest in the world with a market capitalization of $1.36 trillion[266]

South Africa has a mixed economy and is recognised as the most industrialised, technologically advanced, and diversified economy on the African continent.[267][268] With a gross domestic product (GDP) exceeding US$400 billion, it also holds the position of Africa's largest economy. It also has a relatively high gross domestic product (GDP) per capita compared to other countries in sub-Saharan Africa US$16,010 at purchasing power parity as of 2025 ranked 107th in the world. The South African Rand (ZAR) serves as the country's official currency and is widely used for domestic transactions. It is also the most traded currency in Africa and one of the few African currencies on the global foreign exchange market.[269] South Africa is home to the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), the largest stock exchange in Africa and the 17th-largest globally by total market capitalization.[266] Despite its economic advancements, South Africa faces persistent socioeconomic challenges. It has one of the highest unemployment and poverty rates in the world and ranks among the top ten nations globally for income inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient.[270][271][272]

In August 2013, South Africa was ranked as the top African "Country of the Future" by fDi Intelligence based on the country's economic potential, labour environment, cost-effectiveness, infrastructure, business friendliness, and foreign direct investment strategy.[273]

South Africa's financial services sector is the most advanced in Africa and among the strongest in the Global South, forming the most important component of the country's economy.[274] It contributes around 20% to national GDP, making it the largest individual sector.[275] South Africa serves as the financial capital of the continent. Standard Bank—the largest banking company in Africa and 138th globally by total assets—alongside other major South African financial institutions such as First National Bank, Absa, and Nedbank, operate across multiple African markets and internationally.[276][277] The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), Africa's largest stock exchange and the 17th-largest in the world, had a market capitalization of US$1.36 trillion in 2023. The sector is regulated by the South African Reserve Bank, it is the oldest central bank on the entire African continent.[278] The strength and resilience of the financial sector have helped integrate the country into the global economy—contributing to its position as the only African member of the G20, despite economic and structural challenges.

South Africa's manufacturing sector contributes around 13% to GDP and employs over 1.7 million people. A cornerstone of this sector is the automotive industry, which positions South Africa as a regional vehicle production hub. International brands such as Toyota, Volkswagen, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Ford, and Nissan operate large-scale assembly plants in the country, producing over 600,000 vehicles a year—more than 60% of which are exported to Europe, Asia, and other African countries.[279] This makes South Africa the largest car producing country on the continent and the 7th-largest in the world.[280] It also ranks 22nd in the world and first in Africa for the production of all types of vehicles, including aircraft, ships, and automobiles.[281] South Africa has a well-developed industrial base that includes the production of processed food and beverages, chemicals, textiles, and steel. The country is also a major manufacturer of mining equipment, industrial machinery, and construction materials.

Canal Walk shopping centre in Cape Town. South Africa is home to the sixth-highest number of shopping centres in the world[282]

South Africa's private sector is the main driver of employment in the economy, accounting for approximately 75% of all jobs in the country and employing over 10 million people.[283] South Africa has the largest number of shopping centres in Africa and the sixth-highest in the world, including some of the largest malls such as Sandton City, Canal Walk, and Gateway Theatre of Shopping.[284][285] Retail giants such as Shoprite, Woolworths, Checkers, Pick n Pay, and Spar dominate the domestic market, alongside e-commerce leaders like Makro and Takealot. South Africa also ranks fifth in the world for the most number of KFC outlets, with 960 restaurants—behind only China, the United States, Japan, and India.[286] Notably the South African multinational fast-food chicken chain "Nando's" operates over 1,200 restaurants across more than 30 countries worldwide, making it South Africa's most successful fast-food brand internationally.[287] The business process outsourcing (BPO) sector is also expanding rapidly, positioning South Africa as a competitive destination for international call centres and digital services due to its English-speaking workforce and favourable time zone alignment.[288]

The mining sector has been a major component of the South African economy since the 19th century. It contributes around 7.5% to the GDP and accounting for over half of total merchandise exports. For nearly a century—until 2006—South Africa was the world's top gold producer, peaking at 1,000 metric tonnes in 1970, which made up nearly 80% of the world's gold supply at the time.[289] Although production has since declined due to investment cuts and shifting global demand, the country remains the fifth-largest gold producer and holds the world's fourth-largest gold reserves, estimated at 5,000 metric tonnes.[290][291][292] In addition to gold, South Africa is a top global producer in a wide range of mineral resources: it ranks first in the world in platinum,[293] chrome,[294] manganese,[295] vanadium,[296] and vermiculite production; second in titanium,[297] ilmenite, palladium, rutile, and zirconium;[298] third in coal exports; seventh in iron ore production;[299] and tenth in uranium production.[300] The country also holds the world's sixth-largest uranium reserves.[301]

