Soviet war crimes

War crimes and crimes against humanity committed by the Soviet Union

Soviet war crimes

Katyn massacre 1943 exhumation[1]

Location| Soviet Union member states, satellite nations and occupied territories:

* Soviet Union: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan[a])
* Eastern Europe: Poland (Kresy), Finland and Karelia (Eastern Finland), Baltics (Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania), Romania (Bessarabia), Hungary[b], Czechoslovakia[c], East Germany and Yugoslavia[d]
* East Asia: Xinjiang[e], Northeast China[f], North Korea and Japan (South Sakhalin and Kuril Islands)
* Republican Spain[g]
* Afghanistan[h]

Date| 1917-1991
Target|

* Polish, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Romanian civilians, especially intelligentsia
* Polish and Finnish POWs
* Hungarian POWs and civilians
* Japanese POWs and civilians
* German POWs and civilians
* Political dissidents
* others

Attack type

| War crimes, crimes against humanity, mass murder, genocide, ethnic cleansing, collective punishment, deportation, starvation, forced labour, mass rape, looting and crimes against peace
Perpetrators| Soviet Union (especially under the leadership of Joseph Stalin)
Motive|

* Expansionism
* Internal colonialism
* Soviet Nationalism and Sovietization
* State atheism
* Cult of personality (especially under Stalin)
* Soviet Imperialism and Neocolonialism (Especially during the Cold War)
* Russian nationalism and Russification [i]
* Racism and Antisemitism (alleged)[j]

From 1917 to 1991, a multitude of war crimes and crimes against humanity were carried out by the Soviet Union or any of its Soviet republics, including the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and its armed forces. They include acts which were committed by the Red Army (later called the Soviet Army) as well as acts which were committed by the country's secret police, NKVD, including its Internal Troops. In many cases, these acts were committed upon the direct orders of Soviet leaders Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin in pursuance of the early Soviet policy of Red Terror as a means to justify executions and political repression. In other instances they were committed without orders by Soviet troops against prisoners of war or civilians of countries that had been in armed conflict with the Soviet Union, or they were committed during partisan warfare.[3]

A significant number of these incidents occurred in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe before, during, and in the aftermath of World War II, involving summary executions and the mass murder of prisoners of war (POWs), such as in the Katyn massacre and mass rape by troops of the Red Army in territories they occupied.

In the 1990s and 2000s, war crimes trials held in the Baltic states led to the prosecution of some Russians, mostly in absentia, for crimes against humanity committed during or shortly after World War II, including killings or deportations of civilians. Today, the Russian government engages in historical negationism.[4] Russian media refers to the Soviet crimes against humanity and war crimes as a "Western myth".[5] In Russian history textbooks, the atrocities are either altered to portray the Soviets positively or omitted entirely.[6] In 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin, himself a war crime fugitive since 2023, while acknowledging the "horrors of Stalinism", criticized the "excessive demonization of Stalin" by "Russia's enemies".[7]

## Background

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The Soviet Union did not recognize Imperial Russia's signing of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 as binding, and as a result, it refused to recognize them until 1955.[8] This created a situation in which war crimes by the Soviet armed forces could be justified, and also gave Nazi Germany a legal cover for the atrocities it committed against Soviet prisoners of war.[9]

## Russian Civil War

[edit]

### Blagoveshchensk massacre

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In March 1918, over a thousand Blagoveshchensk residents were massacred by Red Guards who seized the city. Chekist I. P. Pavlunovsky reported that miners stormed the city, systematically killing those suspected of rebellion, including city administration staff and mining specialists. A 1919 press report corroborated the atrocities, stating over 1,000 locals were shot, with many students later joining the army. Far Eastern Socialist-Revolutionary-Maximalist I. I. Zhukovsky-Zhuk noted that ruthless, no-compromise methods, including summary executions, were common. He cited Amur authorities like Matveev and Dimitriev, both Communists, who shot dozens without trial, a practice known and tolerated by most, except for Blagoveshchensk anarchists.[10]

### Massacre of Kyiv

[edit]

After the Battle of Kruty, which successfully delayed the Bolshevik advance on Kyiv and gave time for those who wanted to evacuate, the Red Guards approached the outskirts of Kyiv on February 4, 1918, where Mikhail Muravyov gave the order to begin the assault.[11] During the capture of the capital, poison gas was used and massive shelling was carried out, which did not stop for several days (up to 15 thousand shells), as a result of which, among other things, the house of Mykhailo Hrushevsky was destroyed.[12]

On Duma Square (today Maidan Nezalezhnosti), Muravyov was met by a delegation of the city council led by then-mayor Yevhen Ryabtsov. Andriy Polupanov was appointed Soviet commander in Kyiv.[13] Entering the city, Soviet troops killed about 5,000 civilians, declared enemies. Among the dead were only two politicians: Secretary for Territorial Affairs of UPR Oleksandr Zarudny and Central Rada deputy Isak Puhach.[14][15]

### Vladivostok massacre

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In early April 1920, former Kolchak government head P. V. Volgodsky met two officers in Shanghai who had fled Red Terror in Vladivostok. They reported that despite the socialist coalition government, Bolsheviks were actively arresting and killing Whites, often after torture. They stated, "In Vladivostok, there are systematic murders of White Guard officers. They are arrested and shot on their way to prison under the pretext of stopping escape attempts, etc."[10]

### Chita massacre and the elimination of the so-called "Semyonov jam"

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Nestor Kalandarishvili's Red Army partisan detachment, known for its brutal attacks on the pro-White Buryat population, participated in capturing Chita and eliminating the "Semyonov jam." For example, in Fall 1920, the Khamnigan-Buryat Khoshun was devastated; three of its somons were completely deserted, and two others retained less than 200 of 6,000 inhabitants. Many who fled to Mongolia were killed, their bodies left unburied in March 1921, with over 70 corpses, including monks, women, and children, found near Byrtsin datsan. Beyond robbery, Kalandarishvili's unit also raped Buryat women and girls in late 1920. Despite the 5th Army command's accusations that Kalandarishvili's unit undermined Soviet power due to its criminal behavior, he faced no military sanctions, largely because his position had been strengthened by Lenin.[16]

### Amur River massacre

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Yakov Ivanovich Tryapitsyn and Nina Lebedeva-Kiyashko's movement of two thousand troops down the Amur River involved the near-total extermination of rural intellectuals for "revolutionary passivity" and anyone resembling an urban "bourgeois." Priests were either drowned in ice-holes or taken prisoner, and even volunteers joining the partisans were shot.

One of Tryapitsyn's aides, Ivan Lapta, formed a Red Army detachment that "raided villages and camps, robbed and killed people," targeting those who withheld gold at the Limursk mines and looting Amgun gold mines and surrounding villages. Before occupying the regional center, Lapta's detachments, along with other Tryapitsyn associates, killed hundreds of Lower Amurians.

Tryapitsyn's unit included about 200 Chinese and 200 Koreans from taiga gold mines, led by Ilya Pak. Tryapitsyn provided them generous cash advances, promising gold and many Russian women. Partisan chiefs, appointed for their ruthless determination, maintained control by allowing their units to plunder and kill.[10]

### Nikolaevsk-on-Amur massacre

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See also: Nikolayevsk incident

In 1920, Soviet Russia and Japan discussed a Far Eastern buffer state. Japan agreed to allow the Red Army into Vladivostok after Kolchak's government collapsed, forcing Bolsheviks to accept a socialist zemstvo due to the significant foreign troop presence. Meanwhile, Tryapitsyn's forces besieged and captured Nikolaevsk-on-Amur in late February after an artillery bombardment. The city, isolated and with limited defenders, was promised no atrocities by the entering Red Army, who even signed a pact with the Japanese garrison on February 28. However, the Red Army immediately began looting and killing.[10]

The Red guerrillas violated their peace agreement with the Japanese garrison upon entering Nikolaevsk, killing residents and executing civilians sympathetic to the White Movement, including wealthy individuals. They then provoked the Japanese garrison, issuing an ultimatum to disarm, which Major Ishikawa, the Japanese commander, refused. On March 13, Ishikawa launched a preemptive strike, wounding Tryapitsyn. Despite this, Tryapitsyn organized resistance, overwhelming the Japanese garrison. The consul and all staff died in the consulate, which the guerrillas set ablaze. Tryapitsyn's unit also carried out brutal purges, exterminating Jewish women and children—children were killed with their mothers, and women were raped before execution. Jewish community members were drowned in the Amur River. These executions were systematically performed by dedicated squads of Russian, Korean, and Chinese partisans loyal to Tryapitsyn, who killed a set number of victims from a list nightly.[10][17][18][19][20]

Tryapitsyn's unit retreated only after destroying the entire city, burning wooden buildings and blowing up stone structures. In late May and early June 1920, on orders from Tryapitsyn's headquarters, Nikolaevsk-on-Amur was annihilated, surrounding fishing grounds burned, and inhabitants murdered based on "trustworthiness" and social affiliation. Remaining Japanese prisoners and dissenting Red Army partisans were also killed. The forced evacuation of some residents into the taiga resulted in nearly all children under five dying. The remaining population was forcibly taken by the Red Army through the taiga to a "red island" in the middle Amur, leaving Nikolaevsk as desolate ashes. Thousands of Russians were massacred by the Red Army.[10][17][18][19][20]

