South Sudan

Country in East Africa

This article is about the sovereign country established in 2011. For similarly named topics, see Southern Sudan (disambiguation).

"RoSS" redirects here. For other uses, see Ross.

Republic of South Sudan

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: "Justice, Liberty, Prosperity"
Anthem: "South Sudan Oyee!"

Location of the Republic of South Sudan

Territory claimed but not controlled

Capital

and largest city

| Juba
04°51′N 31°34′E﻿ / ﻿4.850°N 31.567°E﻿ / 4.850; 31.567
Official languages| English[1]
Recognised national languages|

* Dinka
* Nuer
* Bari
* Murle
* Luo (Anyuak, Acholi, Shilluk, Pari, Jur-Luo, others)
* Ma'di
* Otuho
* Zande

and around 60 other languages[note 1]
Spoken languages[3]|

* Dinka
* Bari
* Juba Arabic[4][5][6][7]
* Nuer
* Zande
* Jur (Luo)
* Murle
* Shilluk
* various others

Religion

(2020)[8][9]

* 60.5% Christianity
* 32.9% traditional faiths
* 6.2% Islam
* 0.4% others / none

Demonym(s)| South Sudanese
Government| Federal presidential republic under a provisional government

• President

| Salva Kiir Mayardit

• First Vice President

| Riek Machar

• Speaker

| Jemma Nunu Kumba

• Chief Justice

| Benjamin Baak Deng
Legislature| Transitional National Legislature

• Upper house

| Transitional Council of States

• Lower house

| Reconstituted Transitional National Legislative Assembly
Independence

from Sudan

• Autonomy

| 9 July 2005

• Declared and recognized

| 9 July 2011
Area

• Total

| 644,329[8] km2 (248,777 sq mi) (41st)
Population

• 2024 estimate

|  12,703,714[8] (80th)

• Density

| 13.33/km2 (34.5/sq mi) (214th)
GDP (PPP)| 2022 estimate

• Total

|  $13.6 billion[10] (157th)

• Per capita

|  $934[10] (191st)
GDP (nominal)| 2022 estimate

• Total

|  $4.7 billion[10] (164th)

• Per capita

|  $326[10] (194th)
Gini (2016)|  44.1[11]
medium inequality
HDI (2023)|  0.388[12]
low (193rd)
Currency| South Sudanese pound (SSP)
Time zone| UTC+2 (CAT)
Calling code| +211[13]
ISO 3166 code| SS
Internet TLD| .ss[a][14]

1. ^ Registered and operational since 2019.

South Sudan (/suːˈdɑːn, -ˈdæn/), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa.[16] It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the west by the Central African Republic. South Sudan's diverse landscape includes vast plains and plateaus, dry and tropical savannahs, inland floodplains, and forested mountains. The Nile River system is the defining physical feature of the country, running south to north across its center, which is dominated by a large swamp known as the Sudd. South Sudan has an estimated population of just over 12.7 million in 2024. Juba is the capital and largest city.

Sudan was occupied by Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and governed as an Anglo-Egyptian condominium until Sudanese independence in 1956. Following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon broke out in 1983 and ended in 2005 with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following 98.8% support for independence in a January 2011 referendum.[17][18] It is the most recent sovereign state with widespread recognition as of 2025[update].[19] South Sudan descended into a civil war from 2013 to 2020, enduring rampant human rights abuses, including forced displacement, ethnic massacres, and killings of journalists by various parties. It has since been governed by a coalition formed by leaders of the former warring factions, Salva Kiir Mayardit and Riek Machar.[20] The country continues to recover from the war while experiencing ongoing and systemic ethnic violence.[21]

The South Sudanese population is composed mostly of Nilotic peoples spanning a variety of ethnic, tribal, and linguistic groups. It is demographically among the youngest nations in the world, with roughly half its people under 18 years old.[22] The majority of inhabitants adhere to Christianity or various traditional indigenous faiths, with a sizeable Muslim minority.

South Sudan is a member of the United Nations,[23][24] African Union,[25] East African Community,[26] and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development.[27] It is one of the least developed countries in the world, ranking the lowest in the Human Development Index, and having the second-lowest nominal GDP per capita, after Burundi.[28]

## Etymology

[edit]

The name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān (بلاد السودان), or the "Land of the Blacks".[29] The term was first used by Arab traders, historians and geographers.[30]

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of South Sudan

The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Dinka, Anyuak, Bari, Acholi, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi (Arabic Feroghe), and others—first entered South Sudan sometime before the tenth century, coinciding with the fall of medieval Nubia. From the 15th to the 19th century, tribal migrations, largely from the area of Bahr el Ghazal, brought the Anyuak, Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk to their modern locations in Bahr El Ghazal and the Upper Nile Region, while the Acholi and Bari settled in Equatoria. The Zande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state of Equatoria Region.[citation needed]

Of South Sudan's ethnic groups The Dinka are the largest, the Nuer the second-largest, the Zande the third-largest, and the Bari the fourth-largest. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, the Adio of Azande client in Yei, Central Equatoria, and Western Bahr el Ghazal. In the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society, a domination that continued into the 20th century.[31] British policies favouring Christian missionaries, such as the Closed District Ordinance of 1922 (see History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), and geographical barriers such as the swamplands along the White Nile curtailed the spread of Islam to the south, thus allowing the southern tribes to retain much of their political and religious institutions.

British colonial policy in Sudan had a long history of emphasizing the development of the Arabized north and largely ignoring the non-Arabized south, which lacked schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, and other basic infrastructure. After Sudan's first independent elections in 1958, the continued neglect of the southern region by the Khartoum government led to uprisings, revolts, and the longest civil war on the continent.[32][33] People affected by the violence included the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Anyuak, Murle, Bari, Mundari, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Boya, Didinga, Jiye, Kakwa, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Nilotic, Toposa, and Zande.[34]

The Azande have had good relations with their neighbours, namely the Moru, Mundu, Pöjulu, Avukaya, Baka, and the small groups in Bahr el Ghazal, due to the expansionist policy of their king Gbudwe, in the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians and the Mahdists to maintain their independence. Ottoman Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypt's first appointed governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, and by Emin Pasha in 1878.[35]

The Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile, and Wadelai. European colonial manoeuvrings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok; Britain and France almost went to war over the region.[35] Britain then treated South Sudan as a distinct entity with a different stage of development than the North. This policy was legalized in 1930 by the announcement of the Southern Policy. In 1946, without consulting Southern opinion, the British administration reversed its Southern Policy and began instead to implement a policy of uniting the North and the South.[36]

The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence: from 1955 to 1972, the Sudanese government fought the Anyanya rebel army (Anya-Nya is a term in the Madi language which means "snake venom")[37] during the First Sudanese Civil War, followed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) in the Second Sudanese Civil War for over twenty years, from 1983 to 2005. As a result, the country suffered serious neglect, a lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2.5 million people have been killed, and millions more have become refugees both within and outside the country.

South Sudan has an estimated population of 11 million people in 2023,[38][better source needed] but, given the lack of a census in several decades, this estimate may be severely distorted. The economy is predominantly rural and relies chiefly on subsistence farming.[39][40] Around 2005, the economy began a transition from this rural dominance, and urban areas within South Sudan have seen extensive development.

### Independence (2011)

[edit]

A South Sudanese girl at independence festivities

Between 9 and 15 January 2011, as a consequence of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the South Sudanese independence referendum was held to determine whether South Sudan should become an independent country, separate from Sudan. Following that, 98.83% of those who took part in the referendum voted for separation or independence.[41] And on 23 January 2011, members of a steering committee on post-independence governing told reporters that upon independence the land would be named the Republic of South Sudan "out of familiarity and convenience". Other names that had been considered were Azania, Nile Republic, Kush Republic and even Juwama, a portmanteau for Juba, Wau and Malakal, three major cities.[42] South Sudan formally became independent from Sudan on 9 July, although certain disputes still remained, including the division of oil revenues, as 75% of all the former Sudan's oil reserves are in South Sudan.[43] As of March 2025, the region of Abyei still remains disputed. A separate referendum was to be held in Abyei on whether they want to join Sudan or South Sudan;[44] however an official referendum was never held.[45][46] The South Kordofan conflict broke out in June 2011 between the Army of Sudan and the SPLA over the Nuba Mountains.

On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th independent country in Africa[47] (9 July is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday[48]) and since 14 July 2011, South Sudan is the 193rd member of the United Nations.[49] On 27 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th country to join the African Union.[50][51] In September 2011, Google Maps recognized South Sudan as an independent country, after a massive crowdsourcing mapping initiative was launched.[52]

In 2011 it was reported that South Sudan was at war with at least seven armed groups in 9 of its 10 states, with tens of thousands displaced.[53] The fighters accuse the government of plotting to stay in power indefinitely, not fairly representing and supporting all tribal groups while neglecting development in rural areas.[53][54] The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) also operates in a wide area that includes South Sudan.

Inter-ethnic warfare in some cases predates the war of independence and is widespread. In December 2011, tribal clashes intensified between the Nuer White Army of the Lou Nuer and the Murle.[55] The White Army warned it would wipe out the Murle and would also fight South Sudanese and UN forces sent to the area around Pibor.[56]

In March 2012, South Sudanese forces seized the Heglig oil fields in lands claimed by both Sudan and South Sudan in the province of South Kordofan after conflict with Sudanese forces in the South Sudanese state of Unity.[57] South Sudan withdrew on 20 March, and the Sudanese Army entered Heglig two days later.

### Civil War (2013–2020)

[edit]

See also: South Sudanese Civil War

Further information: Ethnic violence in South Sudan

Military situation in South Sudan on 22 March 2020

Under control of the Government of South Sudan

Under control of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition

Under control of the Government of Sudan

On the 5th of September 2013, an article written by analyst Duop Chak Wuol was published by the US-based South Sudan News Agency (SSNA).[58] The writer raised critical questions surrounding what he described as the rise of autocracy within the top leadership of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and warned of monumental repercussions unless the ruling elites restored the founding principles of the party. Duop also berated the ruling party, arguing that the party has replaced its founding principles with "forgotten promises and deceptions". In December 2013, a political power struggle broke out between President Kiir and his former deputy Riek Machar, as the president accused Machar and ten others of attempting a coup d'état.[59] Fighting broke out, igniting the South Sudanese Civil War. Ugandan troops were deployed to fight alongside South Sudanese government forces against the rebels.[60] The United Nations has peacekeepers in the country as part of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). Numerous ceasefires were mediated by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and SPLM – in opposition and were subsequently broken. A peace agreement was signed in Ethiopia under threat of United Nations sanctions for both sides in August 2015.[61] Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was appointed vice president.[62] Following a second breakout of violence in Juba, Machar was replaced as vice-president[63] and he fled the country[64] as the conflict erupted again. Rebel in-fighting has become a major part of the conflict.[65] Rivalry among Dinka factions led by the President and Malong Awan has also led to fighting. In August 2018, another power-sharing agreement came into effect.[66]

About 400,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the war,[67] including notable atrocities such as the 2014 Bentiu massacre.[68] Although both men have supporters from across South Sudan's ethnic divides, subsequent fighting has been communal, with rebels targeting members of Kiir's Dinka ethnic group and government soldiers attacking Nuers.[69] More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million of those internally displaced, and about 2.5 million having fled to neighbouring countries, especially Uganda and Sudan.[70]

On 20 February 2020, Salva Kiir Mayardit and Riek Machar agreed to a peace deal;[71] further, a national unity government on 22 February 2020, as Machar was sworn in as the First Vice President of the country.[72]

Despite the official cessation of the civil war, violence between armed militia groups at the community level has continued in the country; according to Yasmin Sooka, Chair of the Commission of Human Rights in Sudan, the level of violence "far exceeds the violence between 2013 and 2019".[73]

### Admission into the EAC and planned democratic elections (2016–)

[edit]

South Sudan acceded to the Treaty of the East Africa Community on 15 April 2016 and became a full member on 15 August 2016.[74] South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Federal Republic of Somalia are the newest members of the East African Community.