A vineyard in Stellenbosch, Cape Winelands. South Africa is the 7th-largest wine producer in the world[302]

The South African agricultural industry contributes approximately 10% of formal employment—relatively low compared to other African nations—while also supporting a significant number of seasonal and informal labourers. The sector accounts for around 2.6% of the country's GDP.[303] The country is a major producer and exporter of maize, citrus fruits, wine, sugarcane, grapes, wool, and deciduous fruits such as apples and pears. South Africa also has a well-established livestock industry, particularly in cattle, sheep, and poultry.[304]

South Africa's principal international trade partners include China, the United States, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, Brazil, India, and Saudi Arabia. China is the country's largest single trading partner, largely due to mineral and raw material exports. Germany and the U.S. are key destinations for automotive and machinery exports, while the UK imports significant volumes of wine and agricultural products.[305]

### Science and technology

[edit]

Main article: Science and technology in South Africa

Mark Shuttleworth in space

Several important scientific and technological developments have originated in South Africa. South Africa was ranked 69th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[306] The first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in December 1967; Max Theiler developed a vaccine against yellow fever, Allan MacLeod Cormack pioneered X-ray computed tomography (CT scan); and Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques. Cormack and Klug received Nobel Prizes for their work. Sydney Brenner won in 2002, for his pioneering work in molecular biology. Mark Shuttleworth founded an early Internet security company Thawte.[307]

South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. It hosts the Southern African Large Telescope, the largest optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere. South Africa is currently building the Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for the €1.5 billion Square Kilometre Array project.[308]

South Africa has also made significant advances in military technology. The country pioneered modern mine-resistant ambush protected (MRAP) vehicle technology, setting the global standard for countering landmines and improvised explosive devices (IEDs).[309] In aviation, South Africa played a pioneering role in the development of helmet-mounted display systems, integrating flight and targeting data directly into the pilot's field of view.[310] The Denel Rooivalk military attack helicopter was also the first helicopter in the world to successfully perform a 360-degree loop, a feat previously seen as impossible.[309]

### Poverty, inequality, and wealth distribution

[edit]

Main article: Poverty in South Africa

A view of an informal settlement in Valhalla Park, Cape Town. The lasting impact of apartheid, combined with high unemployment and severe inequality, continues to drive violence, substance abuse, and gang activity in many communities

Despite being the most industrialised economy on the African continent, South Africa continues to grapple with deep-rooted poverty and stark economic inequality. Unlike many other developing countries, South Africa has a relatively small informal economy—only about 15% of jobs are in the informal sector, compared to nearly 50% in Brazil and India, and close to 75% in Indonesia. According to the OECD, this limited informal activity is partly due to the country's extensive social welfare system, which provides basic income support to millions of citizens.[311] World Bank data highlights a significant discrepancy between South Africa's GDP per capita and its Human Development Index (HDI) ranking—one of the largest gaps globally, second only to Botswana.[312]

Approximately 55.5% of South Africans (about 30.3 million people) live below the upper-bound poverty line, while 13.8 million (25%) face food poverty. Despite its high GDP per capita compared to other African nations, poverty and inequality remain widespread. As of 2015, the wealthiest 10% held 71% of national wealth, while the poorest 60% held just 7%. With a Gini coefficient of 0.63, South Africa ranks among the most unequal societies in the world. The government has introduced measures like social grants and minimum wage laws to address the issue of inequality, but progress has been slow and uneven.[313][33]

In terms of wealth, South Africa ranks 40th globally, and with a total private wealth estimated at US$651 billion—the highest on the African continent, making South Africans, on average, the wealthiest in Africa. However, much of this wealth remains concentrated among a small percentage of the population, underscoring the gap between economic potential and widespread prosperity.[314]

### Tourism

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Tourism in South Africa.[edit]

Tourists taking in the view of Cape Town and Table Mountain, from Robben Island

South Africa is a major global tourist destination, with the tourism industry accounting for 3.3% of the country's GDP as of May 2025, according to Statistics South Africa (Stats SA).[315]

In 2024, South Africa experienced a growth in tourism numbers, with combined passenger arrivals through its various ports of entry increasing to 8.92 million people.[315]