### The terror of 1920–1921 in the occupied Crimea

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In late 1920 and early 1921, the Red Army carried out a mass extermination of Wrangel's army officers and soldiers, and civilians in Crimea. After seizing Crimea on November 21, 1920, Chekists formed the Crimean Strike Group under E. G. Evdokimov. These Chekists often bypassed investigations, relying on arrests and questionnaires to "judge" victims via troikas, leading to mass executions and incarcerations in concentration camps. Many arrestees, including women and teenagers, were immediately shot.[21]

It's believed Yefim Yevdokimov's "expedition" of special agents killed at least 12,000 people. This figure, recorded in his commendation for the Order of the Red Banner, noted executions included "up to 30 governors, more than 150 generals, more than 300 colonels, several hundred counter-intelligence spies." Territorial Chekists also actively participated in the killings. M.M. Vikhman, a former head of the Crimean Cheka, later boasted of personally killing "an ennite number of thousands of White Guards." Additionally, Red partisans exterminated at least 3,000 Crimeans.[21]

However, this terror sparked armed resistance and widespread indignation among local communists, who complained to central authorities. Consequently, in June 1921, a Plenipotentiary Commission began work in Crimea. M.H. Sultan-Galiev, a commission member, reported that Crimean workers estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Wrangel officers were shot across Crimea, with up to 12,000 in Simferopol alone..[21]

### Wartime sexual violence

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Wartime sexual violence was a pervasive and culturally ingrained aspect of the Russian Civil War. As one European historian(Sighele, S) noted, the Cossack raids of 1815, involving the killing of men and rape of women, became legendary in France. Isaac Babel's "My First Goose" further illuminated this brutal mentality, quoting a Red cavalryman who implied defiling women earned "affection from the fighters." In September 1920, Commissioner N. Narimanov directly reported "open rape of girls and women" by the Red Army in Azerbaijan to Lenin.[22]

In war zones, captured women were treated as valuable commodities. A Bolshevik's 1921 letter from Uryankhai exemplified this, boasting of numerous available women and suggesting Red commanders' convoys included enslaved concubines. Cheka reports from early 1922 in Tuva detailed widespread excesses, even blaming "luxurious wives" of White Guard officers for seducing Soviet workers.[22]

Irregular units exhibited an increased propensity for violence, fueled by a lack of respect for women, loose morals, and class hatred. An ancient Siberian custom of gang rape among youth further contributed to widespread sexual crime. Mass rapes were a dark reality; insurgents, viewing women as spoils, raped wives of priests, officials, officers, merchants, nuns, and teachers, as well as peasant women. For instance, in June 1919, P.K. Lubkov's partisans gang-raped a teacher in Kolyon, driving her insane.[22]

Partisan gangs frequently seized women as sexual slaves, often killing them after abuse. The first mass murders of women by Reds occurred in Semirechye in spring-summer 1918. P.F. Sukhov's detachment in Altai kidnapped priests' wives and daughters, and T.F. Putilov explicitly took a "beautiful young woman" as spoils. Amur region partisans(including many Chinese, Koreans, Magyars, and Caucasians, frequently) also regularly abducted women.[22]

Late 1919 saw "many nuns killed and raped" during the Barnaul Bogoroditse-Kazan nunnery pogrom. A 1920 memoir described finding a tortured female corpse, indicating extreme suffering. In late 1920, N.A. Kalandarishvili's partisans not only robbed but also raped Buryat women and girls.[22]

Records from I.Ya. Tretiak's division in Biysk Uyezd in late 1919 confirm multiple incidents of group sexual violence, leaving "ruined maidens and pregnant women." When partisans captured Charyshskaya stanitsa in December 1919, "hundreds of girls became women, and women became unwilling traitors to their husbands." Documents corroborate these accounts; Biysk Line Cossacks complained to revolutionary committees in February 1920 about mass rapes and resulting diseases, though orders to prosecute were sabotaged.[22]

Western Siberian peasant Red Army fighters were equally brutal. In autumn 1919, they raped women during the capture of Aul station, and a commander specifically raped and shot a railway worker's wife at Rubtsovka.[22]

Mass rapes were characteristic of G. Rogov's and Yakov Tryapitsyn's detachments, with their headquarters often serving as centers for orgies. A December 1919 Cheka report detailed widespread rapes in Kuznetsk. Rogov's men abducted women and girls for "brutal pleasure," even at their headquarters. Victims included an 18-year-old teacher, a 19-year-old girl who died from shock, and a 52-year-old widow. Tryapitsyn's headquarters also hosted such orgies; his men in Susano village raped all girls, then attempted to burn them alive before being repelled by other partisans.[22]

Red Army partisans often raped minors, often killing them afterwards. The opera singer Vera Davydova survived Tryapitsyn's unit at the age of 14 and told Nikolaev local historian V.I. Yuzefov that after the evacuation she was immediately seized by a group of Red Army partisans, forcibly separated from her parents, for allegedly sending her to the "headquarters." Her mother's screams attracted one of the Red Army partisan leaders, who recognized her as his former teacher and intervened. Tryapitsyn's unit also sexually assaulted women during their hasty escape from Nikolaevsk-on-Amur. N.D. Kolesnikova recalled: "It was forbidden for girls from the age of 16 to leave Nikolaevsk with their families. They had to go through the taiga together with the Red Army partisans. Luckily for me, I was only 13 years old."[22]

The Nikolaevsk-on-Amur pogrom and subsequent Tryapitsyn atrocities were marked by a mass hunt for women and girls, resulting in rapes and brutal murders. In summer 1920, numerous female and child corpses, disfigured by mutilations and stab wounds, were recovered from the Amgun River. One report from early July 1920 documented a 15-17-year-old girl with eight dagger wounds to the chest.[22]

## Before World War II

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Victims of a Soviet-perpetrated massacre in Yerevan, Armenia during the suppression of the February Uprising of 1921

The Soviets reportedly deployed mustard gas bombs during the 1934 Soviet invasion of Xinjiang, many civilians were also killed by conventional bombs dropped by Soviet and aligned during the invasion.[23][24]

### Red Army and pogroms

[edit]

Further information: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

The early Soviet leaders publicly denounced antisemitism,[25] efforts were made by Soviet authorities to contain anti-Jewish bigotry notably during the Russian Civil War, and soldiers were punished whenever the Red Army units perpetrated pogroms,[26][27] as well as during the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1919–1920 at Baranovichi.[28][29][30] Only a small number of pogroms were attributed to the Red Army, with the majority of the 'collectively violent' acts in the period having been committed by anti-communist and nationalist forces.[31]

The pogroms were condemned by the Red Army high command and guilty units were disarmed, while individual pogromists were court-martialed and faced execution.[25][32] Although pogroms by Ukrainian units of the Red Army still occurred even after this, Jews regarded the Red Army as the only force which was willing to protect them.[33] It is estimated that 3,450 Jews or 2.3 percent of the Jewish victims killed during the Russian Civil War were murdered by the Bolshevik forces.[34] In comparison, according to the Morgenthau Report, a total of about 300 Jews died in all incidents involving Polish responsibility.[35] However, as William Korey wrote: "Anti-Jewish discrimination had become an integral part of Soviet state policy ever since the late thirties.", as the new Stalin government moved to fight against perceived "Jewish infiltration" in the country, as well as growing conspiracies of "Jewish collaboration with the west and the Bourgeoisie".[26][27]

## The Red Army and the NKVD

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Soviet invasion of Poland, 1939. Advance of the Red Army troops.

See also: NKVD prisoner massacres and Katyn massacre

On 6 February 1922, the Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) secret police was replaced by the State Political Administration or OGPU, a section of the NKVD. The declared function of the NKVD was to protect the state security of the Soviet Union, which was accomplished by the large scale political persecution of "class enemies". The Red Army often gave support to the NKVD in the implementation of political repressions.[36] As an internal security force and a prison guard contingent of the Gulag, the Internal Troops repressed political dissidents and engaged in war crimes during periods of military hostilities throughout Soviet history. They were specifically responsible for maintaining the political regime in the Gulag and conducting mass deportations and forced resettlement. The latter targeted a number of ethnic groups that the Soviet authorities presumed to be hostile to its policies and likely to collaborate with the enemy, including Chechens, Crimean Tatars, and Koreans.[37]

## World War II

[edit]

> "... Whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking bureaucrats, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my Captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were we any better?'"

— Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago

War crimes by Soviet armed forces against civilians and prisoners of war in the territories occupied by the USSR between 1939 and 1941 in regions including Eastern Poland, the Baltic states, Finland and Bessarabia, along with other war crimes in 1944–1945, have been ongoing issues within these countries. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a more systematic, locally controlled discussion of these events has taken place.[38]

Targets of Soviet atrocities included not only Axis collaborators (after 1941), but also members of anti-communist resistance movements in Eastern Europe, such as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in Ukraine, the Forest Brothers in the Baltic States, the Armia Krajowa in Poland and the Goryani in Bulgaria (as well as several Romanian and Chechen partisan groups). The NKVD also conducted the Katyn massacre, summarily executing over 20,000 Polish prisoners (which included both military, gendarme and police officers, but also many civilians, such as government officials, landowners and intelligentsia) between April and May 1940.