The first democratic elections in South Sudan since the start of the civil war were scheduled for 2023 by the peace agreement that ended the war officially, but the transitional government and opposition agreed in 2022 to move them to late 2024 instead.[75] In September 2024, Kiir's office announced that the elections would be postponed an additional two years, to December 2026.[76]

### 2017 famine

[edit]

Further information: 2017 South Sudan famine

On 20 February 2017, South Sudan and the United Nations declared a famine in parts of former Unity State, with the warning that it could spread rapidly without further action. Over 100,000 people were affected. The UN World Food Programme said that 40% of the population of South Sudan, 4.9 million people, need food urgently.[77][78] U.N. officials said that President Salva Kiir Mayardit was blocking food deliveries to some areas.[79] Furthermore, UNICEF warned that more than 1 million children in South Sudan were subjected to malnutrition.[80]

An outbreak of fall armyworm further threatened sorghum and maize production by July 2017.[81]

### 2025 tensions

[edit]

In early March, clashes between the Army and the rebel Nuer White Army in the town of Nasir left dozens dead. On March 26, 2025, Vice President Riek Machar was arrested on orders of President Salva Kiir claiming he had instigated and supported the White Army, despite the White Army denying any ties. The arrest was met by a response from the SPLM-IO stating such an act violates the ceasefire that ended the South Sudanese civil war in 2020. Machar's arrest was accompanied by the mass sacking of his supporters, and the arrival of a unit from the Ugandan armed forces invited into the country by Kiir to help fight against the White Army.[82]

UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres stated that the "peace agreement is in shambles" and South Sudan is on "the edge of a collapse into civil war" while the African Union has sent a delegation to try and deescalate the conflict.[82]

## Geography

[edit]

Main article: Geography of South Sudan

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

Protected areas in South Sudan

South Sudan lies between latitudes 3° and 13°N, and longitudes 24° and 36°E. It is covered in tropical forest, swamps, and grassland. The White Nile passes through the country, passing by Juba.[83] The Sudd is formed by the White Nile, known locally as the Bahr al Jabal, meaning "Mountain Sea".[84]

South Sudan's protected area of Bandingilo National Park hosts the second-largest wildlife migration in the world. Surveys have revealed that Boma National Park, west of the Ethiopian border, as well as the Sudd wetland and Southern National Park near the border with Congo, provided habitat for large populations of hartebeest, kob, topi, buffalo, elephants, giraffes, and lions.

South Sudan's forest reserves also provided habitat for bongo, giant forest hogs, red river hogs, forest elephants, chimpanzees, and forest monkeys. Surveys begun in 2005 by WCS in partnership with the semi-autonomous government of Southern Sudan revealed that significant, though diminished wildlife populations still exist, and that, astonishingly, the huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast is substantially intact.

Habitats in the country include grasslands, high-altitude plateaus and escarpments, wooded and grassy savannas, floodplains, and wetlands. Associated wildlife species include the endemic white-eared kob and Nile Lechwe, as well as elephants, giraffes, common eland, giant eland, oryx, lions, African wild dogs, cape buffalo, and topi (locally called tiang). Little is known about the white-eared kob and tiang, both types of antelope, whose magnificent migrations were legendary before the civil war. The Boma-Jonglei Landscape region encompasses Boma National Park, broad pasturelands and floodplains, Bandingilo National Park, and the Sudd, a vast area of swamp and seasonally flooded grasslands that includes the Zeraf Wildlife Reserve.

Settlement on Sudd flooded grassland

Little is known of the fungi of South Sudan. A list of fungi in Sudan was prepared by S. A. J. Tarr and published by the then Commonwealth Mycological Institute (Kew, Surrey, UK) in 1955. The list, of 383 species in 175 genera, included all fungi observed within the then boundaries of the country. Many of those records relate to what is now South Sudan. Most of the species recorded were associated with diseases of crops. The true number of species of fungi in South Sudan is probably much higher.[citation needed]

In 2006, President Kiir announced that his government would do everything possible to protect and propagate South Sudanese fauna and flora, and seek to reduce the effects of wildfires, waste dumping, and water pollution. The environment is threatened by the development of the economy and infrastructure. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.45/10, ranking it fourth globally out of 172 countries.[85]

Several ecoregions extend across South Sudan: the East Sudanian savanna, Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic, Saharan flooded grasslands (Sudd), Sahelian Acacia savanna, East African montane forests, and the Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets.[86]

### Climate

[edit]

South Sudan map of Köppen climate classification

See also: 2024 South Sudan floods

South Sudan has a tropical climate, characterized by a rainy season of high humidity and large amounts of rainfall followed by a drier season. The temperature on average is always high with July being the coolest month with average temperatures falling between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F) and March being the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from 23 to 37 °C (73 to 98 °F).[87]

The most rainfall is seen between May and October, but the rainy season can commence in April and extend until November. On average May is the wettest month. The season is "influenced by the annual shift of the Inter-Tropical Zone"[88] and the shift to southerly and southwesterly winds leading to slightly lower temperatures, higher humidity, and more cloud coverage.[89]

One study has showed that climate change is expected to increase rainfall rates over South Sudan, but there is greater uncertainty about whether the number of rainy days will increase or decrease.[90]

### Wildlife

[edit]

Main article: Wildlife of South Sudan

## Government and politics

[edit]

Main articles: Government of South Sudan and Politics of South Sudan

### Government

[edit]

Salva Kiir Mayardit, the first president of South Sudan. His trademark Stetson hat was a gift from United States President George W. Bush. South Sudan's presidential guard on Independence Day, 2011

The now defunct Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly ratified a transitional constitution[91] shortly before independence on 9 July 2011.[92] The constitution was signed by the President of South Sudan, Salva Kiir Mayardit, on Independence Day and thereby came into force. It is now the supreme law of the land, superseding the Interim Constitution of 2005.[93]

The constitution establishes a presidential system of government headed by a president who is head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. It also establishes the National Legislature comprising two houses: a directly elected assembly, the National Legislative Assembly, and a second chamber of representatives of the states, the Council of States.[94]

John Garang, one of the founders of the SPLA/M, was the president of the autonomous government until his death on 30 July 2005. Salva Kiir Mayardit,[88] his deputy, was sworn in as First Vice President of Sudan and President of the Government of Southern Sudan on 11 August 2005. Riek Machar[88] replaced him as Vice-President of the Government. Legislative power is vested in the government and the bicameral National Legislature. The constitution also provides for an independent judiciary, the highest organ being the Supreme Court.

On 8 May 2021, South Sudan President Salva Kiir announced a dissolution of Parliament as part of a 2018 peace deal to set up a new legislative body that will number 550 lawmakers.[95] According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices South Sudan is third lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa.[96]

### National capital project

[edit]

A young South Sudanese girl smiling in traditional attire

The capital of South Sudan is located at Juba, which is also the state capital of Central Equatoria and the county seat of the eponymous Juba County, and is the country's largest city. However, due to Juba's poor infrastructure and massive urban growth, as well as its lack of centrality within South Sudan, the South Sudanese Government adopted a resolution in February 2011 to study the creation of a new planned city to serve as the seat of government.[97][98] It is planned that the capital city will be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel.[99] This proposal is functionally similar to construction projects in Abuja, Nigeria; Brasília, Brazil; and Canberra, Australia; among other modern-era planned national capitals. It is unclear how the government will fund the project.

In September 2011, a spokesman for the government said the country's political leaders had accepted a proposal to build a new capital at Ramciel,[100] a place in Lakes state near the borders with Central Equatoria and Jonglei. Ramciel is considered to be the geographical centre of the country,[101] and the late pro-independence leader John Garang allegedly had plans to relocate the capital there before his death in 2005. The proposal was supported by the Lakes state government and at least one Ramciel tribal chief.[102] The design, planning, and construction of the city will likely take as many as five years, government ministers said, and the move of national institutions to the new capital will be implemented in stages.[100]

### Constituent States

[edit]

Main article: States of South Sudan

#### 2011–2015

[edit]

The ten states of South Sudan prior to 2015, grouped in the three historical provinces of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Bahr el Ghazal

Equatoria

Greater Upper Nile

Prior to 2015, South Sudan was divided into ten states, which also correspond to three historical regions: Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria, and Greater Upper Nile region:

Bahr el Ghazal

* Northern Bahr el Ghazal
* Western Bahr el Ghazal
* Lakes
* Warrap

Equatoria

* Western Equatoria
* Central Equatoria (containing the national capital city of Juba)
* Eastern Equatoria

Greater Upper Nile

* Jonglei
* Unity
* Upper Nile State

The Abyei Area, a small region of Sudan bordering on the South Sudanese states of Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, and Bentiu, was given special administrative status as a result of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in 2005. Following the independence of South Sudan in 2011, Abyei is considered to be simultaneously part of both the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan, effectively a condominium. It was due to hold a referendum in 2011 on whether to join South Sudan or remain part of the Republic of Sudan, but in May 2011, the Sudanese military seized Abyei, and it is not clear if the referendum will be held.[citation needed]

#### 2015–2020

[edit]

The 32 states of South Sudan, after the addition of four more states in 2017

In October 2015, South Sudan's President Salva Kiir issued a decree establishing twenty-eight states in place of the ten constitutionally established states.[103] The decree established the new states largely along ethnic lines. A number of opposition parties and civil society challenged the constitutionality of this decree and Kiir later resolved to take it to parliament for approval as a constitutional amendment.[104] In November the South Sudanese parliament empowered President Kiir to create new states.[105]

Bar el Ghazal

1. Aweil
2. Aweil East
3. Eastern Lakes
4. Gogrial
5. Gok
6. Lol
7. Tonj
8. Twic
9. Wau
10. Western Lakes

Equatoria

1. Amadi
2. Gbudwe
3. Torit
4. Jubek (containing the national capital city of Juba)
5. Maridi
6. Kapoeta
7. Tambura
8. Terekeka
9. Yei River

Greater Upper Nile region

1. Boma
2. Central Upper Nile
3. Akobo
4. Northern Upper Nile
5. Jonglei State
6. Latjoor
7. Maiwut
8. Northern Liech
9. Ruweng (Rubkona, Rubkotna)
10. Southern Liech
11. Bieh
12. Fashoda State
13. Fangak State

On 14 January 2017 another four states were created; Central Upper Nile, Northern Upper Nile, Tumbura and Maiwut.[106][107]

#### 2020–present

[edit]

Main article: States of South Sudan

Administrative areas of South Sudan as of 2020

Under the terms of a peace agreement signed on 22 February 2020, South Sudan is again divided into ten states, with two administrative areas and one area with special administrative status.[108][109]

The Kafia Kingi area is disputed between South Sudan and Sudan and the Ilemi Triangle is disputed between South Sudan and Kenya.