In 2025, South Africa was rated as the 4th best country in the world for tourism, as well as the best in the Africa and Indian Ocean region, by The Telegraph.[316]

According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), the tourism industry directly contributed R102 billion to South Africa's GDP in 2012, and supports 10.3% of the country's employment.[317] 1.8 million people were employed in South Africa's tourism sector in early 2025, and this number is expected to grow significantly over the coming few years.[315]

South Africa offers both domestic and international tourists a wide variety of options, among others the picturesque natural landscape and game reserves, diverse cultural heritage and highly regarded wines. Some of the most popular destinations include several national parks, such as the expansive Kruger National Park in the north of the country, the coastlines and beaches of the KwaZulu-Natal and Western Cape provinces, and the major cities of Cape Town, Durban, and Johannesburg.

The top five overseas countries with the largest number of tourists visiting South Africa in 2017 were the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and France. Most of the tourists arriving in South Africa from elsewhere in Africa came from Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. In terms of tourists from SADC countries, Zimbabwe topped the list at 31%, followed by Lesotho, Mozambique, Eswatini, and Botswana. In addition, Nigeria was the country of origin for nearly 30% of tourists arriving in South Africa.[318]

## Infrastructure

[edit]

### Transport

[edit]

Main article: Transport in South Africa

South Africa has the largest and most developed transportation infrastructure in Africa. Its road, rail, air, and maritime networks play a critical role in the country's economic activity and regional integration.

A Metrorail train on the Southern Line departing from Kalk Bay station in Cape Town

South African Airways (SAA), the flag carrier of South Africa, at London Heathrow Airport

The Port of Durban is the largest and busiest shipping terminal in sub-Saharan Africa

The country has the largest road network on the continent—about 750,000 km in total—making it the 10th-largest in the world.[319] While the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL) maintains over 22,000 km of national roads, provinces and municipalities are responsible for the rest. With over 12 million registered vehicles and a road density of 16 vehicles per kilometre, urban areas experience high traffic congestion. Major expressways, including the N1, N2, N3, and N4, connect key cities and form part of transcontinental routes like the Cape to Cairo Highway. Despite this, road safety is a major concern due to poor conditions, speeding, and inadequate enforcement.[320]

South Africa also has the largest and most developed railway network in Africa, and the 9th-largest in the world, with a total track length of approximately 31,000 km as of 2025.[321] Freight rail is dominated by Transnet Freight Rail, Africa's largest freight rail company and South Africa's second-largest state-owned enterprise, while commuter services are handled by the Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA).[322][323] PRASA operates extensive Metrorail services in major urban areas, including the Southern Line in Cape Town. The Gautrain, a modern higher-speed rail system that connects Johannesburg and Pretoria. South Africa is also exploring the development of future high-speed bullet trains to enhance national and regional connectivity, with the first line expected to launch in 2030.[324][325]

As of 2025, South Africa has 573 airports, making it the leading country in Africa by number of airports and 13th globally.[326][327] The country is served by four major international hubs: O.R. Tambo International Airport (Johannesburg), Cape Town International Airport, King Shaka International Airport (Durban), and Chief Dawid Stuurman International Airport (Gqeberha). O.R. Tambo is the largest and busiest airport in Africa, handling over 21 million passengers annually.[328] In 2025, Cape Town International Airport was ranked the best airport in the world by the AirHelp Score index.[329][330] South Africa's airline industry operates a diverse fleet of around 195 aircraft across major airline carriers such as South African Airways (SAA), Airlink, FlySafair, CemAir, and LIFT—making it the largest and most developed aviation market on the continent.[331][332]

South Africa has one of Africa's most important maritime sectors, with major commercial ports located in Durban, Cape Town, Gqeberha, Richards Bay, Saldanha Bay, and East London. The Port of Durban is the largest and busiest container port in sub-Saharan Africa, and the fourth-largest in the Southern Hemisphere, handling approximately 4.5 million TEUs in 2019.[333][334] The Port of Richards Bay is among the continent's largest bulk export facilities.[335] The Port of Cape Town is also a major hub for exports, shipping, and cruise tourism, the city also hosts the largest naval facility in Africa.[336] Port operations are managed by the Transnet National Ports Authority, which plays a crucial role in supporting both domestic logistics and international trade.[337]

### Energy

[edit]

Main article: Energy in South Africa

Further information: List of power stations in South Africa

The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station in Cape Town is the only nuclear power plant in Africa.