### Poland

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#### 1939–1941

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Victims of a NKVD prisoner massacre in Lwów in occupied Poland in June 1941 One of the mass graves at Katyn where the NKVD massacred thousands of Polish Officers, policemen, intellectuals and civilian prisoners of war.[39]

Main articles: Soviet invasion of Poland, Katyn massacre, Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union (after 1939), and NKVD prisoner massacres

In September 1939, the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied it in accordance with the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviets later forcefully occupied the Baltic States and parts of Romania, including Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

German historian Thomas Urban[40] writes that the Soviet policy towards the people who fell under their control in occupied areas was harsh, showing strong elements of ethnic cleansing.[41] The NKVD task forces followed the Red Army to remove 'hostile elements' from the conquered territories in what was known as the 'revolution by hanging'.[42] Polish historian, Prof. Tomasz Strzembosz, has noted parallels between the Nazi Einsatzgruppen and these Soviet units.[43] Many civilians tried to escape from the Soviet NKVD round-ups; those who failed were taken into custody and afterwards they were deported to Siberia and vanished in the Gulags.[42]

Torture was used on a wide scale in various prisons, especially in those prisons that were located in small towns. Prisoners were scalded with boiling water in Bobrka; in Przemyślany, people's noses, ears, and fingers were cut off and their eyes were also cut out; in Czortków, the breasts of female inmates were cut off; and in Drohobycz, victims were bound together with barbed wire.[44] Similar atrocities occurred in Sambor, Stanisławów, Stryj, and Złoczów.[44] According to historian, Prof. Jan T. Gross:

> We cannot escape the conclusion: Soviet state security organs tortured their prisoners not only to extract confessions but also to put them to death. Not that the NKVD had sadists in its ranks who had run amok; rather, this was a wide and systematic procedure.

— Jan T. Gross[44]

According to sociologist, Prof. Tadeusz Piotrowski, during the years from 1939 to 1941, nearly 1.5 million persons (including both local inhabitants and refugees from German-occupied Poland) were deported from the Soviet-controlled areas of former eastern Poland deep into the Soviet Union, of whom 58.0% were Poles, 19.4% Jews and the remainder other ethnic nationalities.[45] Only a small number of these deportees returned to their homes after the war, when their homelands were annexed by the Soviet Union. According to American professor Carroll Quigley, at least one third of the 320,000 Polish prisoners of war captured by the Red Army in 1939 were murdered.[46]

It's estimated that between 10,000-35,000 prisoners were killed either in prisons or on prison trails to the Soviet Union in the few days after the 22 June 1941 German attack on the Soviets (prisons: Brygidki, Złoczów, Dubno, Drohobycz, and so on), with many more having already been killed before 1941 (such as in Grodno, Husynne and Mokrany)[47].[48][49][50][51]

#### 1944–1945

[edit]

In Poland, German Nazi atrocities ended by 1945, but they were replaced by Soviet oppression with the advance of Red Army forces. Soviet soldiers often engaged in plunder, rape and other crimes against the Poles, causing the population to fear and hate the regime.[52][53][54][55]

Soldiers of the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) were persecuted and imprisoned by Soviet forces as a matter of course.[56] Most victims were deported to the gulags in the Donetsk region.[57] In 1945 alone, the number of members of the Polish Underground State who were deported to Siberia and various labor camps in the Soviet Union reached 50,000.[58][59] Units of the Red Army carried out campaigns against Polish partisans and civilians. During the Augustów chase in 1945, more than 2,000 Poles were captured and about 600 of them are presumed to have died in Soviet custody.[60] It was a common Soviet practice to accuse their victims of being fascists in order to justify their death sentences. The perversion of this Soviet tactic lay in the fact that practically all of the accused had in reality been fighting against the forces of Nazi Germany since September 1939. At that time the Soviets were still collaborating with Nazi Germany for more than 20 months before Operation Barbarossa started. Precisely therefore these kinds of Poles were judged capable of resisting the Soviets, in the same way that they had resisted the Nazis. After the War, a more elaborate appearance of justice was given under the jurisdiction of the Polish People's Republic orchestrated by the Soviets in the form of mock trials. These were organized after victims had been arrested under false charges by the NKVD or other Soviet controlled security organisations such as the Ministry of Public Security. At least 6,000 political death sentences were issued, and the majority of them were carried out.[61] It is estimated that over 20,000 people died in Soviet prisons [citation needed]. Famous examples include Witold Pilecki or Emil August Fieldorf.[62]

The attitude of Soviet servicemen towards ethnic Poles was better than their attitude towards the Germans, but it was not entirely better. The scale of rape of Polish women in 1945 led to a pandemic of sexually transmitted diseases. Although the total number of victims remains a matter of guessing, the Polish state archives and statistics of the Ministry of Health indicate that it might have exceeded 100,000.[63] In Kraków, the Soviet entry into the city was accompanied by mass rapes of Polish women and girls, as well as the plunder of private property by Red Army soldiers.[64] This behavior reached such a scale that even Polish Communists installed by the Soviet Union composed a letter of protest to Joseph Stalin himself, while church Masses were held in expectation of a Soviet withdrawal.[64]

The Red Army was also involved in mass-scale looting in liberated territories.[65]: 359 [66]: 259, 272–273, 276, 295–296 [67][68]

### Finland and Ingria

[edit]

Further information: Winter War, Soviet partisans in Finland, and Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union

Finnish children killed by Soviet partisans at Seitajärvi in Finnish Lapland, 1942

Between 1941 and 1944, Soviet partisan units conducted raids deep inside Finnish territory, attacking villages and other civilian targets. In November 2006, photographs showing Soviet atrocities were declassified by the Finnish authorities. These include images of slain women and children.[69][70][71] The partisans usually executed their military and civilian prisoners after a minor interrogation.[72]

Around 3,500 Finnish prisoners of war, of whom five were women, were captured by the Red Army. Their mortality rate is estimated to have been about 40 percent. The most common causes of death were hunger, cold and oppressive transportation.[73]

#### Deportation of the Ingrian Finns

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Main article: Deportations of the Ingrian Finns

By 1939 the Ingrian Finnish population had decreased to about 50,000, which was about 43% of 1928 population figures,[74] and the Ingrian Finn national district was abolished.,[75] Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the beginning of the Leningrad Blockade, in early 1942 all 20,000 Ingrian Finns remaining in Soviet-controlled territory were deported to Siberia. Most of the Ingrian Finns together with Votes and Izhorians living in German-occupied territory were evacuated to Finland in 1943–1944. Finland was forced to return the evacuees per the Moscow Armistice.[74] Soviet authorities did not allow the 55,733 people who had been handed over to settle back in Ingria, and instead deported them to central regions of Russia.[74][76] The main regions of Ingrian Finns forced settlement were the interior areas of Siberia, Central Russia, and Tajikistan.[77]

### Baltic states

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Main article: Occupation of the Baltic states

#### 1940-1941

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Further information: Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)

On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in which, among the clauses, included the division of Eastern Europe, with the Baltic States being given to the Soviet sphere of influence. On 15 June 1940, Lithuania was invaded by the Red Army, with Latvia and Estonia being invaded and occupied between 16-17 June. The invasions occurred in only a matter of days, as around 500,000 Soviet troops entered the Baltic states virtually unopposed (except for a few incidents in Tallin and one border skirmish in which Soviet troops exchanged fire with Latvian guards near the village of Maslenki), the occupations also coincided with a series of communist coup d'états in each country, supported by Soviet troops and the NKVD.[78][79]

Soon after, the governments of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were removed (with some politicians like Kārlis Ulmanis even being imprisoned and later deported to Siberia), as communist-majority governments took power with Soviet backing. A series of show elections were held on the Baltics between June and July of 1940, where only the Soviet-approved Communist parties (such as the Latvian Working People's Bloc) were allowed to participate, electing rubber stamp "People's Parliaments" which soon drafted resolutions to join the Soviet Union. The local standing armies were also broken up and replaced with "People's Self Defense" paramilitaries, as most of the officers were imprisoned, executed or deported.[80] The ministries of foreign relations of all three countries were also closed, effectively isolating them from the rest of the world.[81]

Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were soon annexed by the Soviet Union between 3 and 6 August 1940, each of them being renamed as "Soviet Socialist Republics" (Estonian SSR, Lithuanian SSR, Latvian SSR), and by 25 August all citizens of these states had already been declared citizens of the Soviet Union.[82][81]

##### Estonia

[edit]

Further information: Soviet occupation of Estonia

People killed by Soviet authorities in Kuressaare, Estonia, 1941.