The states and administrative areas are once again grouped into the three former historical provinces of the Sudan; Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Greater Upper Nile:

Bahr el Ghazal

* Northern Bahr el Ghazal
* Western Bahr el Ghazal
* Lakes
* Warrap

Equatoria

* Western Equatoria
* Central Equatoria (containing the national capital city of Juba)
* Eastern Equatoria

Greater Upper Nile

* Jonglei
* Unity
* Upper Nile

Administrative Areas

* Greater Pibor Administrative Area
* Ruweng Administrative Area (Rubkotna)

Special Administrative Status Areas

* Abyei Special Administrative Area

### Foreign relations

[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of South Sudan

U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry meets with President Salva Kiir, 26 May 2013.

Since independence, relations with Sudan have been changing. Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir first announced, in January 2011, that dual citizenship in the North and the South would be allowed,[83] but upon the independence of South Sudan he retracted the offer. He has also suggested an EU-style confederation.[110] Essam Sharaf, Prime Minister of Egypt after the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, made his first foreign visit to Khartoum and Juba in the lead-up to South Sudan's secession.[111] Israel quickly recognized South Sudan as an independent country,[112] and is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, many of whom have finally been granted temporary resident status more than a decade later.[113] According to American sources, President Obama officially recognised the new state after Sudan, Egypt, Germany and Kenya were among the first to recognise the country's independence on 8 July 2011.[114][115] Several states that participated in the international negotiations concluded with a self-determination referendum were also quick to acknowledge the overwhelming result. The Rationalist process included Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, the United Kingdom and Norway.[116][a]

South Sudan is a member state of the United Nations,[117] the African Union,[25][118] the East African Community,[119][120][121] and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa.[122] South Sudan plans to join the Commonwealth of Nations,[123] the International Monetary Fund,[124] OPEC+, and the World Bank.[125] Some international trade organizations categorize South Sudan as part of the Greater Horn of Africa.[126]

Full membership in the Arab League has been assured, should the country's government choose to seek it,[127] though it could also opt for observer status.[128] It was admitted to UNESCO on 3 November 2011.[129] On 25 November 2011, it officially joined the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, a regional grouping of East African states.[130]

The United States supported the 2011 referendum on South Sudan's independence. The New York Times reported, "South Sudan is in many ways an American creation, carved out of war-torn Sudan in a referendum largely orchestrated by the United States, its fragile institutions nurtured with billions of dollars in American aid."[131] The U.S. government's long-standing sanctions against Sudan were officially removed from applicability to newly independent South Sudan in December 2011, and senior RSS officials participated in a high-level international engagement conference in Washington, D.C., to help connect foreign investors with the RSS and South Sudanese private sector representatives.[132] Given the interdependence between some sectors of the economy of the Republic of South Sudan and the Republic of Sudan, certain activities still require OFAC authorization. Absent a licence, current Sudanese sanction regulations will continue to prohibit U.S. persons from dealing in property and interests that benefit Sudan or the Government of Sudan.[133] A 2011 Congressional Research Service report, "The Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country", identifies outstanding political and humanitarian issues as the country forges its future.[134]

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including South Sudan, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[135]

The UAE lent South Sudan $12 billion for a period of 20 years. The loan agreement was signed between South Sudan and an Emirati firm owned by Hamad bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, the sources of whose wealth and investments have been suspicions during the failed takeover of Beitar Jerusalem FC. The loan deposit was directed to an Emirati bank account, of which 70% were allocated to infrastructure facilities. As per the agreement, South Sudan was to repay by the means of oil shipments, priced at $10 per barrel less than its market value. Additional oil shipments were agreed in case of decrease in oil prices. The agreement took no account of the Sudan war.[136][137]

### Military

[edit]

Main article: South Sudan People's Defence Forces

A Defence paper was initiated in 2007 by then Minister for SPLA Affairs Dominic Dim Deng, and a draft was produced in 2008. It declared that Southern Sudan would eventually maintain land, air, and riverine forces.[138][139]

As of 2015[update], South Sudan has the third highest military spending as a percentage of GDP in the world, behind only Oman and Saudi Arabia.[140]

### Human rights

[edit]

Main article: Human rights in South Sudan

Campaigns of atrocities against civilians have been attributed to the SPLA.[141] In the SPLA/M's attempt to disarm rebellions among the Shilluk and Murle, they burned scores of villages, raped hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians.[142] Civilians alleging torture claim fingernails being torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons, and villagers burned alive in their huts if it was suspected that rebels had spent the night there.[142] In May 2011, the SPLA allegedly set fire to over 7,000 homes in Unity State.[143]

The UN reports many of these violations and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency calls them "human rights abuses off the Richter scale".[142] In 2010, the CIA issued a warning that "over the next five years ... a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."[142] The Nuer White Army has stated it wished to "wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer's cattle"[56] and activists, including Minority Rights Group International, warned of genocide in Jonglei.[144] At the beginning of 2017, genocide was imminent again.[145]

Peter Abdul Rahaman Sule, the leader of the key opposition group United Democratic Forum, has been under arrest since 3 November 2011 over allegations linking him to the formation of a new rebel group fighting against the government.[146][147]

The child marriage rate in South Sudan is 52%.[148] Homosexual acts are illegal.[149]

Recruitment of child soldiers has also been cited as a serious problem in the country.[150] In April 2014, Navi Pillay, then the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, stated that more than 9,000 child soldiers had been fighting in South Sudan's civil war.[151]

The United Nations rights office has described the situation in the country as "one of the most horrendous human rights situations in the world". It accused the army and allied militias of allowing fighters to rape women as form of payment for fighting, as well as raid cattle in an agreement of "do what you can, take what you can."[152] Amnesty International claimed the army suffocated more than 60 people accused of supporting the opposition to death in a shipping container.[153]

On 22 December 2017, at the conclusion of a 12-day visit to the region, the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan said, "Four years following the start of the current conflict in South Sudan, gross human rights violations continue to be committed in a widespread way by all parties to the conflict, in which civilians are bearing the brunt."[154] The Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan was established by the Human Rights Council in March 2016.[154]

## Economy

[edit]

Main article: Economy of South Sudan

See also: List of companies based in South Sudan

Teak logs for export

The economy of South Sudan is one of the world's most underdeveloped,[155] with South Sudan having little existing infrastructure and the highest maternal mortality and female illiteracy rates in the world as of 2011[update].[156] South Sudan exports timber to the international market. The region also contains many natural resources such as petroleum, iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold, diamonds, hardwoods, limestone and hydropower.[157] The country's economy, as in many other developing countries, is heavily dependent on agriculture.

### Oil

[edit]

The oilfields in South Sudan have been significant to the economy since the latter part of the 20th century. In 2023, oil constitutes more than 90% of state revenues.[155] The country has the third-largest oil reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa.[158] However, after South Sudan became an independent nation in July 2011, southern and northern negotiators were not immediately able to reach an agreement on how to split the revenue from these southern oilfields.[159]

Oil and gas concessions in Sudan – 2004

It is estimated that South Sudan has around 4 times the oil deposits of Sudan. The oil revenues, according to the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), were split equally for the duration of the agreement period.[160] Since South Sudan relies on pipelines, refineries, and Port Sudan's facilities in Red Sea state in Sudan, the agreement stated that the government of Sudan in Khartoum would receive a 50% share of all oil revenues.[160][161] This arrangement was maintained during the second period of autonomy from 2005 to 2011.

In the run up to independence, northern negotiators reportedly pressed for a deal maintaining the 50–50 split of oil revenues, while the South Sudanese were holding out for more favourable terms.[161] Oil revenues constitute more than 98% of the government of South Sudan's budget according to the southern government's Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and this has amounted to more than $8 billion in revenue since the signing of the peace agreement.[160]

After independence, South Sudan objected to Sudan charging US$34 per barrel to transport oil through the pipeline to the oil terminal at Port Sudan. With production of around 30,000 barrels per day, this was costing over a million dollars per day. In January 2012, South Sudan suspended oil production, causing a dramatic reduction in revenue and food costs to rise by 120%.[162] In 2017, Nile Drilling & Services became South Sudan's first locally-owned and -run petroleum drilling company.

### Debt

[edit]

In terms of South Sudan's external debt, Sudan and South Sudan maintain a shared debt of approximately US$38 billion, all of which has accumulated throughout the past five decades.[163] Though a small portion of this debt is owed to such international institutions as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (approximately US$5.3 billion according to a 2009 report provided by the Bank of Sudan), the bulk of its debt load is actually owed to numerous foreign actors that have provided the nation with financial loans, including the Paris Club (over US$11 billion) and also non-Paris Club bilateral creditors (over US$13 billion).[164]

The Paris Club refers to an informal group of financial officials from 19 of the world's most influential economies, including such member nations as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Canada, while non-Paris Club bilateral creditors refers to any entity that does not enjoy permanent/associated status as a Paris Club member.[165] Private bilateral creditors (i.e. private commercial banks and private credit suppliers) account for the majority of the remainder (approximately US$6 billion of the total debt).[166]

### East African Community membership

[edit]

The presidents of Kenya and Rwanda invited the Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan to apply for membership to the East African Community upon the independence of South Sudan in 2011,[119][167] and South Sudan was reportedly an applicant country as of mid-July 2011.[119][168] Analysts suggested that South Sudan's early efforts to integrate infrastructure, including rail links and oil pipelines,[169] with systems in Kenya and Uganda indicated intention to pivot away from dependence on Sudan and toward the EAC.

On 17 September 2011, the Daily Nation quoted a South Sudanese MP as saying that while his government was eager to join the EAC, it would likely delay its membership over concerns that its economy was not sufficiently developed to compete with EAC member states and could become a "dumping ground" for Kenyan, Tanzanian, and Ugandan exports.[170] This was contradicted by President Salva Kiir, who announced South Sudan had officially embarked on the application process one month later.[171] The application was initially deferred by the EAC in December 2012,[172] and incidents with Ugandan boda-boda operators in South Sudan created political tension.[173]

In December 2012, Tanzania officially agreed to South Sudan's bid to join the EAC, clearing the way for the world's newest state to become the regional bloc's sixth member.[174] In May 2013, the EAC set aside $82,000 for the admission process. Starting after the EAC Council of Ministers meeting in August 2013, was projected to take at least four years. At the 14th Ordinary Summit held in Nairobi in 2012, EAC heads of state approved the verification report that was presented by the Council of Ministers, then directed it to start the negotiation process with South Sudan.[175]

A team was formed to assess South Sudan's bid; however, in April 2014, the nation requested a delay in the admissions process, presumably due to South Sudanese Civil War.[176][177]

South Sudan's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Barnaba Marial Benjamin, claimed publicly in October 2015 that, following unpublished evaluations and meetings of a special technical committee in May, June, August, September and October, the committee has recommended that South Sudan be allowed to join the East African Community.[178]

South Sudan was eventually approved for membership in East African Community in March 2016,[179] and formally acceded with the signature of the treaty in April 2016.[180]

### South Sudan and the Commonwealth of Nations

[edit]

South Sudan has applied to join the Commonwealth of Nations,[181] considering that South Sudan was part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and has two republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, Kenya and Uganda, as neighboring countries. There was an interest in joining almost immediately after South Sudan's independence.[182]

### Transport

[edit]

Main article: Transport in South Sudan

Road transport is the most common and cheapest means of transport used in the country.

The Nile River provides the major water transport in South Sudan. The White Nile is a navigable waterway from the Lake Albert (Africa) to Khartoum through Jebel Aulia Dam. Between Juba and Uganda, the river requires a channel to make it navigable. During part of the year the rivers are navigable up to Gambela, Ethiopia, and Wau, South Sudan.

Passengers atop a train travelling towards Wau Two Mil Mi-17 helicopters at Juba Airport

#### Railway

[edit]

Main article: Rail transport in South Sudan

South Sudan has 248 km (154 mi) of single-track 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) gauge railway line from the Sudanese border to Wau terminus. There are proposed extensions from Wau to Juba. There are also plans to link Juba with the Kenyan and Ugandan railway networks.