South Africa has the largest and most advanced energy sector in Africa, and remains the only country on the continent with a nuclear power plant.[338] It is the largest producer of electricity in Africa and it ranks 21st globally.[339] The country is also the world's 7th-largest coal producer, generating over 248 million tonnes annually and consuming nearly three-quarters of it domestically. Approximately 77% of South Africa's energy needs is derived from coal, and it produces 92% of the coal used across the African continent. As a result of its coal-heavy energy profile, South Africa is also the world's 14th-largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[340]

The South African state-owned utility Eskom—Africa's largest energy company—generates roughly 90% of the country's electricity through a mix of coal, nuclear, and renewable power stations.[341][342] Eskom ranks among the top seven energy-producing companies in the world by generation capacity, and is also within the top nine globally in terms of electricity sales.[343] In 2001, Eskom was once regarded as the best electricity utility in the world before the onset of the country's more recent energy challenges.[344]

South Africa currently operates 14 coal-fired power stations, all located in the country's eastern provinces due to the abundant coal reserves in those regions. These include some of the largest and most advanced facilities in the world, such as the Medupi, Kusile, Majuba, Kendal, Tutuka, and Lethabo coal-fired power plants. It also has one nuclear power station—Koeberg, located just north of Cape Town—which remains the first and only nuclear plant in Africa. Commissioned in the 1980s, Koeberg has two nuclear reactors that together provide about 5% of the country's electricity, and the government has plans to expand nuclear capacity with new nuclear power plants for the Cape provinces. In addition, there are more than 30 wind farms in operation, mostly located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape. The country also hosts numerous solar photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, particularly in the Northern Cape province, along with six hydroelectric pumped-storage dams, including the Drakensberg and Palmiet stations.

#### Electricity

[edit]

Main articles: Eskom and South African energy crisis

Duvha Power Station, located near Witbank, Mpumalanga. South Africa relies heavily on coal-fired power stations for electricity, and as the 7th-largest coal producer, it is home to some of the largest coal-fired power plants in the world.[345]

As of 2025, approximately 94% of all South Africans have access to electricity—a major increase from just 36% in 1994.[346] However, despite this progress, the country has grappled with an energy crisis for more than a decade, which has severely impacted economic growth, disrupted daily life, and placed a heavy burden on businesses through increased costs and operational uncertainty.

Eskom, the state-owned power utility, that generates around 90% of South Africa's electricity, primarily from coal-fired power stations, has been severely affected by years of corruption, mismanagement and state capture, leaving it with a debt of over R392 billion (US$22 billion).[347] Due to this, Eskom introduced load shedding—scheduled, rolling blackouts—for the first time in 2007 to prevent total grid collapse when the demand for electricity strains the capacity of Eskom's power generating system. These outages typically last two hours in one session, but can extend to four during higher stages.[348] The situation became so routine that a mobile app, EskomSePush, was developed to notify South Africans of load shedding schedules in their specific areas.[349]

The crisis deepened during the tenure of CEO André de Ruyter (2019–2023), who attempted to reform Eskom while facing fierce internal resistance. He publicly alleged that criminal cartels, some even involving Eskom staff and contractors,[350] were sabotaging energy infrastructure for financial gain.[351] Employees were found to have tampered with systems, while rogue coal suppliers deliberately dump rocks or rubble into a coal power plant's boiler feed systems,[352] leading to severe damage and shutdowns bringing electricity generation at the power station to a halt.[353] In some cases, breakdowns mysteriously ceased after wage increases, raising concerns of extortion and internal blackmail within the utility.[354]

In December 2022, a week after De Ruyter announced his resignation from Eskom due to security threats and assassination attempts,[355][356] President Cyril Ramaphosa declared the energy crisis a national state of disaster. In response, the South African Army and specialised police units were deployed to secure key Eskom power stations,[357] resulting in the arrests of numerous Eskom employees involved in theft, sabotage, and corruption.[358][359] The government's recovery efforts included stepped-up maintenance of coal power plants and major infrastructure projects such as Project Alpha (Medupi) and Project Bravo (Kusile), two of the largest coal-fired thermal power plants in the world, are set to be completed and fully operational by the end of 2025, following nearly a decade of construction.[360][361][362] To reduce reliance on coal, the country has also expanded its energy mix through solar and wind power from independent producers (IPPs),[363] alongside long-term plans to grow its nuclear energy capacity.[364]

By March 2024, South Africa had achieved a stable electricity supply for the first time in over a decade, with power cuts suspended. In 2023 alone, the country experienced 289 days of power cuts, up from 157 in 2022—highlighting the depth of the crisis and its cost to businesses and households. Recent improvements are largely credited to better management within Eskom and increased political oversight by the Minister of Electricity and the Presidency.