In 1941, some 34,000 Estonians were drafted into the Red Army, of whom less than 30% survived the war. No more than half of those men were used for military service. The rest were sent to labour battalions where around 12,000 died, mainly in the early months of the war.[83] After it became clear that the German invasion of Estonia would be successful, political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD, so that they would not be able to make contact with the Nazi government.[84] More than 300,000 citizens of Estonia, almost a third of the population at the time, were affected by deportations, arrests, execution and other acts of repression.[85] As a result of the Soviet occupation, Estonia lost at least 200,000 people or 20% of its population to repression, exodus and war.[86]

Soviet political repressions in Estonia were met by an armed resistance by the Forest Brothers, composed of former conscripts into the German military, Omakaitse militia and volunteers in the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 who fought a guerrilla war, which was not completely suppressed until the late 1950s.[87] In addition to the expected human and material losses suffered due to the fighting, over time this conflict led to the deportation of tens of thousands of people, along with hundreds of political prisoners and thousands of civilians died.

###### Mass deportations

[edit]

Main article: Soviet deportations from Estonia

On 14 June 1941, and the following two days, 9,254 to 10,861 people, mostly urban residents, of them over 5,000 women and over 2,500 children under 16,[88][89][90][91][92][93] 439 Jews (more than 10% of the Estonian Jewish population)[94] were deported, mostly to Kirov Oblast, Novosibirsk Oblast or prisons. Deportations were predominantly to Siberia and Kazakhstan by means of railroad cattle cars, without prior announcement, while the deported were given a few night hours at best to pack their belongings and separated from their families, usually also sent to the east. The procedure was established by the Serov Instructions. Estonians in Leningrad Oblast had already been subject to deportation since 1935.[95]

###### Destruction battalions

[edit]

Main articles: Destruction battalions and Battle of Kautla

In 1941, to implement Stalin's scorched earth policy, destruction battalions were formed in the western regions of the Soviet Union. In Estonia, they killed thousands of people including many women and children, and burned down dozens of villages, schools and public buildings. Many atrocities were committed by these forces, such as the case of a school boy named Tullio Lindsaar, who had all of the bones in his hands broken for hoisting the flag of Estonia before being bayoneted to death, or Mauricius Parts, son of Estonian War of Independence veteran Karl Parts, who was killed after being doused in acid, just six weeks after the imprisonment of his father by Soviet occupation forces (who would later also be executed by Soviet forces while in prison).[96][97] In August 1941, all residents of the village of Viru-Kabala were killed including a two-year-old child and a six-day-old infant, the battalions also occasionally burned people alive, according to survivors of the massacres.[98] A partisan war broke out in response to the atrocities of the destruction battalions, with tens of thousands of men forming the Forest Brothers to protect the local population from these battalions; in general, the destruction battalions murdered ~1,850 people in Estonia, almost all of them partisans or unarmed civilians.[99]

Another example of the destruction battalions' actions is the Kautla massacre, where twenty civilians were murdered and tens of farms and houses looted, burned down or destroyed, with many of the people killed after being tortured and beaten by Soviet troops. The low toll of human deaths in comparison with the number of burned farms is due to the Erna long-range reconnaissance group breaking the Red Army blockade on the area, allowing many civilians to escape.[100][101]

##### Latvia

[edit]

Further information: Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940

In the 1941 June deportation, tens of thousands of Latvians, including whole families with women, children and old people, were taken from their homes, loaded onto freight trains and taken to Gulag correctional labour camps or forced settlements in Siberia by the Soviet occupation regime on the orders of high authorities in Moscow. Prior to the deportation, the People's Commissariat established operational groups who performed arrests, and search and seizure of property. Arrests took place in all parts in Latvia including rural areas.[81]

##### Lithuania

[edit]

Corridor in the Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights with display of the Lithuanian partisans killed by the Soviet forces in Lithuania

Between 1940 and 1941, thousands of Lithuanians were arrested and hundreds of political prisoners were arbitrarily executed. More than 17,000 people were deported to Siberia in June 1941. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Soviet political apparatus was either destroyed or retreated east. Lithuania was then occupied by Nazi Germany for a little over three years. In 1944, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. Following World War II and the subsequent suppression of the Lithuanian Forest Brothers, the Soviet authorities executed thousands of resistance fighters and civilians, whom they accused of helping them. Some 300,000 Lithuanians were deported or sentenced to terms in prison camps on political grounds. Lithuania lost an estimated nearly 780,000 citizens in the Soviet occupation. Of these, around 440,000 were war refugees.[102]

The estimated death toll in Soviet prisons and camps between 1944 and 1953 was at least 14,000.[103] The estimated death toll among deportees between 1945 and 1958 was 20,000, including 5,000 children.[104]

### Romania

[edit]

Further information: Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and Soviet occupation of Romania

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2021)

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The Soviet Union also committed war crimes in Romania or against Romanians from the beginning of the occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in 1940 all the way to the German invasion in 1941, and later from the expulsion of the Germans in the region until 1958.

#### Massacres

[edit]

Further information: Tatarka common graves

One infamous example of a soviet massacre against Romanian civilians was the Fântâna Albă massacre, in which between 1-3 thousand civilians were killed by the NKVD and Soviet Border Troops while attempting to escape to Romania.[105][106][107] Such event has been referred to as the "Romanian Katyn".[108][109][110]

Another massacre committed by Soviet troops was the Lunca massacre, where Soviet border troops opened fire against several Romanian civilians attempting to escape into Romania, killing 600 of them, only 57 managed to escape, with another 44 being arrested and tried as "members of a counter-revolutionary organization". 12 of them were sentenced to death, with the rest being sentenced to 10 years forced labour and 5 years loss of civil rights, the family members of those arrested and shot would later also be arrested and sent to Siberia and Central Asia.[111]

#### Religious Persecution and Deportations

[edit]

Main articles: Soviet deportations from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and Religious persecution during the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

During the occupation, the Soviet government and army deported thousands of Romanian civilians from the occupied regions into "special settlements". According to a secret Soviet Ministry of Interior report dated December 1965, 46,000 people were deported from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic for the period 1940−1953.[112] On June 12–13 alone, around 29,839 members of families of "counter-revolutionaries and nationalists" from the Moldavian SSR (as well as the Chernivtsi and Izmail oblasts of the Ukrainian SSR) were deported to Kazakhstan, Komi, Krasnoyarsk, Omsk Oblast and Novosibirsk.[113]

Between 1940 and 1941, around 53,356 people from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were mobilized for labour across the territory of the Soviet Union; though the mobilization was presented as "voluntary", refusal to work could result in penal punishment, while living and working conditions were also generally poor.[114]: 43

Thousands of Transylvanian Saxons would later be deported from 1944 to 1949 under Soviet occupation, with hundreds or even thousands dying on their way to camps in Siberia and Central Asia before being able to come back to their home country.[115]

Religious persecution was also widespread, the Soviet government sought to exterminate all forms of organized religion in its occupied territories, often persecuting the Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Muslim and Jewish communities present, the Soviet political police arrested numerous priests, with others being arrested and interrogated by the Soviet NKVD itself, then deported to the interior of the USSR, and sometimes even killed.[116]

### Soviet Union

[edit]

Freight train cars used to transport deportees (on display in Naujoji Vilnia)

#### NKVD prisoner massacres

[edit]

Further information: Chervyen massacre

Deportations, summary executions of political prisoners and the burning of foodstocks and villages took place when the Red Army retreated before the advancing Axis forces in 1941. In the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, and Bessarabia, the NKVD and attached units of the Red Army massacred prisoners and political opponents before fleeing from the advancing Axis forces.[117][118]

#### Crimea

[edit]

Further information: Italians of Crimea § Persecution

##### Deportation of the Pontic Greeks

[edit]

Main article: Deportation of the Soviet Greeks

The prosecution of Greeks in the USSR was gradual: at first the authorities shut down the Greek schools, cultural centres, and publishing houses. Then, in 1942, 1944 and 1949, the NKVD indiscriminately arrested all Greek men 16 years old or older. All Greeks who were wealthy or self-employed professionals were sought for prosecution first. This affected mostly Pontic Greeks and other Minorities in the Krasnodar Krai and along the Black Sea coast. By one estimate, around 50,000 Greeks were deported.[119][120]

On 25 September 1956, MVD Order N 0402 was adopted and defined the removal of restrictions towards the deported peoples in the special settlements.[121] Afterward, many Soviet Greeks started returning to their homes, or emigrating towards Greece.

##### Deportation of the Crimean Tatars

[edit]

Main article: Deportation of the Crimean Tatars

After the retreat of the Wehrmacht from Crimea, the NKVD deported around 200,000 Crimean Tatars from the peninsula on 18 May 1944.[122] 109,956 of them died, which represents 46% of the entire Crimean Tatar population.[123][124]

#### Volga

[edit]

Further information: Volga Germans § Soviet deportation

##### Deportation of the Kalmyks

[edit]

Main article: Kalmyk deportations of 1943

During the Kalmyk deportations of 1943, codenamed Operation Ulussy (Операция "Улусы"), the deportation of most people of the Kalmyk nationality (as well as Russian women married to Kalmyks, but not Kalmyk women married to people of other nationalities) in the Soviet Union (USSR), around half of all (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.[125]

#### Northern Caucasus

[edit]

Main articles: Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks, Deportations of Kurds from Transcaucasia, and Kumyks § Ethnocide by Soviet Union

Between 1943 and 1944, the Soviet government accused several ethnic groups in the North Caucasus of Axis collaboration. As "punishment", entire ethnic groups were deported, mostly to Central Asia and Siberia into labor camps.