#### Air

[edit]

Main article: List of airports in South Sudan

The busiest and most developed airport in South Sudan is Juba Airport, which has regular international connections to Asmara, Entebbe, Nairobi, Cairo, Addis Ababa, and Khartoum. Juba Airport was also the home base of Feeder Airlines Company and Southern Star Airlines.[183]

Other international airports include Malakal, with international flights to Addis Ababa and Khartoum; Wau, with weekly service to Khartoum; and Rumbek, also with weekly flights to Khartoum. Southern Sudan Airlines also serves Nimule and Akobo, which have unpaved runways. Several smaller airports exist throughout South Sudan, the majority consisting of little more than dirt runways.

On 4 April 2012, plans were unveiled to launch a South Sudanese national airline, primarily for domestic service at first but eventually expanding to international service.[184]

### Water crisis

[edit]

Further information: Water supply in South Sudan

See also: Sudanese nomadic conflicts

Cattle camp of the Mundari people in Central Equatoria

The water supply in South Sudan is faced with numerous challenges. Although the White Nile runs through the country, water is scarce during the dry season in areas that are not located on the river.

About half the population does not have access to an improved water source, defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within one kilometre. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.

Numerous non-governmental organizations support water supply in Southern Sudan, such as Water is Basic, Water for South Sudan, the Obakki Foundation[185] and Bridgton-Lake Region Rotary Club[186] from North America.

## Demographics

[edit]

Main article: Demographics of South Sudan

See also: List of cities in South Sudan

Map of the ethnic groups of South Sudan

South Sudan has a population of approximately 11 million[187][188] and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 of the years since 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced persons or became refugees as a result of the civil war and its impact.

Children in Yambio, Western Equatoria, South Sudan Rural school children participating in the USAID-funded Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction project, July 2010

### Population

[edit]

#### 2008 census

[edit]

Woman in South Sudan A village in Kimotong, South Sudan John Garang Square in Juba

The "Fifth Population and Housing Census of Sudan", for Sudan as a whole, was conducted in April 2008. The census counted the Southern Sudan population at 8.26 million;[189][190] however, Southern Sudanese officials rejected the census results of Southern Sudan because "the central bureau of statistics in Khartoum refused to share the national Sudan raw census data with the southern Sudan centre for census, statistics and evaluation".[191]

In addition, President Kiir "suspected figures were being deflated in some regions and inflated in others, and that made the final tally 'unacceptable'."[192] He claimed that the Southern Sudanese population actually constituted one-third of that of Sudan, though the census showed it to be only 22%.[190]

Many southern Sudanese were also said to have been uncounted "due to bad weather, poor communication and transport networks, and some areas were unreachable, while many southern Sudanese remained in exile in neighbouring countries, leading to 'unacceptable results', according [to] southern Sudanese authorities."[192] The chief American technical adviser for the census in the south said that the census-takers probably reached only 89% of the population.[193]

#### 2009 census

[edit]

In 2009, Sudan initiated a Southern Sudanese census ahead of the 2011 independence referendum, which would also include the South Sudanese diaspora; however, this initiative was criticised for leaving out countries with a high share of the South Sudanese diaspora, rather counting countries where the diaspora share was low.[194]

### Ethnic groups

[edit]

The major ethnic groups present in South Sudan are the Dinka at approximately 40 percent of the population, the Nuer at approximately 20 percent, and the Azande at approximately 10 percent, as well as the Shilluk and Bari.[195] Currently, around 800,000 expatriates from the Horn of Africa are living in South Sudan.[citation needed]

### Diaspora

[edit]

Main article: South Sudanese diaspora

The South Sudanese diaspora consists of citizens of South Sudan residing abroad. The number of South Sudanese outside South Sudan has sharply increased since the beginning of the struggle for independence from Sudan. Almost one and a half million South Sudanese have left the country as refugees, either permanently or as temporary workforce, leading to the establishment of the South Sudanese diaspora population.[citation needed]

The largest communities of the South Sudanese diaspora are located in North America, Western Europe and Oceania. They can be found in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia. Small communities exist in France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, and New Zealand.[196]

Activist Achol Jok Mach has spoken out about growing up and growing up in a diaspora community and the effect on her identity, saying: "I was only ever told, 'You are South Sudanese'... It was only much later that I learned I was Dinka."[197]

### Largest cities

[edit]

Largest cities or towns in South Sudan
According to the 2008 Census[198]

Rank  | Name | State | Pop.  |
Juba

Wau
1 | Juba | Central Equatoria | 230,195
2 | Wau | Western Bahr el Ghazal | 118,331
3 | Malakal | Upper Nile | 114,528
4 | Yambio | Western Equatoria | 105,881
5 | Yei | Central Equatoria | 69,720
6 | Renk | Upper Nile | 69,079
7 | Aweil | Northern Bahr el Ghazal | 59,217
8 | Maridi | Western Equatoria | 55,602
9 | Bentiu | Unity | 41,328
10 | Bor | Jonglei | 25,188

### Languages

[edit]

Main article: Languages of South Sudan

There are 70 languages spoken in South Sudan, of which 60 are indigenous and granted constitutional status as "national languages" that "shall be respected, developed and promoted".[199] English is the sole official language,[1] being constitutionally enshrined as the "official working language" of government and the "language of instruction at all levels of education".[200] English had been the principal language of what is now South Sudan since 1972, serving as the common medium for administrative purposes.[201] However, few South Sudanese speak it as a first language.[202]

The majority of languages spoken in South Sudan are classified within the Nilo-Saharan Language family, specifically the subbranches of Nile Sudanic and Central Sudanic; most of the remainder are part of the Adamawa-Ubangi branch of the Niger-Congo family. The most common languages are Nuer (4.35 million), Bari (595,000) Dinka (940,000) or Zande (420,000), which are collectively spoken by approximately 60% of the population;[202] other major indigenous languages include Murle, Luo, Ma'di, and Otuho. Six indigenous languages are threatened with extinction, with another 11 declining.[202]

Arabic, a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic family, is the most widely spoken language.[203] The most common variety is Juba Arabic, also known as South Sudanese Arabic, a creole language that serves as the lingua franca for local governments, national commerce, and in urban areas.[204] It is spoken by approximately 1.45 million people, of whom only 250,000 speak it natively. Sudanese Arabic, the prevailing dialect in Sudan, has approximately 460,000 speakers, primarily in the northern regions of South Sudan; it has been described as the de facto language of national identity.[202] Arabic had been recognized as South Sudan's second official language, alongside English, in its 2005 interim constitution,[205] but has no legal status in the current transitional constitution adopted in 2011.

Swahili, a Bantu language spoken primarily in East Africa, has been proposed as a second official language. In 2011, South Sudan's ambassador to Kenya stated that Swahili would be introduced in South Sudan with the goal of supplanting Arabic as a lingua franca, in keeping with the country's orientation toward the East African Community rather than Sudan and the Arab League.[206] Following the South Sudan's ascension to the East African Community in 2019, the government has moved to adopt Swahili into the official curricula at primary school.[207][208] Nevertheless, South Sudan submitted an application to join the Arab League as a member state on 25 March 2014, which is still pending.[209] In an interview with the newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat, the Foreign Minister of South Sudan Deng Alor Kuol said: South Sudan is the closest African country to the Arab world, and we speak a special kind of Arabic known as Juba Arabic.[210] Sudan supports South Sudan's request to join the Arab League.[211] Juba Arabic is a lingua franca in South Sudan.

### Religion

[edit]

Main article: Religion in South Sudan

Holy Cross Cathedral in Lakes State

South Sudan is predominantly Christian.[212] Other religions include various traditional indigenous belief systems, and Islam.[213][214] Exact figures are lacking due to internal displacement from ongoing conflict, large numbers of frequently-migrating pastoralists, and insufficient government resources.[215][216] The last official census to take into account religion was in 1956, where a majority of people were classified as adherents of traditional beliefs or Christianity, while 18% were Muslim.[217] In 2012, the Pew Research Center estimated its population to be 60.5% Christian, 32.9% following folk religions, and 6.2% Muslim.[218] It maintained the same estimate in 2020.[219]

The US State Department reported in 2023 that the South Sudan Council of Churches and the government Bureau of Religious Affairs give the principal Christian denominations as Roman Catholic, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Pentecostal, Sudan Interior, Presbyterian Evangelical, and African Inland Churches. Smaller congregations of Eritrean Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses are also present.[219]

In 2001, the World Christian Encyclopedia said that the Catholic Church was the largest single Christian body in Sudan since 1995, with the country's 2.7 million Catholics being concentrated in what is today South Sudan.[220] Catholic sources say the denomination made up 52% of the population of Christians in 2020.[221] The other major denominations are Episcopal Church (3.5 million members)[222] and the Presbyterian Church (one million members in 2012).[223]

Christianity has grown rapidly in the country over the last two decades. Despite European missionary activity beginning as early as the mid-19th century, the U.S. Library of Congress states that "in the early 1990s possibly no more than 10% of southern Sudan's population was Christian".[224] During this same period, official records of Sudan claimed that one-quarter of the population of present-day South Sudan practiced various traditional religions while only 5% were Christians.[225] Various scholarly sources, as well as the U.S. Department of State,[226] stated that a majority of southern Sudanese maintained traditional animist indigenous beliefs at the start of the 21st century, with Christians remaining a small minority.[227][228][229]

St. Theresa Cathedral in Juba

As in other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Christianity is often blended with traditional beliefs.[230] In 2022, the new Catholic bishop of Rumbek, Christian Carlassare, observed that while more than half the population of South Sudan is Christian, "Christianity is often no more than skin deep" and "hasn't grown roots in the life of the population".[231] Many religious organizations function as a source of stability, community, humanitarian aid, and refuge in the absence of government institutions, with Christian and Muslim religious leaders actively involved in peacebuilding and socioeconomic development.[216]

Indigenous animist beliefs remain widespread among the population regardless of religious affiliation. Additionally, each ethnic group has its own traditional belief system, all of which share a concept of a higher spirit or divinity, generally a creator god.[201] Traditional African cosmology divides the universe between a visible material realm and an invisible heavenly realm, which is populated by spiritual beings that serve as intermediaries or messengers of a higher power; in the case of the Nilotic peoples, these spirits are identified with ancestors. The supreme deity is worshipped through rituals that utilize music and dance.

Although the internal conflicts that precipitated Sudan's partition have been characterized as between Muslims and Christians, some scholars reject this notion, claiming Muslim and Christian sides sometimes overlapped.[232] Muslims are relatively well integrated into South Sudanese society and represented in government; Muslim religious leaders are present in all major political ceremonies as well as peace negotiations. Islamic private schools are maintained with little government involvement, while many secondary institutions include Islamic theology in their curricula.[216]

In 2011, inaugural South Sudanese President Salva Kiir, a Roman Catholic, said that South Sudan would be a nation that respects freedom of religion.[233] The country's transitional constitution provides for separation of religion and state, prohibits religious discrimination, and provides religious groups freedom to worship, assemble, proselytize, own property, receive financial contributions, communicate and publish materials on religious matters, and establish charitable institutions.[216] Interreligious conflict occurs largely in the context of ethnic and communal conflict; for example, in February 2022, clashes between Dinka clans resulted in the targeting of associated religious buildings and leaders.[216]

### Education

[edit]

Main article: Education in South Sudan

Unlike the previous educational system of the regional Southern Sudan—which was modelled after the system used in the Republic of Sudan since 1990—the current educational system of the Republic of South Sudan follows the 8 + 4 + 4 system (similar to Kenya). Primary education consists of eight years, followed by four years of secondary education, and then four years of university instruction.