### Telecommunications

[edit]

Main articles: Telecommunications in South Africa and Internet in South Africa

An MTN building in Nigeria. MTN is a South African multinational telecom giant, the largest in Africa and among the world's leading mobile network operators, active in over 20 countries

South Africa has the most advanced telecommunications sector in Africa, regulated by the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA). The country serves as a regional hub for connectivity and digital services, with high mobile penetration and expanding internet access.[365]

The mobile network market is dominated by South African-based operators such as Vodacom, MTN, Telkom, Cell C, and Rain. These providers offer a range of services including 2G, 3G, 4G/LTE, and 5G. By 2024, mobile subscriptions exceeded the population, and internet usage reached over 72%. Notably, MTN Group is the largest mobile network operator in Africa and the 10th-largest in the world measured by subscriptions—reportedly reaching around 290 million users in December 2022.[366] MTN was also the first provider in Africa to launch 5G, alongside Vodacom and Rain.[367][368]

Fixed-line services, mainly provided by Telkom, have declined due to mobile alternatives. However, fiber-optic broadband is expanding rapidly in urban and suburban regions through companies like Openserve, Vumatel, Frogfoot, Octotel, and MetroFibre.[369]

South Africa also has access to satellite internet services, particularly in remote or underserved regions. While local providers offer satellite broadband on a limited scale, demand for low-Earth orbit (LEO) internet solutions such as Starlink has been growing. However, Starlink is currently not available in South Africa due to regulatory issues.[370]

The country has a diverse media landscape, including the public broadcaster SABC, private free-to-air channel E.tv, and satellite TV giant MultiChoice, which operates DStv across sub-Saharan Africa. South Africa has partially rolled out digital terrestrial television (DTT), though full migration from analogue has been delayed.[371]

South Africa also hosts key undersea cable connections like WACS, SAT-3, Seacom, and 2Africa, which support international internet traffic.[372]

### Water supply and sanitation

[edit]

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in South Africa

Vanderkloof Dam, the 2nd-largest dam in South Africa

Two distinctive features of the South African water sector are the policy of free basic water and the existence of water boards, which are bulk water supply agencies that operate pipelines and sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. These features have led to significant problems concerning the financial sustainability of service providers, leading to a lack of attention to maintenance. Following the end of apartheid, the country had made improvements in the levels of access to water as those with access increased from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.[373] Sanitation access increased from 71% to 79% during the same period.[373] However, water supply and sanitation has come under increasing pressure in recent years despite a commitment made by the government to improve service standards and provide investment subsidies to the water industry.[374]

The eastern parts of South Africa suffer from periodic droughts linked to the El Niño weather phenomenon.[375] In early 2018, Cape Town, which has different weather patterns to the rest of the country,[375] faced a water crisis as the city's water supply was predicted to run dry before the end of June. Water-saving measures were in effect that required each citizen to use less than 50 litres (13 US gal) per day.[376] Cape Town rejected an offer from Israel to help it build desalination plants.[377][378][379][380]

## Culture

[edit]

Main article: Culture of South Africa

The South African black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people that cultural traditions survive most strongly; as black people have become increasingly urbanised and Westernised, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Members of the middle class, who have historically been predominantly white but whose ranks include growing numbers of black, Coloured and Indian people,[381][382] have lifestyles similar in many respects to that of people found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia.

### Arts

[edit]

Rock painting by the San people, Cederberg

South African art includes the oldest art objects in the world, which were discovered in a South African cave and dated from roughly 75,000 years ago.[383] The scattered tribes of the Khoisan peoples moving into South Africa from around 10,000 BC had their own fluent art styles seen today in a multitude of cave paintings. They were superseded by the Bantu/Nguni peoples with their own vocabularies of art forms. Forms of art evolved in the mines and townships: a dynamic art using everything from plastic strips to bicycle spokes. The Dutch-influenced folk art of the Afrikaner trekboers and the urban white artists, earnestly following changing European traditions from the 1850s onwards, also contributed to this eclectic mix which continues to evolve to this day.