##### Chechnya-Ingushetia

[edit]

Main article: Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush

Map of the Chechen and Ingush regions of the Caucasus prior to the deportation

On 23 February 1944, Lavrentiy Beria, the head of the NKVD, ordered the deportation of the entire Chechen and Ingush population of the Checheno-Ingush ASSR by freight trains to remote areas of the Soviet Union (such as Siberia, the Urals and Central Asia). The operation was called "Chechevitsa" (Operation Lentil),[126] (its first two syllables pointing at its intended targets), and is often referred to by Chechens as the "Aardakh" (the Exodus).[127] The operation was started following complaints by the NKVD of "low level of discipline, prevalence of banditry and terrorism, disloyalty of the Chechens to the Communist party" and alleged "collaboration with the occupying German forces", citing an alleged confession of a German agent where he supposedly claimed that the German forces had "major support among the Ingush".[128] The Chechen-Ingush Republic was never occupied by the German army, but the repressions were officially justified by "an armed resistance to Soviet power", although the charges of local collaboration with the Nazis were never subsequently proven in any Soviet court.[129][130]

NKVD troops went systematically from house to house to collect individuals, the inhabitants were rounded up and imprisoned in Studebaker US6 trucks, before being packed into unheated and uninsulated freight cars, with the locals being given only about 15 to 30 minutes to pack for the surprise transfer.[131][132] According to a correspondence dated 3 March 1944, at least 19,000 officers and 100,000 NKVD soldiers from all over the USSR were sent to implement this operation.[133] The plan envisaged that 300,000 people were to be deported from the lowland in the first three days, while the remaining 150,000 people living in the mountain regions would be deported by the next days; some 500 people were also deported by mistake, even though they were not Chechens or Ingush.[134] Through the initial deportations, ~478,479 people were forcibly resettled in the Aardakh: 387,229 Chechens and 91,250 Ingush; in May 1944, Beria issued a directive ordering the NKVD to browse the entire USSR in search for any remaining members of these ethnic groups, as a result, an additional 4,146 Chechens and Ingush were found in Dagestan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Krasnodar, Rostov and Astrakhan, with the total number of deportees being reported by the NKVD as around 493,269 by May and ~496,460 by July.[135] They were loaded onto 180 special trains, about 40 to 45 persons into each freight car, each family was allowed to carry up to 500 kg of personal belongings on the trip, Some 40% to 50% of the deportees were children.;[136] 333,739 people were evicted, of which 176,950 were sent to trains already on the first day of the operation, with Beriya reporting that there were only about six "cases of resistance", while 842 were "subject to isolation" and another 94,741 were removed from their homes by 11 PM, Much of the livestock owned by locals was later sent to kolkhozes in Ukrainian SSR, Stavropol Krai, Voronezh and Orel Oblasts, many of these animals perished from exhaustion during the following months.[137]

The people were transported in cattle trains that were not appropriate for human transfer, lacking electricity, heating or running water. The exiles inside endured many epidemics (such as typhus), which lead to deaths from infections or hunger, survivors recall that the wagons were so full of people that there was barely any space to move inside them, and that the deportees were given food only sporadically during the transit and were not told where they would be taken to.[138][139] The wagons did not even stop for bathroom breaks, with the passengers being forced to make holes in the floor to relieve themselves.[140] The transit to Central Asia lasted for almost a month, with the special trains traveling almost 2,000 miles to reach their destinations.[141] 239,768 Chechens and 78,479 Ingush were sent to the Kazakh SSR, whereas 70,089 Chechens and 2,278 Ingush arrived in Kirgiz SSR. Smaller numbers of the remaining deportees were sent to Uzbek SSR, Russian SFSR and Tajik SSR, the deportees arrived at the regions without shelter or food, and were in many occasions taken to special settlements, where all prisoners aged 16–45 would be forced to work in mines, farms, factories or construction in return for food stamps (with the threat of severe punishment if non-compliant), as well as report monthly to the NKVD office at the camp.[142] Those that attempted to escape would be sent to gulags, and the children of the prisoners would inherit their "exile" status. Malnutrition (caused by the negligence of the authorities to provide food for the prisoners), alongside exhaustion (from overworking) and mistreatment from Soviet forces led to high death rates among the local population.[143] Many deported children were beaten by the local guards for "disobedience", and many families were left without proper housing: only 5,000 out of the 31,000 families in Kirgiz SSR were provided with housing, with one district having prepared only 18 apartments for over 900 families, the Chechen and Ingush children also had to attend school in the local language, not their own.[144][145]

On many occasions, resistance was met with slaughter, and in one such instance, in the aul of Khaibakh, about 700 people were locked in a barn and burned to death by NKVD General Mikheil Gveshiani, who was praised for this and promised a medal by Beria.[131] Many people from remote villages were executed per Beria's verbal order that any Chechen or Ingush deemed 'untransportable should be liquidated' on the spot.[129] This meant that those deemed too old or weak were to either be shot or left to starve in their beds alone. The soldiers would also sometimes rob from the empty homes.[146] Those who resisted, protested or "walked too slow" were shot on the spot; in one incident, NKVD soldiers climbed up the Moysty mountain and found 60 villagers there, even though their commander ordered the soldiers to shoot the villagers, many soldiers instead fired in the air, the commander then ordered many of these soldiers to join the villagers while another platoon fired at all of them.[147]

##### Kabardino-Balkaria

[edit]

Main articles: Deportation of the Balkars and Deportation of the Karachays

Lavrentiy Beria arrived in Nalchik on 2 March 1944, and on the early morning of 8 March 1944 (two days earlier than planned), Balkar's population was ordered to get ready to leave their homes. The entire operation lasted about two hours, with the entire Balkar population of the region being evicted. Around 17,000 NKVD troops and 4,000 local agents participated in the operation, which also saw many Balkar soldiers of the red army discharged (and, in some cases, even deported themselves) on charges of collaboration with the occupiers.[148] By 9 March, 37,713 Balkars were deported in 14 train convoys, they arrived at their destinations in the Kazakh and Kyrgiz socialist republics by 23 March.

Official Soviet documents reveal that 562 people died during the deportation.[148] Many more died during the harsh years in exile and in labor camps: in total, it is estimated that between 7,600 and 11,000 Balkars died as a consequence of the deportation, amounting to at least 19.82 percent of their entire ethnic group (though it could be as high as 20 or 25 percent).[149]

### Hungary

[edit]

According to researcher and author Krisztián Ungváry, some 38,000 civilians were killed during the Siege of Budapest: about 13,000 from military action and 25,000 from starvation, disease and other causes. Included in the latter figure are about 15,000 Jews, largely victims of executions by Nazi SS and Arrow Cross Party death squads. Ungváry writes that when the Soviets finally claimed victory, they initiated an orgy of violence, including the wholesale theft of anything they could lay their hands on, random executions and mass rape. Estimates of the number of rape victims vary from 5,000 to 200,000.[150][151][152] According to Norman Naimark, Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped and sometimes murdered.[153]

Even embassy staff from neutral countries were captured and raped, as was documented when Soviet soldiers attacked the Swedish legation in Germany.[154]

A report by the Swiss legation in Budapest describes the Red Army's entry into the city:

> During the siege of Budapest and also during the following weeks, Russian troops looted the city freely. They entered practically every habitation, the very poorest as well as the richest. They took away everything they wanted, especially food, clothing and valuables... every apartment, shop, bank, etc. was looted several times. Furniture and larger objects of art, etc. that could not be taken away were frequently simply destroyed. In many cases, after looting, the homes were also put on fire, causing a vast total loss... Bank safes were emptied without exception—even the British and American safes—and whatever was found was taken.[155]

According to historian James Mark, memories and opinions of the Red Army in Hungary are mixed.[152]

### Germany

[edit]

Main articles: Flight and evacuation of German civilians during the end of World War II, Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50), and NKVD labor columns

According to historian Norman Naimark, statements in Soviet military newspapers and the orders of the Soviet high command were jointly responsible for the excesses of the Red Army. Propaganda proclaimed that the Red Army had entered Germany as an avenger to punish all Germans.[156]

Some historians dispute this, referring to an order issued on 19 January 1945, which required the prevention of mistreatment of civilians. An order of the military council of the 1st Belorussian Front, signed by Marshal Rokossovsky, ordered the shooting of looters and rapists at the scene of the crime. An order issued by Stavka on 20 April 1945 said that there was a need to maintain good relations with German civilians in order to decrease resistance and bring a quicker end to hostilities.[157][158][159]

#### Murders of civilians

[edit]

German civilians killed by Soviet soldiers in the Nemmersdorf massacre

On several occasions during World War II, Soviet soldiers set fire to buildings, villages, or parts of cities, and they used deadly force against locals who attempted to put out the fires. Most Red Army atrocities took place only in what was regarded as hostile territory, however, there were several massacres committed in Poland, e.g. the Przyszowice massacre. Soldiers of the Red Army, together with members of the NKVD, frequently looted German transport trains in Poland in 1944 and 1945.[160]

For the Germans, the organized evacuation of civilians before the advancing Red Army was delayed by the Nazi government, so as not to demoralize the troops, who were by now fighting in their own country. Nazi propaganda—originally meant to stiffen civil resistance by describing in gory and embellished detail Red Army atrocities such as the Nemmersdorf massacre—often backfired and created panic. Whenever possible, as soon as the Wehrmacht retreated, local civilians began to flee westward on their own initiative.[citation needed]

Fleeing before the advancing Red Army, large numbers of the inhabitants of the German provinces of East Prussia, Silesia, and Pomerania died during the evacuations, some from cold and starvation, some during combat operations. A significant percentage of this death toll, however, occurred when evacuation columns encountered units of the Red Army. Civilians were run over by tanks, shot, or otherwise murdered. Women and young girls were raped and left to die.[161][pages needed][162][better source needed][163]

In addition, fighter bombers of the Soviet air force flew bombing and strafing missions that targeted columns of refugees.[161][pages needed][162][better source needed]

January, 1945: Soviet executive order to military prosecutors of the 48th Army for taking legal measures against rampant looting, burning of houses, and killing of civilians by the Red Army soldiers. Transcript available at the image description.