The primary language at all levels is English, as compared to the Republic of Sudan, where the language of instruction is Arabic. In 2007, South Sudan adopted English as the official language of communication. There is a severe shortage of English teachers and English-speaking teachers in the scientific and technical fields.

On 1 October 2019, the South Sudan Library Foundation opened South Sudan's first public library, the Juba Public Peace Library in Gudele 2.[234][235] The library currently employs a staff of over 40 volunteers and maintains a collection of over 13,000 books.[235] The South Sudan Library Foundation was co-founded by Yawusa Kintha and Kevin Lenahan.[234][235][236]

### Health and humanitarian situation

[edit]

Main article: Health in South Sudan

See also: Child marriage in South Sudan

According to the United Nations, there are 8.3 million people in need of humanitarian aid in South Sudan as of January 2021.[237] South Sudan is acknowledged to have some of the worst health indicators in the world.[238][239][240] The under-five infant mortality rate is 135.3 per 1,000, whilst maternal mortality is the highest in the world at 2,053.9 per 100,000 live births.[240] In 2004, there were only three surgeons serving in southern Sudan, with three proper hospitals, and in some areas there was just one doctor for every 500,000 people.[238]

The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the South Sudan is poorly documented but the prevalence is believed around 3.1%.[241] According to a 2013 study, South Sudan "probably has the highest malaria burden in sub-Saharan Africa".[242] South Sudan is one of the few countries where dracunculiasis still occurs.[243][244][245]

At the time of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, humanitarian needs in Southern Sudan were massive. However, humanitarian organizations under the leadership of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) managed to ensure sufficient funding to bring relief to the local populations. Along with recovery and development aid, humanitarian projects were included in the 2007 Work Plan of the United Nations and partners. More than 90% of the population of South Sudan live on less than $1 a day, despite the GDP per capita of the entirety of Sudan being $1200 ($3.29/day).[246]

In 2007, the United Nations OCHA (under the leadership of Éliane Duthoit) decreased its involvement in Southern Sudan, as humanitarian needs gradually diminished, slowly but markedly turning over control to the recovery and development activities of NGOs and community-based organisations.[247]

Famine reportedly led to deaths in Bentiu and Latjor states in mid-2011, though the state governments of both denied hunger there was severe enough to cause fatalities.[248]

In Pibor County located in the Jonglei State, in December 2011 and January 2012, cattle raids led to border clashes that eventually resulted in widespread ethnic violence, with thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of South Sudanese being displaced, and hundreds of Médecins Sans Frontières staff went missing. The government declared the area a disaster zone and took control from local authorities.[249] South Sudan has a very high rate of child marriage.[250] Violence against women is common in the country, and South Sudan's laws and policies have been criticized as inadequate in offering protection.[251][252]

### Refugees

[edit]

Jamam refugee camp

As of February 2014, South Sudan was host to over 230,000 refugees, with the vast majority, over 209,000, having arrived recently from Sudan, because of the War in Darfur. Other African countries that contribute the most refugees to South Sudan are the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[253] As a result of the war that erupted in December 2013, more than 2.3 million people – one in every five people in South Sudan – have been forced to flee their homes, including 1.66 million internally displaced people (with 53.4 per cent estimated to be children) and nearly 644,900 refugees in neighbouring countries. Some 185,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) have sought refuge in UN Protection of Civilians (PoC) sites, while around 90 percent of IDPs are on the run or sheltering outside PoC sites.[254] Consequently, UNHCR is stepping up its response through an inter-agency collaborative approach under the leadership of the Humanitarian Coordinator, and working with the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In early February 2013, UNHCR started distributing relief items outside the UN base in Malakal, South Sudan, which was expected to reach 10,000 people.[253]

## Culture

[edit]

Main article: Culture of South Sudan

See also: Tourism in South Sudan

Scarified woman, South Sudan, 2011

Due to the many years of civil war, South Sudan's culture is heavily influenced by its neighbours. Many South Sudanese fled to Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda where they interacted with the nationals and learned their languages and culture. Most of those who remained in Sudan until or after independence partially assimilated to Sudanese culture and speak Juba Arabic or Sudanese Arabic.

Most South Sudanese value knowing one's tribal origin, its traditional culture and dialect even while in exile and diaspora. Although the common languages spoken are Juba Arabic and English, Swahili might be introduced to the population to improve the country's relations with its East African neighbours.[citation needed]

### Music

[edit]

Many music artists from South Sudan use English, Swahili, Juba Arabic, their native African language or a mix of all. Popular artists like Barbz, Yaba Angelosi, De Peace Child sing Afro-beat, R&B, and Zouk; Dynamq is popular for his reggae releases; and Emmanuel Kembe who sings folk, reggae and Afro-beat.[255] Also hip hop artists like Emmanuel Jal, FTG Metro, Flizzame and Dugga Mulla (of FMG). Emmanuel being one of the South Sudaneses music artists who have broken through on an international level[256] with his unique form of hip hop and a positive message in his lyrics.[257] Jal, a former child soldier turned musician, received good airplay and album reviews in the UK[258] and has also been sought out for the lecture circuit with major talks at popular talkfests like TED.[259]

### Media

[edit]

Main article: Media of South Sudan

While former Information Minister Barnaba Marial Benjamin vowed that South Sudan will respect freedom of the press and allow journalists unrestricted access in the country, the chief editor of Juba newspaper The Citizen claimed that in the absence of a formal freedom of the press law, he and his staff have faced abuse at the hands of security forces. This alleged fettering of media freedom was attributed in an Al Jazeera report to the difficulty SPLM has faced in reforming itself as a legitimate government after years of leading a rebellion against the Sudanese government. The Citizen is South Sudan's largest newspaper, but poor infrastructure and poverty have kept its staff relatively small and limited the efficiency of both its reporting and its circulation outside of Juba, with no dedicated news bureaus in outlying states and newspapers often taking several days to reach states like Northern Bahr el Ghazal.[260] In May 2020, South Sudan Friendship Press was established as the country's first dedicated online news website.[261] Nile citizens  is laid out as the nation's committed web-based news site.[262]

#### Censorship

[edit]

On 1 November 2011, South Sudan's National Security Services (NSS) arrested the editor of a private Juba-based daily, Destiny, and suspended its activities indefinitely. This was in response to an opinion article by columnist Dengdit Ayok, entitled "Let Me Say So", which criticized the president for allowing his daughter to marry an Ethiopian national, and accused him of "staining his patriotism". An official letter accused the newspaper of breaking "the media code of conduct and professional ethics", and of publishing "illicit news" that was defamatory, inciting, and invading the privacy of personalities. The Committee to Protect Journalists had voiced concerns over media freedoms in South Sudan in September.[263] The NSS released the journalists without charge after having held them for 18 days.[264]

In 2015, Salva Kiir threatened to kill journalists who reported "against the country".[265] Work conditions have become terrible for journalists, and many have left the country, such as documentarian Ochan Hannington.[266] In August 2015, after journalist Peter Moi was killed in a targeted attack, being the seventh journalist killed during the year, South Sudanese journalists held a 24-hour news blackout.[267]

In August 2017, a 26-year-old American journalist, Christopher Allen, was killed in Kaya, Yei River State, during fighting between government and opposition forces. Christopher Allen was a freelance journalist who had worked for several U.S. news outlets. He had been reportedly embedded with the opposition forces in South Sudan for a week before he was killed.[268] The same month, President Salva Kiir said the millions of civilians fleeing South Sudan were being driven by the propaganda from social media users conspiring against his government.[269] Just a month prior in July 2017, access to major news websites and popular blogs including Sudan Tribune and Radio Tamazuj[270] had been blocked by the government without formal notice.[271] In June 2020, access to Sudans Post, a local news website, was blocked by the government following the publication of an article deemed defamatory by the NSS.[272] Two months later, Qurium Media Foundation, a Swedish non-profit organization, announced that it has deployed a mirror for the website to circumvent the government blocking.[273]

### Sports

[edit]

Main article: Sport in South Sudan

South Sudanese-born basketball player Luol Deng

Many traditional and modern games and sports are popular in South Sudan, particularly wrestling and mock battles. The traditional sports were mainly played after the harvest seasons to celebrate the harvests and finish the farming seasons. During the matches, they smeared themselves with ochre – perhaps to enhance the grip or heighten their perception. The matches attracted large numbers of spectators who sang, played drums and danced in support of their favourite wrestlers. Though these were perceived as competition, they were primarily for entertainment.[274] Association football is also becoming popular in South Sudan, and there are many initiatives by the Government of South Sudan and other partners to promote the sport and improve the level of play. One of these initiatives is South Sudan Youth Sports Association (SSYSA). SSYSA is already holding football clinics in Konyokonyo and Muniki areas of Juba in which young boys are coached. In recognition of these efforts with youth football, the country recently hosted the CECAFA youth football competitions. Barely a month earlier, it had also hosted the larger East African Schools Sports tournaments.[citation needed]

The South Sudan national association football team joined the Confederation of African Football in February 2012 and became a full FIFA member in May 2012.[275] The team played its first match against Tusker FC of the Kenyan Premier League on 10 July 2011 in Juba as part of independence celebrations,[276] scoring early but losing 1–3 to the more experienced team.[277] Famous South Sudanese footballers are Machop Chol, James Moga, Richard Justin, Athir Thomas, Goma Genaro Awad, Khamis Leyano, Khamis Martin, William Afani Clicks and Roy Gulwak.

The South Sudanese can boast links to top basketball players. Luol Deng was a National Basketball Association star in the United States; at the international level, he represented Great Britain. Other leading international basketball players from South Sudan include Manute Bol, Kueth Duany, Deng Gai, Ater Majok, Wenyen Gabriel, and Thon Maker. The South Sudan national basketball team played its first match against the Uganda national basketball team on 10 July 2011 in Juba.[276] The nation made their debut at the FIBA Basketball World Cup in 2023. The also made their AfroBasket debut in 2021 finishing 7th.

One athlete from South Sudan, Guor Marial, competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Due to South Sudan not yet having an official Olympics organization, and Marial not yet possessing American citizenship, he, along with three athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles, competed under the banner of Independent Olympic Athletes.