### Popular culture

[edit]

Further information: Music of South Africa

The South African media sector is large, and South Africa is one of Africa's major media centres. While the many broadcasters and publications reflect the diversity of the population as a whole, the most commonly used language is English. However, all ten other official languages are represented to some extent.

There is great diversity in South African music. Black musicians have developed unique styles called Kwaito and Amapiano, that is said to have taken over radio, television, and magazines.[384] Of note is Brenda Fassie, who launched to fame with her song "Weekend Special", which was sung in English. More famous traditional musicians include Ladysmith Black Mambazo, while the Soweto String Quartet performs classical music with an African flavour. South Africa has produced world-famous jazz musicians, notably Hugh Masekela, Jonas Gwangwa, Abdullah Ibrahim, Miriam Makeba, Jonathan Butler, Chris McGregor, and Sathima Bea Benjamin. Afrikaans music covers multiple genres, such as the contemporary Steve Hofmeyr, the punk rock band Fokofpolisiekar, and the singer-songwriter Jeremy Loops. South African popular musicians that have found international success include Manfred Mann, Johnny Clegg, rap-rave duo Die Antwoord, Tyla, and rock band Seether. Rappers such as AKA, Nasty C and Cassper Nyovest gained notoriety in other avenues like the BET Awards for best African acts.

Zulus perform a traditional dance.

Although few South African film productions are known outside South Africa, many foreign films have been produced about South Africa. Arguably, the most high-profile film portraying South Africa in recent years was District 9, as well as Chappie. Other notable exceptions are the film Tsotsi, which won the Academy Award for Foreign Language Film at the 78th Academy Awards in 2006, as well as U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha, which won the Golden Bear at the 2005 Berlin International Film Festival. In 2015, the Oliver Hermanus film The Endless River became the first South African film selected for the Venice Film Festival.

### Literature

[edit]

Main article: South African literature

Sol Plaatje

Alan Paton

Archibald Campbell Jordan

Breyten Breytenbach

South African literature emerged from a unique social and political history. One of the first well-known novels written by a black author in an African language was Solomon Thekiso Plaatje's Mhudi, written in 1930. During the 1950s, Drum magazine became a hotbed of political satire, fiction, and essays, giving a voice to the urban black culture.

Notable white South African authors include anti-apartheid activist Alan Paton, who published the novel Cry, the Beloved Country in 1948. Nadine Gordimer became the first South African to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1991. J.M. Coetzee won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2003. When awarding the prize, the Swedish Academy stated that Coetzee "in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider."[385]

The plays of Athol Fugard have been regularly premiered in fringe theatres in South Africa, London (Royal Court Theatre) and New York. Olive Schreiner's The Story of an African Farm (1883) was a revelation in Victorian literature: it is heralded by many as introducing feminism into the novel form.

Breyten Breytenbach was jailed for his involvement with the guerrilla movement against apartheid.[386] André Brink was the first Afrikaner writer to be banned by the government after he released the novel A Dry White Season.[387]

### Cuisine

[edit]

Main article: South African cuisine

See also: South African wine

Milk tart, a traditional South African dessert made with a creamy custard filling

South African cuisine is diverse and reflects the country's multicultural heritage, incorporating influences from indigenous African, Dutch, British, Indian, and Cape Malay culinary traditions. Meat plays a central role in many dishes, with the braai—a South African variation of the barbecue—serving as a popular social custom across communities. Common braai staples include boerewors (spiced sausage), lamb chops, steak, pap (maize porridge), and chakalaka (spicy relish).

Traditional dishes include bobotie, a curried minced meat dish with an egg-based topping; bunny chow, a hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with curry, originating in Durban; and potjiekos, a slow-cooked stew prepared in a cast-iron pot over open flame. Street foods such as vetkoek, gatsby sandwiches, samoosas, and biltong (air-dried cured meat) are widely consumed. Popular desserts include milk tart and koeksisters.

A Nando's outlet in London, United Kingdom. Nando's is a South African multinational fast food chain known for its flame-grilled peri-peri chicken

South Africa is the origin of several successful multinational fast food chains. The most prominent is Nando's, founded in Johannesburg in 1987, which specializes in flame-grilled peri-peri chicken and operates more than 1,200 restaurants in over 30 countries worldwide.[287] Other notable South African fast-food franchises include Wimpy, Steers, Debonairs Pizza, and Chicken Licken, many of which have expanded into other parts of Africa and beyond.