Although mass executions of civilians by the Red Army were seldom publicly reported, there is a known incident, Treuenbrietzen massacre. During the first occupation of the town by the Red Army, on 21 April or 22 a higher Soviet officer was shot. After that the Wehrmacht briefly returned. After the second occupation of the town, Red Army soldiers rounded up the civilians and shot the adult men in a nearby forest. The official estimate is between 30 and 166 civilian victims. Some German sources claimed about 1,000 victims, but this must be rejected on the basis on the actual number of town residents.[164]

The first mayor of the Charlottenburg district of Berlin, Walter Kilian, appointed by the Soviets after the war ended, reported extensive looting by Red Army soldiers in the area: "Individuals, department stores, shops, apartments ... all were robbed blind."[165][pages needed]

In the Soviet occupation zone, members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rape by Soviet soldiers could result in a negative reaction by the German population towards the Soviet Union and the future of socialism in East Germany. Stalin is said to have angrily reacted: "I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud."[166][pages needed][167][pages needed]

Accordingly, all evidence—such as reports, photos and other documents of looting, rape, the burning down of farms and villages by the Red Army—was deleted from all archives in the future GDR.[166][page needed]

A study published by the German government in 1974 estimated the number of German civilian victims of crimes during expulsion of Germans after World War II between 1945 and 1948 to be over 600,000, with about 400,000 deaths in the areas east of Oder and Neisse (ca. 120,000 in acts of direct violence, mostly by Soviet troops but also by Poles, 60,000 in Polish and 40,000 in Soviet concentration camps or prisons mostly from hunger and disease, and 200,000 deaths among civilian deportees to forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union), 130,000 in Czechoslovakia (thereof 100,000 in camps) and 80,000 in Yugoslavia (thereof 15,000 to 20,000 from violence outside of and in camps and 59,000 deaths from hunger and disease in camps).[168] These figures do not include up to 125,000 civilian deaths in the Battle of Berlin.[169] About 22,000 civilians are estimated to have been killed during the fighting in Berlin only.[170]

#### Mass rapes

[edit]

Main articles: Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland and Rape during the occupation of Germany § Soviet Military

As Allied troops entered and occupied German territory during the later stages of World War II, mass rapes of women took place both in connection with combat operations and during the subsequent occupation of Germany. Scholars agree that the majority of the rapes were committed by Soviet occupation troops.[171][172][173] Western estimates of the traceable number of rape victims range from two hundred thousand to two million.[174] Following the Winter Offensive of 1945, mass rape by Soviet males occurred in all major cities taken by the Red Army. Women were gang raped by as many as several dozen soldiers during the occupation of Poland. In some cases victims who did not hide in the basements all day were raped up to 15 times.[63][175] According to historian Antony Beevor, following the Red Army's capture of Berlin in 1945, Soviet troops raped German women and girls as young as eight years old.[176]

The explanation of "revenge" is disputed by Beevor, at least with regard to the mass rapes. Beevor has written that Red Army soldiers also raped Soviet and Polish women liberated from concentration camps, and he contends that this undermines the revenge explanation,[177] they were often committed by rear echelon units.[178]

According to Norman Naimark, after the summer of 1945, Soviet soldiers caught raping civilians usually received punishments ranging from arrest to execution.[179] However, Naimark contends that the rapes continued until the winter of 1947–48, when Soviet occupation authorities finally confined troops to strictly guarded posts and camps.[180] Naimark concluded that "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until, one could argue, the present."[181]

According to Richard Overy, the Russians refused to acknowledge Soviet war crimes, partly "because they felt that much of it was justified vengeance against an enemy who committed much worse, and partly it was because they were writing the victors' history."[182]

### Yugoslavia

[edit]

Further information: Rape during the liberation of Serbia

According to Yugoslav politician Milovan Djilas, at least 121 cases of rape were documented, 111 of which also involved murder. A total of 1,204 cases of looting with assault were also documented. Djilas described these figures as, "hardly insignificant if it is borne in mind that the Red Army crossed only the northeastern corner of Yugoslavia".[183][184] This caused concern to the Yugoslav communist partisans, who feared that stories of crimes committed by their Soviet allies would weaken their standing among the population.

Djilas writes that in response, Yugoslav partisan leader Joseph Broz Tito summoned the chief of the Soviet military mission, General Korneev, and formally protested. Despite having been invited "as a comrade", Korneev exploded at them for offering "such insinuations" against the Red Army. Djilas, who was present at the meeting, spoke up and explained the British Army had never engaged in "such excesses" while liberating the other regions of Yugoslavia. General Korneev responded by screaming, "I protest most sharply at this insult given to the Red Army by comparing it with the armies of capitalist countries."[185]

The meeting with Korneev not only "ended without results", it also caused Stalin to personally attack Djilas during his next visit to the Kremlin. In tears, Stalin denounced "the Yugoslav Army and how it was administered." He then "spoke agitatedly about the sufferings of the Red Army and the horrors that it was forced to endure while it was fighting through thousands of kilometers of devastated country." Stalin climaxed with the words, "And such an Army was insulted by no one else but Djilas! Djilas, of whom I could least have expected such a thing, a man whom I received so well! And an Army which did not spare its blood for you! Does Djilas, who is himself a writer, not know what human suffering and the human heart are? Can't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometers through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?"[186]

According to Djilas, the Soviet refusal to address protests against Red Army war crimes in Yugoslavia enraged Tito's government and it was a contributing factor in Yugoslavia's subsequent exit from the Soviet Bloc.

### Czechoslovakia

[edit]

Slovak communist leader Vlado Clementis complained to Marshal Ivan Konev about the behavior of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. Konev's response was to claim it was done mainly by Red Army deserters.[184]

### China

[edit]

Further information: Gegenmiao massacre, [[:Mashan massacre [ja]]], [[:Sado Settlement Site massacre [ja]]], and [[:Jingyi Buddhist Pioneers massacre [ja]]]

Main article: Rape during the occupation of Manchuria

During the invasion of Manchuria, Soviet and Mongolian soldiers attacked and raped Japanese civilians, often encouraged by the local Chinese population who were resentful of Japanese rule.[187] The local Chinese population sometimes even joined in these attacks against the Japanese population with the Soviet soldiers. In one famous example, during the Gegenmiao massacre, Soviet soldiers, encouraged by the local Chinese population, raped and massacred over one thousand Japanese women and children.[188][187][189] Property of the Japanese were also looted by the Soviet soldiers and Chinese.[190] Many Japanese women married themselves to local Manchurian men to protect themselves from persecution by Soviet soldiers. These Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin).[188]

Following the invasion of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (Manchuria), the Soviets laid claim to valuable Japanese materials and industrial equipment in the region.[191] A foreigner witnessed Soviet troops, formerly stationed in Berlin, who were allowed by the Soviet military to go at the city "for three days of rape and pillage." Most of Mukden was gone. Convict soldiers were then used to replace them; it was testified that they "stole everything in sight, broke up bathtubs and toilets with hammers, pulled electric-light wiring out of the plaster, built fires on the floor and either burned down the house or at least a big hole in the floor, and in general behaved completely like savages."[192]

According to some British and American sources, the Soviets made it a policy to loot and rape civilians in Manchuria. In Harbin, the Chinese posted slogans such as "Down with Red Imperialism!" Soviet forces faced some protests by Chinese communist party leaders against the looting and rapes committed by troops in Manchuria.[193][194][195] There were several instances where Chinese police forces in Manchuria arrested or even killed Soviet troops for various crimes, leading to some conflicts between the Soviet and Chinese authorities in Manchuria.[196]