On 2 August at the 128th IOC Session, South Sudan was granted full recognition of its National Olympic Committee. South Sudan competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics with three athletes in track and field. No medals were won during this Olympics.[278]

## See also

[edit]

* Outline of South Sudan

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, Part One, 6(1): "All indigenous languages of South Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted".[2]

1. ^ See table in Foreign relations of South Sudan with footnotes for early recognition countries.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011". Government of South Sudan. Part One, 6(2). Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011. "English shall be the official working language in the Republic of South Sudan, as well as the language of instruction at all levels of education."
2. ^ "The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011" (PDF). Government of South Sudan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
3. ^ Ethnologue: Ethnologue Languages of the World – South Sudan Archived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved 9 September 2018.
4. ^ United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): The impact of language policy and practice on children's learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa 2016 Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 672 kB), Pages 1–3, Retrieved 9 September 2018
5. ^ Manfredi, Stefano (2018). "Juba Arabic (Árabi Júba): a "less indigenous" language of South Sudan" (PDF). Sociolinguistic Studies. 12 (1): 209–230\. doi:10.1558/sols.35596. hdl:2318/1702685. ISSN 1750-8657. S2CID 150503108. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
6. ^ Manfredi Stefano; Tosco Mauro (2016), A new state, an old language policy, and a pidgin-creolo: Juba Arabic in South Sudan, Forthcoming: Sociolinguistic Studies 2016 Archived 1 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 1141 kB), Pages 1–18, Retrieved 9 September 2018
7. ^ Manfredi Stefano; Tosco Mauro (2013), Language uses vs. language policy: South Sudan and Juba Arabic in the post-independence era Archived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 301 kB), Pages 798–802, III Congresso Coordinamento Universitario per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo, Sep 2013, Turin, Italy. JUNCO, Journal of Universities and International Development Cooperation, 2014, Imagining Cultures of Cooperation – Proceedings of the III CUCS Congress, Turin 19–21 September 2013, Retrieved 9 September 2018
8. ^ a b c "South Sudan". The World Factbook (2025 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023. (Archived 2023 edition.)
9. ^ "South Sudan". Global Religious Futures. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 2 December 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
10. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022". International Monetary Fund. October 2022. Archived from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
11. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 11 May 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
12. ^ https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf. `{{cite web}}`: Missing or empty `|title=` (help)
13. ^ "New country, new number: Country code 211 officially assigned to South Sudan" (Press release). International Telecommunication Union. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
14. ^ ".ss Domain Delegation Data". ICANN. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
15. ^ "Traffic and Road Conditions in Sudan, South". Countryreports.org. Archived from the original on 21 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
16. ^ "South Sudan joins list of least developed countries, bringing global total to 49". UNCTAD. 26 December 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2024.
17. ^ "Broadcast of Declaration of Independence (part 1)". 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013 - via YouTube.
18. ^ "Broadcast of Declaration of Independence (part 2)". 19 June 2011. Archived from the original on 7 July 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013 - via YouTube.
19. ^ "The World's Youngest Countries". WorldAtlas. 28 May 2018. Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
20. ^ "South Sudan rivals strike power-sharing deal". BBC News. 22 February 2020. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
21. ^ Malak, Garang A. (22 February 2020). "Trust issues persist in Juba despite new dawn". The East African. Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
22. ^ "'Children's crisis' in South Sudan must be addressed, says top UN official calling for real accountability". 7 September 2018. Archived from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
23. ^ Worsnip, Patrick (14 July 2011). "South Sudan admitted to U.N. as 193rd member". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
24. ^ "UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd Member State". United Nations News Service. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 3 August 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
25. ^ a b "South Sudan Becomes African Union's 54th Member". Voice of America News. 28 July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 September 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
26. ^ "South Sudan admitted into EAC", Daily Nation, 2 March 2016, reprinted at nation.co.ke, accessed 4 March 2016
27. ^ "Ethiopia Agrees to Back Somalia Army Operations, IGAD Says". Bloomberg Businessweek. 25 November 2011. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
28. ^ "GDP per capita, current prices". IMF. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2025.
29. ^ International Association for the History of Religions (1959). Numen. Leiden: EJ Brill. p. 131\. "West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the West to the Cameroons in the East; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs"
30. ^ "The Empires of the Western Sudan". Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2000. Archived from the original on 11 June 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
31. ^ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1991). "The Turkiyah, 1821–85". Sudan: A Country Study. Area handbook series. Washington, D.C.: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-0-8444-0750-0.
32. ^ Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Columbia University Press. New York. ISBN 978-0-231-70414-4
33. ^ Richard Cockett Sudan: Darfur and the failure of an African state. 2010. Hobbs the Printers Ltd., Totten, Hampshire. ISBN 978-0-300-16273-8
34. ^ Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Ethnic Groups and Flashpoints. p. xv. Columbia University Press. New York. ISBN 978-0-231-70414-4
35. ^ a b Levering Lewis, David (1995). The Race to Fashoda. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
36. ^ Kenneth Okeny (1991). "The 1947 Juba Conference". Northeast African Studies. 13 (1): 39–58\. JSTOR 43660336. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
37. ^ Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Columbia University Press. New York. p. 16 ISBN 978-0-231-70414-4
38. ^ "Worldometers website, retrieved 2023-08-28". Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
39. ^ "A boost for food security in South Sudan as nine ventures bag US$200,000 in WFP-UNDP's IGNITE Food Systems Challenge". World Food Programme. 12 May 2022. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023.
40. ^ "United Nations Office for Project Services website". Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
41. ^ Fick, Maggie (30 January 2011). "Over 99 pct in Southern Sudan vote for secession". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
42. ^ Kron, Josh (23 January 2011). "Southern Sudan Nears a Decision on One Matter: Its New Name". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
43. ^ "South Sudan profile". BBC News. 8 January 2014. Archived from the original on 14 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
44. ^ "99.57% of Southern Sudanese vote yes to independence". BBC News. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
45. ^ "Crisis in Abyei: South Sudan must act and stop violence between Dinka groups". The Conversation. 5 March 2024. Archived from the original on 5 March 2024.
46. ^ Francis, Okech (3 March 2025). ""We don't have protection": The worsening crisis in disputed Abyei". The New Humanitarian. Archived from the original on 6 March 2025.
47. ^ South Sudan becomes an independent nation Archived 10 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News.
48. ^ "South Sudan". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
49. ^ "UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd Member State". UN News. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
50. ^ "au.int: African Union Welcomes South Sudan as the 54th Member State of the Union". Archived from the original on 12 August 2011.
51. ^ "The LRA and Sudan". Al Jazeera English. 5 January 2011. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
52. ^ PiersDillonScott (17 September 2011). "Google Maps officially recognises South Sudan as an independent country". The Sociable. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
53. ^ a b "South Sudan army kills fighters in clashes". Al Jazeera English. 24 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
54. ^ Fick, Maggie & Straziuso, Jason (2 June 2011). "Civilians dead in South Sudan battle". The Boson Globe. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
55. ^ "Thousands flee South Sudan tribal conflict". Al Jazeera English. 3 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2 January 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
56. ^ a b "United Nations urges South Sudan to Help Avert Possible Attack". Bloomberg Television. 27 December 2011. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
57. ^ "Sudan and South Sudan in fierce oil border clashes". BBC News Africa. 27 March 2012. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
58. ^ "The SPLM and the Rise of Autocracy in South Sudan". 5 September 2013. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2022.
59. ^ Kulish, Nicholas (9 January 2014). "New Estimate Sharply Raises Death Toll in South Sudan". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
60. ^ "Yoweri Museveni: Uganda troops fighting South Sudan rebels". BBC News. 16 January 2014. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
61. ^ "South Sudan country profile". BBC News. 6 August 2018. Archived from the original on 20 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
62. ^ "South Sudan rebel chief Riek Machar sworn in as vice-president". BBC News. 26 April 2016. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
63. ^ "South Sudan opposition replaces missing leader Machar". Al Jazeera. 23 July 2016. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
64. ^ "South Sudan conflict: Sacked VP Riek Machar goes into exile". BBC News. 18 August 2016. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
65. ^ "The revenge of Salva Kiir". Foreign Policy. 2 January 2017. Archived from the original on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
66. ^ "South Sudan's warring leaders agree to share power, again". The Washington Post. 25 July 2018. Archived from the original on 26 July 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
67. ^ "Nearly 400,000 'excess deaths' caused by South Sudan war". ABC News. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
68. ^ "Study estimates 190,000 people killed in South Sudan's civil war". Reuters. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
69. ^ "South Sudan 'coup leaders' face treason trial". BBC News. 29 January 2014. Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
70. ^ "A new report estimates that more than 380,000 people have died in South Sudan's civil war". The Washington Post. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
71. ^ "South Sudan rivals strike power-sharing deal". BBC News. 22 February 2020. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
72. ^ Mednick, Sam. "After 6 years of war, will peace finally come to South Sudan?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
73. ^ "Violence in South Sudan engulfs country, 10 years after independence 'children all have guns'". UN News. 19 February 2021. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
74. ^ "Republic of South Sudan". East Africa Community. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
75. ^ "South Sudan again delays its 1st election, until late 2024". Associated Press. 4 August 2022. Archived from the original on 16 February 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.
76. ^ "South Sudan postpones long-delayed election by two years, presidency says". Reuters. 13 September 2024. Retrieved 16 September 2024.
77. ^ "Famine Hits Parts of South Sudan". World Food Programme. 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
78. ^ "South Sudan declares famine in Unity State". BBC News. 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
79. ^ "Famine declared in part of South Sudan by government and UN". WHIO. 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017.
80. ^ Sevenzo, Farai; Jones, Bryony. "Famine declared in South Sudan". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
81. ^ "FAO trains village facilitators to fight Fall Armyworm in South Sudan | FAO in South Sudan | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations". Archived from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
82. ^ a b Princewill, Nimi (29 March 2025). "The world's youngest country fought for decades to govern itself. Now it's on the cusp of another civil war". CNN. Retrieved 31 March 2025.
83. ^ a b Ross, Will (9 January 2011). "Southern Sudan votes on independence". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 April 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
84. ^ e.g. example reference in "Bahr el Jabal". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
85. ^ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
86. ^ Burgess, Neil; D'Amico Hales, Jennifer; Underwood, Emma (2004). Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-364-2.
87. ^ "Average weather in Juba, Sudan". weather-and-climate.com. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
88. ^ a b c "South Sudan". The World Factbook. CIA. 11 July 2011. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
89. ^ "Weather: Juba". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 February 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
90. ^ Misiani, Herbert O.; Finney, Declan L.; Segele, Zewdu T.; Marsham, John H.; Tadege, Abebe; Artan, Guleid; Atheru, Zachary (12 December 2020). "Circulation Patterns Associated with Current and Future Rainfall over Ethiopia and South Sudan from a Convection-Permitting Model". Atmosphere. 11 (12): 1352. Bibcode:2020Atmos..11.1352M. doi:10.3390/atmos11121352.
91. ^ "The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011". Government of South Sudan. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
92. ^ "South Sudan passes interim constitution amid concerns over presidential powers". Sudan Tribune. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
93. ^ "The Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan of 2005". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
94. ^ Henneberg, Ingo (2013). "Das politische System des Südsudan" [The Political System of South Sudan]. Verfassung und Recht in Übersee / Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America (in German). 46 (2): 174–196\. doi:10.5771/0506-7286-2013-2-174. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018.
95. ^ "South Sudan president dissolves parliament as part of peace deal". Al Jazeera. 9 May 2021. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
96. ^ V-Dem Institute (2023). "The V-Dem Dataset". Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
97. ^ "New capital city for South Sudan?". Radio Netherlands. 6 February 2011. Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
98. ^ "South Sudan to establish a new capital city and relocate from Juba after independence". Sudan Tribune. 6 February 2011. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
99. ^ "South Sudan profile". BBC News. 5 July 2011. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
100. ^ a b "South Sudan relocates its capital from Juba to Ramciel". Sudan Tribune. 3 September 2011. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
101. ^ Amos, Mashel (29 April 2011). "The search for new nation's capital in South Sudan". The Independent. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
102. ^ "Lakes Leaders Visit Prospective South Sudanese Capital". Gurtong. 15 February 2011. Archived from the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
103. ^ "Kiir and Makuei want 28 states in South Sudan". Radio Tamazuj. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
104. ^ "Kiir pressured into taking decree to parliament for approval". Radio Tamazuj. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
105. ^ "South Sudan's Kiir appoints governors of 28 new states". Sudan Tribune. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
106. ^ "South Sudanese President creates four more states". Sudan Tribune. 12 August 2017. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
107. ^ "Jan2017 South Sudan". International Crisis Group. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
108. ^ "After 6 years of war, will peace finally come to South Sudan?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
109. ^ d e k u e k [@dekuekd] (15 February 2020). "So it has been decided that #SouthSudan shall revert to 10 states plus Abyei, Pibor and Ruweng Administrative Areas.â€Ś" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020 - via Twitter.
110. ^ "South Sudan becomes an independent nation". BBC News. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
111. ^ "AlAhram Weekly – Heading for headwaters". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
112. ^ Lior, Ilan (10 July 2011). "Netanyahu: Israel recognizes South Sudan as independent state". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
113. ^ "After Decade-long Delay, Israel's Supreme Court Rules Sudanese Asylum Seekers Must Be Granted Temporary Resident Status". Haaretz. 23 January 2024. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 9 August 2024.
114. ^ Spetalnick, Matt (9 July 2011). "Obama grants U.S. recognition of South Sudan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
115. ^ D. H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars
116. ^ Prieto, Fernando (18 November 2014), "Did the US act as a 'defensive-positionalist' power and was it primary moved by local and regional stability concerns when it recognized South Sudan in 2011?", Research Study SIS 686
117. ^ "UN welcomes South Sudan as 193rd member". BBC News. 14 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
118. ^ "The Peace and Security Council of the African Union (AU), at its 285th meeting held on 13 July 2011, was briefed by the Commissioner for Peace and Security on the accession to independence of the Republic of South Sudan". African Union. 13 July 2011. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
119. ^ a b c "South Sudan: Big trading potential for EAC". IGIHE. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
120. ^ "Welcome South Sudan to EAC!". East African Business Week. 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
121. ^ "South Sudan avails new foreign policy, to open 54 embassies". Sudan Tribune. 25 July 2011. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
122. ^ "COMESA Welcomes New Member". MENAFN.com. 31 October 2011. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
123. ^ "South Sudan Launches Bid to Join Commonwealth". Talk of Sudan. Gurtong News. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
124. ^ "IMF Receives Membership Application from South Sudan, Seeks Contributions to Technical Assistance Trust Fund to Help New Country". International Monetary Fund. 20 April 2011. Archived from the original on 24 April 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
125. ^ "World Bank Group Congratulates People of South Sudan on Independence". The Financial. 9 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
126. ^ Maxwell, Daniel, and Ben Watkins. "Humanitarian information systems and emergencies in the Greater Horn of Africa: logical components and logical linkages". Disasters 27.1 (2003): 72–90.
127. ^ "South Sudan "entitled to join Arab League"". Sudan Tribune. 12 June 2011. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
128. ^ El-Husseini, Asmaa (7 July 2011). "Hoping for the best". Al-Ahram. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
129. ^ "South Sudan is UNESCO's 194th member". Embassy of the Republic of South Sudan in Washington, D.C. 3 November 2011. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
130. ^ "East African bloc admits South Sudan as member". Reuters. 25 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 May 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
131. ^ "U.S. Is Facing Hard Choices in South Sudan". The New York Times. 3 January 2014. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
132. ^ "South Sudan". U.S. State Department. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
133. ^ "Doing Business in South Sudan | Embassy of the United States Juba, South Sudan". Southsudan.usembassy.gov. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
134. ^ Dagne, Ted (2011). "Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
135. ^ "Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies?". The Diplomat. 15 July 2019. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
136. ^ "South Sudan's $12 billion loan from UAE sparks public debate". Sudan Tribune. 30 April 2024. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