In the beverage industry, Monster Energy, although marketed as an American brand, was co-founded by South African-born entrepreneur Rodney Sacks, who played a key role in establishing the drink's global presence.[388]

South Africa has also developed into a major wine producer, with some of the world's most renowned vineyards nestled in the scenic valleys of Stellenbosch, Franschhoek, Paarl, and Barrydale. These regions attract both local and international wine lovers, contributing to a flourishing culinary tourism industry that celebrates the country's food and drink as an essential part of the South African experience.[389]

### Sports

[edit]

Main article: Sport in South Africa

Cape Town Stadium is the 5th-largest stadium in South Africa, with a capacity of 55,000.

Sport plays a significant role in South African culture, and the country's most popular sports are soccer, rugby union and cricket.[390] Other sports with notable support are swimming, athletics, golf, boxing, mixed martial arts, tennis, ringball, field hockey, surfing and netball.[391]

Soccer is the most popular sport in South Africa.[392][393][394] South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup.[395] It hosted the 1996 African Cup of Nations, with the national team Bafana Bafana going on to win the tournament. South Africa's men's U-20 team also won the 2025 U-20 Africa Cup of Nations. In 2022, the women's team also won the Women's Africa Cup of Nations, beating Morocco 2–1 in the final. The women's team went on to reach the last 16 at the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, beating Italy and tying with Argentina in the group stage.

Famous combat sport personalities include Baby Jake Jacob Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Corrie Sanders, Gerrie Coetzee, Brian Mitchell, Garreth McLellan and current UFC Middleweight Champion Dricus du Plessis. Durban surfer Jordy Smith won the 2010 Billabong J-Bay Open making him the highest ranked surfer in the world. South Africa produced Formula One motor racing's 1979 world champion Jody Scheckter. Famous active Grand Prix motorcycle racing personalities include Brad Binder and his younger brother Darryn Binder.

The Springboks on their tour of the country after winning the 2019 Rugby World Cup

South Africa has won the Rugby World Cup four times, the most wins of any country. South Africa first won the 1995 Rugby World Cup, which it hosted. They went on to win the tournament again in 2007, 2019 and 2023.[396]

Cricket is one of the most played sports in South Africa. It has hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 World Twenty20 Championship. South Africa's national cricket team, the Proteas, have also won the inaugural edition of the 1998 ICC KnockOut Trophy by defeating West Indies in the final. The 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup was hosted in South Africa and the women's team won silver. The men's team won silver at the 2024 ICC T20 World Cup, and won the 2023–2025 ICC World Test Championship, beating Australia in the final. South Africa's national blind cricket team also went on to win the inaugural edition of the Blind Cricket World Cup in 1998.[397]

In 2004, the swimming team of Roland Schoeman, Lyndon Ferns, Darian Townsend and Ryk Neethling won the gold medal at the Olympic Games in Athens, simultaneously breaking the world record in the 4×100 Freestyle Relay. Penny Heyns won Olympic Gold in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, and more recently, swimmers Tatjana Smith (née Schoenmaker), Lara van Niekerk, Akani Simbine and Wayde van Niekerk have all broken records and won medals at both the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, with Wayde van Niekerk being the world record holder in 400 metres since 2016. In 2012, Oscar Pistorius became the first double amputee sprinter to compete at the Olympic Games in London. Gary Player is regarded as one of the greatest golfers of all time, having won the Career Grand Slam, one of five to have done so.[398]

## See also

[edit]

* South Africa portal

* Timeline of South Africa
* Outline of South Africa

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Pretoria serves as the executive capital of South Africa, hosting the Union Buildings and the offices of the President and Cabinet.[3]
2. ^ Cape Town is the legislative capital, home to the Parliament of South Africa, including the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces.[3]
3. ^ Bloemfontein serves as the judicial capital, hosting the Supreme Court of Appeal, the highest court for non-constitutional matters in South Africa.[3]
4. ^ Cape Agulhas is the geographical southernmost point of the African continent, marking the southern extremity of the Republic of South Africa.[16][17]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* A History of South Africa, Third Edition. Leonard Thompson. Yale University Press. 2001. 384 pages. ISBN 0-300-08776-4.
* Economic Analysis and Policy Formulation for Post-Apartheid South Africa: Mission Report, Aug. 1991. International Development Research Centre. IDRC Canada, 1991. vi, 46 p. Without ISBN.
* Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City. Richard Tomlinson, et al. 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0-415-93559-8
* Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid. Nigel Worden. 2000. 194 pages. ISBN 0-631-21661-8.
* South Africa: A Narrative History. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. 1999. 606 pages. ISBN 1-56836-258-7
* South Africa in Contemporary Times. Godfrey Mwakikagile. New Africa Press. 2008. 260 pages. ISBN 978-0-9802587-3-8.
* The Atlas of Changing South Africa. A. J. Christopher. 2000. 216 pages. ISBN 0-415-21178-6.
* The Politics of the New South Africa. Heather Deegan. 2000. 256 pages. ISBN 0-582-38227-0.
* Twentieth-Century South Africa. William Beinart Oxford University Press 2001, 414 pages, ISBN 0-19-289318-1.