137. ^ Eltayeb, Amgad Fareid (1 May 2024). "Opinion: How the UAE's mafia-style tactics are hurting both Sudans". The Africa Report. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
138. ^ "Juba parliament authorizes establishment of South Sudan air force". Sudan Tribune. 25 June 2008. Archived from the original on 16 November 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
139. ^ "Creation of the South Sudan Air Force". aircraft.zurf.info. 9 January 2011. Archived from the original on 12 February 2011.
140. ^ "The World Bank". Archived from the original on 28 April 2017.
141. ^ "Sudan: Transcending tribe". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
142. ^ a b c d "Sudan: Transcending tribe". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
143. ^ "SPLA set fire to over 7,000 homes in Unity says Mayom county official". Sudan Tribune. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
144. ^ "Activists warn of "genocide" in S.Sudan's Jonglei conflict". Sudan Tribune. 16 December 2011. Archived from the original on 29 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
145. ^ "Slinding towards genocide". D+C, development and cooperation. 13 January 2017. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
146. ^ "S. Sudan's opposition leader arrested over rebel links". Sudan Tribune. 4 November 2011. Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
147. ^ "South Sudan arrests opposition leader turned rebel". AlArabiya. 4 November 2011. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
148. ^ "Child Marriage Facts and Figures". Archived from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
149. ^ "Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death". The Washington Post. 16 June 2016. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
150. ^ Burridge, Tom (27 October 2014). "Child soldiers still being recruited in South Sudan". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
151. ^ "South Sudan sides 'recruit 9,000 children to fight'". BBC News. 30 April 2014. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
152. ^ "South Sudan lets fighters rape women as payment". Global Post. 11 March 2016. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
153. ^ Beaubien, Jason (10 March 2016). "South Sudan Soldiers Suffocated 60-Plus Men And Boys, Report Says". NPR. Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
154. ^ a b "OHCHR – UN human rights experts call for perpetrators of widespread human rights violations to be brought to justice in South Sudan". OHCHR. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
155. ^ a b "On safari in the world's most dangerous country". The Economist. 20 December 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 3 January 2024. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
156. ^ Elbagir, Nima; Karimi, Faith (9 July 2011). "South Sudanese celebrate the birth of their nation". CNN. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
157. ^ "Natural resources". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 29 January 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
158. ^ "China to evacuate South Sudan oil workers to capital Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine". Reuters. 20 December 2013.
159. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey (9 July 2011). "After Years of Struggle, South Sudan Becomes a New Nation". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
160. ^ a b c Hamilton, Rebecca (28 November 2010). "Southern Sudanese Independence: High Hopes, Huge Obstacles". Pulitzer Center. Archived from the original on 25 April 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
161. ^ a b Trivett, Vincent (8 July 2011). "Oil-Rich South Sudan Has Hours To Choose Between North Sudan, China and the U.S". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
162. ^ Wynne-Jones, Ros (7 July 2012). "Happy Birthday South Sudan?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
163. ^ Badawi, Ahmad (3 October 2011). "A Greek Tragedy is Sudan's Woe: Sudan Must be Relieved of Foreign Debt Quickly". African Arguments. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
164. ^ Leo, Benjamin (2009). "Sudan Debt Dynamics: Status Quo, Southern Secession, Debt Division, and Oil – a Financial Framework for the Future". Center for Global Development. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
165. ^ "Permanent Members". Paris Club. 2012. Archived from the original on 28 June 2009.
166. ^ Ahmed, Medani (2008). "External Debts, Growth and Peace in the Sudan" (PDF). CHR. Michelsen Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
167. ^ Mazimpaka, Magnus (8 July 2011). "South Sudan: Rwanda Hopeful of South's Strategic Link to North Africa". allAfrica. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
168. ^ "Welcome South Sudan to EAC!". East African Business Week. 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
169. ^ "South Sudan to link to Kenya oil pipeline". Reuters. 6 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
170. ^ Amos, Machel (17 September 2011). "South Sudan delays membership in regional bloc". Daily Nation. Archived from the original on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
171. ^ "South Sudan readies for EAC membership". Archived from the original on 21 October 2011.
172. ^ "Uganda says South Sudan likely to join EAC in 2014". Xinhua News Agency. 9 September 2013. Archived from the original on 14 November 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
173. ^ "Ugandan MPs oppose South Sudan joining East African community". The Africa Report. 7 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
174. ^ "Tanzania warms up to South Sudan membership". The EastAfrican. 8 December 2012. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
175. ^ "EAC prepares to admit South Sudan". The EastAfrican. 11 May 2013. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
176. ^ "allAfrica.com: East Africa: EAC to Decide On South Sudan Admission by April 2014". allAfrica.com. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
177. ^ "South Sudan defers EAC admission". The Observer. 5 May 2014. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
178. ^ "East Africa: South Sudan's Push to Join EAC Gains Momentum". 7 November 2015. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
179. ^ "South Sudan joins East African regional bloc". Daily Nation. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
180. ^ "COMMUNIQUÉ: SIGNING CEREMONY OF THE TREATY OF ACCESSION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH SUDAN INTO THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY". East African Community. 15 April 2016. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
181. ^ "South Sudan Launches Bid to Join Commonwealth". Gurtong.net. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
182. ^ "South Sudan wants to join Commonwealth". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
183. ^ "South Sudan gets new airline". Defenceweb.co.za. 6 September 2011. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
184. ^ "South Sudan set to have own national air carrier". goss-online.org. 1 May 2013. Archived from the original on 22 September 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
185. ^ "Obakki Foundation". Obakki Foundation. Archived from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
186. ^ "Rotary Club of Bridgton Lake-Region". Lake Region Rotary. Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
187. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
188. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950–2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
189. ^ "Discontent over Sudan census". News24.com. AFP. 21 May 2009. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
190. ^ a b Fick, Maggie (8 June 2009). "S. Sudan Census Bureau Releases Official Results Amidst Ongoing Census Controversy". !enough The project to end genocide and crimes against humanity. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
191. ^ "South Sudan parliament throws out census results". SudanTribune. 8 July 2009. Archived from the original on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
192. ^ a b Birungi, Marvis (10 May 2009). "South Sudanese officials decry 'unfortunate' announcement of census results". The New Sudan Vision. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
193. ^ Thompkins, Gwen (15 April 2009). "Ethnic Divisions Complicate Sudan's Census". NPR. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
194. ^ "South Sudan says Northern Sudan's census dishonest". Radio Nederland Wereldomroep. 6 November 2009. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011.
195. ^ "South Sudan Refugee Crisis" (PDF). University of Virginia School of Medicine. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
196. ^ "Sveriges flyktingkvot". migrationsverket.se (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
197. ^ Martell, Peter (15 May 2019). First Raise a Flag: How South Sudan Won the Longest War But Lost the Peace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-005270-6. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
198. ^ "South Sudan: States, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics in Maps and Charts". citypopulation.de. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
199. ^ Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (1)
200. ^ "The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, 2011" (PDF). Government of South Sudan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2017. Part One, Page 3, No. 6 (1), (2), retrieved 6 May 2017
201. ^ a b "South Sudan - Religion, Animism, Christianity". Britannica. 6 July 2024. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
202. ^ a b c d Language of Instruction Country Profile South Sudan, United States Agency for International Development
203. ^ "Voice of a nation: How Juba Arabic helps bridge a factious South Sudan". The Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
204. ^ The impact of language policy and practice on children's learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa 2016 Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 672 kB), Page. 1, retrieved 20 May 2017
205. ^ The Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan, 2005 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 484 kB), Part One, Page. 3–4, No. 6 (1), (2), retrieved 6 May 2017
206. ^ "South Sudanese still in Kenya despite new state". Xinhua. 2 August 2011. Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
207. ^ AfricaNews (6 July 2017). "S. Sudan to adopt Swahili as official language, seeks Tanzania's help". Africanews. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
208. ^ AfricaNews (5 July 2017). "S. Sudan to adopt Swahili as official language, seeks Tanzania's help – Africanews". Archived from the original on 8 October 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
209. ^ Middle East Monitor: South Sudan and Chad apply to join the Arab League Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 12 April 2014, retrieved 3 May 2017
210. ^ Asharq Al-Awsat: Foreign Minister of South Sudan: We Are Considering Joining the Arab League Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 7 June 2016, retrieved 3 May 2017
211. ^ Sudan Tribune: Khartoum supports South Sudan demand to join Arab League Archived 18 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 21 July 2016, retrieved 3 May 2017
212. ^ Hurd, Emma (8 February 2011). "Southern Sudan Votes To Split From North". News.sky.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
213. ^ "South Sudan's Muslims welcome secession". The Daily Star. 9 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
214. ^ "South Sudan profile". BBC News. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
215. ^ Jacqueline Wilson, The Religious Landscape in South Sudan: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENGAGEMENT United States Institute of Peace (June 2019), p. 7.
216. ^ a b c d e "South Sudan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
217. ^ "South Sudan's Muslims welcome secession". The Daily Star. Agence France-Presse. 8 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
218. ^ "Global Religious Landscape Table — Percent of Population". Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 18 December 2012. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
219. ^ a b "U.S. State Dept 2022 report (citing Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project)". Archived from the original on 21 August 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
220. ^ Barrett, David; Kurian, George; Johnson, Todd, eds. (2001). World Christian Encyclopedia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 699–700.
221. ^ "Catholics and Culture website, retrieved 2023-08-08". Archived from the original on 21 August 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
222. ^ "How many Anglicans are there in the Anglican Church in North America?" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
223. ^ "Presbyterian Church of the Sudan". 20 May 2012. Archived from the original on 20 May 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
224. ^ "Sudan: A Country Study; Ethnicity, Regionalism and Ethnicity". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
225. ^ Geographica. The Complete Illustrated Atlas of the world. 1999. p. 336.
226. ^ "Sudan". U.S. State Department. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
227. ^ Kaufmann, Eric (2004). Rethinking ethnicity: majority groups and dominant minorities. Routledge. p. 45\. ISBN 978-0-203-56339-7.
228. ^ Minahan, J. (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z. Greenwood Press. p. 1786\. ISBN 978-0-313-32384-3.
229. ^ Arnold, G (2003). "Book Review: Douglas H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars". African Journal of Political Science. 8 (1): 147.
230. ^ "Sudan : Country Studies". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 22 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
231. ^ ACN (4 April 2022). "New bishop in South Sudan: "We must get back on our feet and give hope to the people"". ACN International. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
232. ^ Pat, Mr (2009). Christians Under Siege. p. 105.
233. ^ "South Sudan To Respect Freedom of Religion Says GOSS President". Sudan Radio Service, Sudanradio.org. 21 February 2011. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
234. ^ a b "The Christian Times – First public library opens in South Sudan, advocates for peace". The Christian Times. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
235. ^ a b c "Instilling a culture of reading; South Sudan looks forward to new public library". Audioboom. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
236. ^ "MBA student establishes NGO to improve literacy in South Sudan". The University of Sydney. Archived from the original on 28 June 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
237. ^ "South Sudan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2021 (January 2021) – South Sudan". ReliefWeb. 26 January 2021. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
238. ^ a b "Southern Sudan has unique combination of worst diseases in the world — Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan". Sudan Tribune. Archived from the original on 8 April 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
239. ^ Moszynski, P. (2005). "Conference plans rebuilding of Southern Sudan's health services". BMJ. 331 (7510): 179. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7510.179. PMC 1179754.
240. ^ a b "South Sudan Household Survey" (PDF). South Sudan Medical Journal. December 2007. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
241. ^ Hakim, James (August 2009). "HIV/AIDS: an update on Epidemiology, Prevention and Treatment". South Sudan Medical Journal. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
242. ^ Pasquale, Harriet; Jarvese, Martina; Julla, Ahmed; Doggale, Constantino; Sebit, Bakhit; Lual, Mark Y.; Baba, Samson P.; Chanda, Emmanuel (2013). "Malaria control in South Sudan, 2006–2013: strategies, progress and challenges". Malaria Journal. 12: 374. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-12-374. PMC 3816306. PMID 24160336.
243. ^ Visser, BJ (July 2012). "Dracunculiasis eradication—finishing the job before surprises arise". Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 5 (7): 505–10\. doi:10.1016/S1995-7645(12)60088-1. PMID 22647809.
244. ^ Hopkins, DR; Ruiz-Tiben, E; Weiss, A; Withers, PC; Eberhard, ML; Roy, SL (July 2013). "Dracunculiasis eradication: and now, South Sudan". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 89 (1): 5–10\. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0090. PMC 3748487. PMID 23843492.
245. ^ "WHO — Dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm disease)". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
246. ^ Ambler, Sean (10 January 2011). "Support freedom for Southern Sudan and fight for workers' unity against imperialism". League for the Fifth International. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
247. ^ "SUDAN: Peace bolsters food security in the south". IRIN. 18 April 2007. Archived from the original on 28 August 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
248. ^ "South Sudan's Latjor denies reports that hunger caused death". Sudan Tribune. 17 August 2011. Archived from the original on 21 September 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
249. ^ Meldrum, Andrew (6 January 2012). "South Sudan News: Ethnic clashes must be solved in the long term". GlobalPost. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
250. ^ According to the WHO: "The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; Bangladesh, 66%; Guinea, 63%; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%. "[1] Archived 24 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
251. ^ "Women's Security and the Law in South Sudan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
252. ^ Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2014). Humanitarian Crisis in South Sudan Gender Alert 2: May 2014. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women)
253. ^ a b "South Sudan Emergency Situation-Regional Update". UNHCR. 2 February 2014. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
254. ^ "2016 South Sudan Humanitarian Needs Overview". UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 5 January 2016. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
255. ^ "South Sudan's Music Identity by Mawa Minga". Andariya. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
256. ^ "Emmanuel Jal: National Geographic World Music". Archived from the original on 27 October 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
257. ^ Stevenson, Jane (8 August 2012). "Emmanuel Jal uses music as therapy | Music | Entertainment". Toronto Sun. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
258. ^ "Music — Review of Emmanuel Jal — Warchild". BBC. 1 January 1970. Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
259. ^ TEDGlobal 2009 (7 August 2009). "Emmanuel Jal: The music of a war child | Video on". TED. Archived from the original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
260. ^ Carlstrom, Gregg (12 July 2011). "South Sudan journalists facing intimidation". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
261. ^ "South Sudan Friendship Press". Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
262. ^ "South Sudan Nile Citizens". 5 December 2023. Archived from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
263. ^ "South Sudan security detains two journalists". Committee to Protect Journalists. 7 November 2011. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
264. ^ "South Sudan releases two journalists without charges". Sudan Tribune. 18 November 2011. Archived from the original on 29 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
265. ^ "South Sudan journalist Peter Moi shot dead". bbcnews.com. 20 August 2015. Archived from the original on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
266. ^ Hannington, Ochan (31 October 2015). "Risking my life". D+C, development and cooperation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
267. ^ "South Sudan media blackout after reporter shot dead". Daily Star. 21 August 2015. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
268. ^ "US journalist killed in Yei River". southsudan.biz. 27 August 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.[permanent dead link]
269. ^ "South Sudan president downplays refugee crisis, blames social media". southsudan.biz. 28 August 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.[permanent dead link]
270. ^ Radio Tamazuj
271. ^ "South Sudan blocks access to independent websites". Deutsche Welle. 21 July 2017. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
272. ^ "South Sudan: Events of 2020". World Report 2021: Rights Trends in South Sudan. Human Rights Watch. 23 December 2020. Archived from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
273. ^ ""Sudans Post" gets blocked after receiving personal threats from NSS – transcript revealed – Qurium Media Foundation". Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
274. ^ DiPiazza, Francesca (2006). Sudan in Pictures. 21st-century Books. p. 54\. ISBN 978-0-8225-2678-0. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
275. ^ "South Sudan joins Fifa 10 months after independence". BBC News. 25 May 2012. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
276. ^ a b "World's Newest Nation Set to Step into Sporting Arena". The Jakarta Globe. 6 July 2011. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
277. ^ "S. Sudan team kicks off to a good start, then collapses". SKNVibes. 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
278. ^ "South Sudan". Rio 2016. Archived from the original on 25 November 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2016.

## Further reading

[edit]

* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division. – Sudan Archived 30 June 2012 at archive.today
* Walter C. Soderlund, E. Donald Briggs, The Independence of South Sudan: The Role of Mass Media in the Responsibility to Prevent, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2014. pp. $38.99 (paper), ISBN 978-1-77112-117-0
* Mohamed Omer Beshir: The Southern Sudan. Background to Conflict. C. Hurst & Co., London 1968.
* Biel, Melha Rout (2007). South Sudan after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Jena: Netzbandt Verlag. ISBN 978-3-937884-01-1.
* Daly, M. W.; Rolandsen, Øystein H. (2016). A History of South Sudan: From Slavery to Independence. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11631-2. OCLC 921821890.
* Tvedt, Terje (2004). South Sudan. An Annotated Bibliography. (2 vols) (2nd ed.). London/New York: IB Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-987-5.
* "Profile: Southern Sudan leader Salva Kiir". BBC News. 5 January 2011. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
* "No One to Intervene: Gaps in Civilian Protection in Southern Sudan" (PDF). New York: Human Rights Watch. June 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2011.

## External links

[edit]

South Sudan at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Travel information from Wikivoyage
* Data from Wikidata

* Government of South Sudan
* Government of South Sudan Archived 20 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine – USA and UN Mission
* Government of South Sudan – UK Mission
* South Sudan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* South Sudan profile from the BBC News.
* Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Sudan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 9–19.
* Photographer's Account of South Sudan – "The Cost of Silence: A Traveling Exhibition"
* "Sudan's Shaky Peace", National Geographic, November 2010.
* Photo gallery by George Steinmetz.
* UN Outrage at South Sudan Attack

8°N 30°E﻿ / ﻿8°N 30°E﻿ / 8; 30

* v
* t
* e

South Sudan articles

History|

* Anyanya
* First Sudanese Civil War
* Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)
* Second Sudanese Civil War
* Southern Sudan Autonomous Region
* 1972–83
* 2005–11
* Comprehensive Peace Agreement
* 2011 independence referendum
* United Nations Mission
* Ethnic violence
* South Sudanese Civil War
* Famine (2017)

Geography|

* Cities
* Ecoregions
* Rivers
* Climate change

Politics|

* States
* current governors
* Elections
* Constitution
* Corruption
* Foreign relations
* Human rights
* LGBT rights
* Judiciary
* Law enforcement
* Parliament
* Military
* President
* Vice President

Economy|

* Banking
* Central bank
* Companies
* Currency
* Telecommunications
* Trade unions
* Transport
* Tourism

Society|

* Child marriage
* Demographics
* Education
* Ethnic groups
* Health
* Languages
* Prostitution
* Religion
* Water supply and sanitation

Culture|

* Anthem
* Art
* Cinema
* Coat of arms
* Flag
* Literature
* Media
* Music
* Public holidays
* Sport

* Outline

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Countries and territories of Africa

Sovereign states|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt (partly in Asia)
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gabon
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

States with limited
recognition

* Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (unclear sovereignty)
* Somaliland

Dependent
territories

| France|

* Îles Éparses

|

United Kingdom|

Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

African territories
fully part of
non-African states|

| France|

* Mayotte
* Réunion

|

Italy|

* Pantelleria
* Pelagie Islands

Portugal|

* Madeira
* Savage Islands

Spain|

* Canary Islands
* Ceuta
* Melilla
* Plazas de soberanía

Yemen|

* Socotra

* Category
* Africa portal

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Croatia
* Sweden
* Israel
* Catalonia

Geographic|

* MusicBrainz area

Artists|

* KulturNav

People|

* UK Parliament

Other|

* IdRef
* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template