## External links

[edit]

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* Madagascar
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Seychelles
* Somalia
* Somaliland
* South Africa
* Sudan
* Tanzania

Asia|

* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Christmas Island (Australia)
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia)
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Jordan
* Kuwait
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Myanmar
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen

Other|

* Antarctica
* Australian Antarctic Territory
* French Southern and Antarctic Lands
* Heard Island and McDonald Islands
* Australia

* v
* t
* e

Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories

* Argentina
* Australia
* Heard Island and McDonald Islands
* Macquarie Island
* Bouvet Island
* Chile
* Falkland Islands
* French Southern Territories
* Amsterdam Island
* Crozet Islands
* Kerguelen Islands
* Saint Paul Island
* New Zealand
* NZ Subantarctic Islands
* South Africa
* Prince Edward Islands
* South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

"Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the Antarctic") does not include territorial claims in Antarctica itself.

* v
* t
* e

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations

Sovereign states
(members)|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Australia
* Bahamas
* Bangladesh
* Barbados
* Belize
* Botswana
* Brunei
* Cameroon
* Canada
* Cyprus
* Dominica
* Eswatini (Swaziland)
* Fiji
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Grenada
* Guyana
* India
* Jamaica
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* Lesotho
* Malawi
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Malta
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Pakistan
* Papua New Guinea
* Rwanda
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Samoa
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Singapore
* Solomon Islands
* South Africa
* Sri Lanka
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tonga
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Tuvalu
* Uganda
* United Kingdom
* Vanuatu
* Zambia

Associated states|

* Cook Islands
* Niue

Dependent territories|

| Australia|

* Ashmore and Cartier Islands
* Australian Antarctic Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Coral Sea Islands
* Heard Island and McDonald Islands
* Norfolk Island

|

New Zealand|

* Ross Dependency
* Tokelau

United Kingdom|

* Akrotiri and Dhekelia
* Anguilla
* Bermuda
* British Antarctic Territory
* British Indian Ocean Territory
* British Virgin Islands
* Cayman Islands
* Falkland Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Montserrat
* Pitcairn Islands
* Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
* South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
* Turks and Caicos Islands

Source: Commonwealth Secretariat – Member Countries

* v
* t
* e

English-speaking world

English speaking countries

Further links

| Articles|

* English-speaking world
* History of the English language
* British Empire
* English in the Commonwealth of Nations
* Anglosphere

|

Lists|

* List of countries by English-speaking population
* List of countries where English is an official language

|  |

* Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority

Africa|

* Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Americas|

* Anguilla
* Antigua and Barbuda
* The Bahamas
* Barbados
* Belize
* Bermuda
* British Virgin Islands
* Canada
* Cayman Islands
* Dominica
* Falkland Islands
* Grenada
* Guyana
* Jamaica
* Montserrat
* Saba
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Sint Eustatius
* Sint Maarten
* South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Turks and Caicos Islands
* United States
* United States Virgin Islands

Europe|

* Guernsey
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* United Kingdom

Oceania|

* Australia
* New Zealand
* Norfolk Island
* Pitcairn Islands

* Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language

Africa|

* Botswana
* Cameroon
* Eswatini
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Malawi
* Mauritius
* Namibia
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* Sierra Leone
* Somaliland
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

Americas|

* Puerto Rico

Asia|

* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Hong Kong
* India
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Singapore

Europe|

* Gibraltar
* Akrotiri and Dhekelia
* Malta

Oceania|

* American Samoa
* Cook Islands
* Fiji
* Guam
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* Niue
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tokelau
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Dependencies shown in italics.

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* 2
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Australia
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Portugal
* Norway
* Chile
* Argentina
* Korea
* Vatican
* Israel

Geographic|

* MusicBrainz area

Academics|

* CiNii

Artists|

* KulturNav

People|

* Trove
* UK Parliament

Other|

* IdRef
* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* NARA
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

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