Japanese women in Manchukuo were repeatedly raped by Russian soldiers every day including underage girls from the families of Japanese who worked for the military and the Manchukuo rail at Beian airport and Japanese military nurses. The Russians seized Japanese civilian girls at Beian airport where there were a total of 1000 Japanese civilians, repeatedly raping 10 girls each day as recalled by Yoshida Reiko and repeatedly raped 75 Japanese nurses at the Sunwu military hospital in Manchukuo during the occupation. The Russians rejected all the pleading by the Japanese officers to stop the rapes. The Japanese were told by the Russians that they had to give their women for rape as war spoils.[197][198][199][200][201][202]

Soviet soldiers raped Japanese women from a group of Japanese families that were with Yamada Tami that attempted to flee their settlements on 14 August and go to Mudanjiang. Another group of Japanese women that were with Ikeda Hiroko that on 15 August tried to flee to Harbin but returned to their settlements were raped by Soviet soldiers.[203]

### Japan

[edit]

Main articles: Evacuation of Karafuto and Kuriles and Soviet assault on Maoka

Further information (in Japanese): Maoka Post Office incident [ja]

The Soviet Army committed crimes against the Japanese civilian populations and surrendered military personnel in the closing stages of World War II during the assaults on Sakhalin and Kuril Islands.[204]

On 10 August 1945, Soviet forces carried out fierce naval bombardment and artillery strikes against civilians awaiting evacuation as well as Japanese installations in Maoka. Nearly 1,000 civilians were killed by the invading forces.[204]

After the 15 August 1945 Gyokuon broadcast, telephone operators at the Maoka Post Office were on duty without having been evacuated. On 20 August, Soviet troops landed in Maoka and 10 of the 12 female telephone operators on duty in fear of war crimes committed by Soviet troops, attempted suicide in the station, nine of which were killed. Apart from the telephone operator who committed suicide, other station employees who remained behind and those who were not on duty that day were killed by grenades and gunfire from Soviet soldiers, bringing the total number of those killed at the Maoka station to 19.[205][206]

During the evacuation of the Kuriles and Karafuto, civilian convoys were attacked by Soviet submarines in the Aniva Gulf. Soviet Leninets-class submarine L-12 and L-19 sank two Japanese refugee transport ships Ogasawara Maru and Taito Maru while also damaging No.2 Shinko Maru on 22 August, 7 days after Hirohito had announced Japan's unconditional surrender. Over 2,400 civilians were killed.[204]

### Korea

[edit]

During the Soviet occupation of North Korea, it was reported that Soviet soldiers committed rape against both Japanese and Korean women alike in the northern half of the Korean peninsula.[207][208] Soviet soldiers also looted the property of both Japanese and Koreans living in northern Korea.[209] The Soviets laid claim to Japanese enterprises in Manchuria and northern Korea and took valuable materials and industrial equipment.[191]

North Korean residents initially held high hopes for the Soviet army, which had entered their territory as a liberation force, bringing an end to Japanese colonial rule. However, these expectations were quickly shattered. According to eyewitness accounts from the time, Soviet troops engaged in widespread misconduct upon their arrival, looting residents' belongings and committing acts of rape against local women, terrorizing the population.[210] The full extent of the misconduct was revealed to Soviet experts sent to assess North Korea's economic situation in late 1945. The situation was so severe that they reported it directly to the Primorsky Military District.[211]

A report from the Soviet military command at the end of 1945 on the political attitudes of North Korean residents highlited the widespread issue of Soviet soldiers commting rape against local women. According to the report, in September 1945, less than a month after the Soviet army entered Pyongyang, an elderly Korean resident approached the Soviet military command and made the following plea:

> Take all of our property, but please do not violate our women. We awaited the Red Army as something sacred, yet among you, there are those who violate our dignity and insult our customs.[212]

It was reported that the Soviet Military tolerated the rape of Japanese women residing in North Korea more than that of Korean women. At the time of the Soviet army's entry, approximately 215,000 Japanese civilians were residing in North Korea. As residents of an "occupied territory," Japanese women were openly subjected to mass rape by Soviet soldiers in broad daylight, while assaults on Korean women, considered residents of a "liberated area", were committed more discreetly, often in concealed locations or at night.[213] This phenomenon was seen as similar to Norman Naimark's claim that, in Eastern Europe, Slavic women, such as Polish, Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, and Serbian women, who were considered "liberated" were relatively spared from rape by Soviet troops compared to non-Slavic women, such as German and Hungarian women, who were considered "occupied."[214]

By October 1945, the frequency and severity of misconduct by Soviet soldiers had significantly decreased, likely due to a direct order issued by Stalin on September 20, 1945, to the authorities of the Soviet 25th Army stationed in North Korea, including the commander of the Far Eastern Front. Issued about a month after the Soviet Army's entry into North Korea, the order's sixth provision stated: "The military in North Korea must strictly observe discipline, avoid harming residents, and behave courteously." As a result, stricter enforcement by the Soviet military command led to a noticeable decline in misconduct by Soviet soldiers in the following month.[215]

Crackdowns on misconduct by Soviet soldiers reportedly intensified from early 1946, and measures taken by the Soviet military command contributed to a reduction in such incidents. Jeong Ryul, a Koryoin Soviet officer and interpreter for Ivan Chistyakov, testified that in January 1946, Stalin issued a secret directive to the Soviet Civil Administration ordering the immediate execution of soldiers who harmed the North Korean population. He stated that in Wonsan, ten Soviet soldiers charged with robbery and rape were shot, and a similar number were also executed in Hamhung.[216] According to Bruce Cumings, a report from the United States Army Military Government in Korea stated that "by January 1946, the Soviet Union had introduced military police to enforce strict control over its soldiers."[217] However, looting and violence by Soviet soldiers were only relatively reduced, not completely eradicated. According to a Japanese resident in Namsi, North Pyongan Province, rapes by Soviet soldiers began occurring in late October, with sexual violence against Japanese women becoming particularly severe. In response, some North Korean security forces reportedly evacuated Japanese women to the mountains or local Korean homes for protection. Soviet soldiers who had exhausted their military currency freely engaged in looting.[218]

Officers also committed offenses and were arrested as a result. For example, between May 13 and May 25, 1946, a total of 229 Soviet soldiers were arrested in Haeju, Hwanghae Province, including six officers. Despite several official measures and arbitrary attempts to enforce discipline, misconduct, including assault, harassment, looting, and murder, by both Soviet soldiers and officers continued until the end of 1946.[219]

### Treatment of prisoners of war

[edit]

Main article: Soviet atrocities committed against prisoners of war during World War II

Although the Soviet Union had not formally signed the Hague Convention, it declared itself bound by the convention's provisions as well as by its own "Regulations for the Treatment of PoWs".[220][221] However, in practice, it often ignored the convention as well as its own rules. George Sanford wrote that Soviet public declarations and laws on the humane treatment of PoWs were "part of the Soviet 'big lie' for propaganda".[222]: 41 One of the Soviet Union's earliest war crimes were those against Polish prisoners of war in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Poland in the 1939; it is estimated that during that conflict, approximately 2,500 Polish soldiers were murdered in various executions and reprisals for offering resistance by Soviets and Ukrainian nationalists. The most infamous of these was the Katyn massacre, a series of mass executions of nearly 22,000 Polish military officers and intelligentsia carried out by the Soviet Union, specifically the NKVD in April and May 1940. Though the killings took place at several places, the massacre is named after the Katyn Forest, where some of the mass graves were first discovered.[223][224][222]: 20–23, 39–41

Throughout the Second World War, the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau collected and investigated reports of crimes against the Axis POWs. According to Cuban-American writer Alfred de Zayas, "For the entire duration of the Russian campaign, reports of torture and murder of German prisoners did not cease. The War Crimes Bureau had five major sources of information: (1) captured enemy papers, especially orders, reports of operations, and propaganda leaflets; (2) intercepted radio and wireless messages; (3) testimony of Soviet prisoners of war; (4) testimony of captured Germans who had escaped; and (5) testimony of Germans who saw the corpses or mutilated bodies of executed prisoners of war. From 1941 to 1945 the Bureau compiled several thousand depositions, reports, and captured papers which, if nothing else, indicate that the killing of German prisoners of war upon capture or shortly after their interrogation was not an isolated occurrence. Documents relating to the war in France, Italy, and North Africa contain some reports on the deliberate killing of German prisoners of war, but there can be no comparison with the events on the Eastern Front."[225]

In a November 1941 report, the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau accused the Red Army of employing "a terror policy... against defenseless German soldiers that have fallen into its hands and against members of the German medical corps. At the same time... it has made use of the following means of camouflage: in a Red Army order that bears the approval of the Council of People's Commissars, dated 1 July 1941, the norms of international law are made public, which the Red Army in the spirit of the Hague Regulations on Land Warfare are supposed to follow... This... Russian order probably had very little distribution, and surely it has not been followed at all. Otherwise the unspeakable crimes would not have occurred."[226]

According to the depositions, Soviet massacres of German, Italian, Spanish, and other Axis POWs were often incited by unit Commissars, who claimed to be acting under orders from Stalin and the Politburo. Other evidence cemented the War Crimes Bureau's belief that Stalin had given secret orders about the massacre of POWs.[227]

During the winter of 1941–42, the Red Army captured approximately 10,000 German soldiers each month, but the death rate became so high that the absolute number of prisoners decreased (or was bureaucratically reduced).[228][need quotation to verify][page needed]

Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces taken prisoner in the war.[229][need quotation to verify][page needed] Dr. Rüdiger Overmans believes that it seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that additional German military personnel listed as missing actually died in Soviet custody as POWs, putting the estimates of the actual death toll of German POW in the USSR at about 1.0 million.[230]

#### Massacre of Feodosia

[edit]

Corpses from the Massacre of Feodosia in front of the main hospital on the coast

Soviet soldiers rarely bothered to treat wounded German POWs. A particularly infamous example took place after the Crimean city of Feodosia was briefly recaptured by Soviet forces on 29 December 1942. 160 wounded soldiers had been left in military hospitals by the retreating Wehrmacht. After the Germans retook Feodosia, it was learned that every wounded soldier had been massacred by Red Army, Navy, and NKVD personnel. Some had been shot in their hospital beds, others repeatedly bludgeoned to death, still others were found to have been thrown from hospital windows before being repeatedly drenched with freezing water until they died of hypothermia.[231]

#### Massacre of Grishchino

[edit]

The Massacre of Grischino was committed by an armoured division of the Red Army in February 1943 in the eastern Ukrainian towns of Krasnoarmeyskoye, Postyschevo and Grischino. The Wehrmacht Untersuchungsstelle also known as WuSt (Wehrmacht criminal investigating authority), announced that among the victims were 406 soldiers of the Wehrmacht, 58 members of the Organisation Todt (including two Danish nationals), 89 Italian soldiers, 9 Romanian soldiers, 4 Hungarian soldiers, 15 German civil officials, 7 German civilian workers and 8 Ukrainian volunteers.

The places were overrun by the Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps on the night of 10 and 11 February 1943. After the reconquest by the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking with the support of 333 Infantry Division and the 7th Panzer Division on 18 February 1943 the Wehrmacht soldiers discovered numerous deaths. Many of the bodies were horribly mutilated, ears and noses cut off and genital organs amputated and stuffed into their mouths. Breasts of some of the nurses were cut off, the women being brutally raped. A German military judge who was at the scene stated in an interview during the 1970s that he saw a female body with her legs spread-eagled and a broomstick rammed into her genitals. In the cellar of the main train station around 120 Germans were herded into a large storage room and then mowed down with machine guns.[232]

#### Postwar

[edit]

Some German prisoners were released soon after the war. Many others, however, remained in the GULAG long after the surrender of Nazi Germany. Among the most famous German POWs to die in Soviet captivity was Captain Wilm Hosenfeld, who died of injuries, sustained possibly under torture,[citation needed] in a concentration camp near Stalingrad in 1952. In 2009, Captain Hosenfeld was posthumously honored by the State of Israel for his role in saving Jewish lives during The Holocaust. Similar was the fate of Swedish diplomat and OSS operative Raoul Wallenberg.[citation needed]

## After World War II

[edit]

### Hungarian Revolution (1956)

[edit]

An apartment destroyed in Budapest during the Soviet invasion in 1956

Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

According to the United Nations Report of the Special Committee on the problem of Hungary (1957): "Soviet tanks fired indiscriminately at every building from which they believed themselves to be under fire."[233] The UN commission received numerous reports of Soviet mortar and artillery fire into inhabited quarters in the Buda section of the city, despite no return fire, and of "haphazard shooting at defenseless passers-by."

### Afghanistan (1979–1989)

[edit]

Further information: Atrocity crimes in the Soviet-Afghan War

An Afghan village destroyed by the Soviets in the 1980s

Scholars Mohammad Kakar, W. Michael Reisman and Charles Norchi believe that the Soviet Union was guilty of committing a genocide in Afghanistan.[234][235] The army of the Soviet Union killed large numbers of Afghans to suppress their resistance.[234] Up to 2 million Afghans were killed during the war, many of them by Soviet forces and their Afghan allies.[236] In one notable incident the Soviet Army committed mass killing of civilians in the summer of 1980.[237] One notable war crime was the Laghman massacre in April 1985 in the villages of Kas-Aziz-Khan, Charbagh, Bala Bagh, Sabzabad, Mamdrawer, Haider Khan and Pul-i-Joghi[238] in the Laghman Province. At least 500 civilians were killed.[239] In the Kulchabat, Bala Karz and Mushkizi massacre on 12 October 1983, the Red Army gathered 360 people at the village square and shot them, including 20 girls and over a dozen older people.[240][241][242] The Rauzdi massacre and Padkhwab-e Shana massacre were also documented.[243]

In order to separate the mujahideen from the local populations and eliminate their support, the Soviet army killed and drove off civilians, and used scorched earth tactics to prevent their return. They used booby traps, mines, and chemical substances throughout the country.[237] The Soviet army indiscriminately killed combatants and noncombatants to ensure submission by the local populations.[237] The provinces of Nangarhar, Ghazni, Lagham, Kunar, Zabul, Qandahar, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia and Paktika witnessed extensive depopulation programmes by the Soviet forces.[235] The Soviet forces abducted Afghan women in helicopters while flying in the country in search of mujahideen. In November 1980, a number of such incidents had taken place in various parts of the country, including Laghman and Kama. Soviet soldiers as well as KhAD agents kidnapped young women from the city of Kabul and the areas of Darul Aman and Khair Khana, near the Soviet garrisons, to rape them.[244] Women who were taken and raped by soldiers were considered 'dishonoured' by their families if they returned home.[245] Deserters from the Soviet Army in 1984 claimed that they had heard of Afghan women being raped.[246] The rape of Afghan women by Soviet troops was common and 11.8 percent of the Soviet war criminals in Afghanistan were convicted for the offence of rape.[247] There was an outcry against the press in the Soviet Union for depicting the Soviet "war heroes" as "murderers", "aggressors", "rapists" and "junkies".[248]

### Pressure in Azerbaijan (1988–1991)

[edit]

Main article: Black January

Black January (Azerbaijani: Qara Yanvar), also known as Black Saturday or the January Massacre, was a violent crackdown in Baku on 19–20 January 1990, pursuant to a state of emergency during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

In a resolution of 22 January 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR declared that the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of 19 January, used to impose emergency rule in Baku and military deployment, constituted an act of aggression.[249] Black January is associated with the rebirth of the Azerbaijan Republic. It was one of the occasions during the glasnost and perestroika era in which the USSR used force against dissidents.

According to official estimates of Azerbaijan, 147 civilians were killed, 800 people were injured,[250] and five people went missing.

## War crimes trials and legal prosecution

[edit]

In 1995, Latvian courts sentenced former KGB officer Alfons Noviks to life in prison for genocide due to forced deportations in the 1940s.[251]

In 2003, August Kolk (born 1924), an Estonian national, and Petr Kislyiy (born 1921), a Russian national, were convicted of crimes against humanity by Estonian courts and each sentenced to eight years in prison. They were found guilty of deportations of Estonians in 1949. Kolk and Kislyiy lodged a complaint at the European Court of Human Rights, alleging that the Criminal Code of 1946 of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was valid at the time, applicable also in Estonia, and that the said Code had not provided for punishment of crimes against humanity. Their appeal was rejected since the court found that Resolution 95 of the United Nations General Assembly, adopted on 11 December 1946, confirmed deportations of civilians as a crime against humanity under international law.[252]

In 2004, Vassili Kononov, a Soviet partisan during World War II, was convicted by Supreme Court of Latvia as a war criminal for killing three women, one of whom was pregnant.[253][254] He is the only former Soviet partisan convicted of crimes against humanity.[255] The sentence was condemned by various high-ranking Russian officials.[256]

On 27 March 2019, Lithuania convicted 67 former Soviet military and KGB officials who were given sentences of between four and 14 years for the crackdown against Lithuanian civilians in January 1991. Only two were present—Yuriy Mel, a former Soviet tank officer, and Gennady Ivanov, a former Soviet munitions officer—while the others were sentenced in absentia as they were living in Russia.[257]

## In popular culture

[edit]

### Film

[edit]

* A Woman in Berlin (2008) depicts the mass sexual assaults committed by Soviet soldiers in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany. It is based on the diary of Marta Hillers.[258]
* Admiral (2008), a film set during the Russian Civil War, depicts Red soldiers and sailors committing numerous massacres of former members of the Imperial Russian Navy's officer corps.
* The Beast (1988), a film set during the Soviet–Afghan War, depicts Red Army war crimes against civilian noncombatants and a Pashtun clan's quest for revenge.
* Charlie Wilson's War (2007), set during the Soviet–Afghan War, accuses the Soviet state of systematic genocide against Afghan civilians. It is mentioned that Soviet forces are leaving no one alive and are even slaughtering livestock in order to starve the Afghan people into submission.
* Katyń (2007), depicts the Katyn massacre through the eyes of its victims and the decades long battle by their families to learn the truth.
* Red Scorpion (1988), a film with Dolph Lundgren, set in Africa, depicts Soviet war criminal killing civilians with flamethrower.

### Literature

[edit]

* Prussian Nights (1974) a war poem by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. The narrator, a Red Army officer, approves of the troops' crimes as revenge for Nazi atrocities in Russia, and hopes to take part in the plundering himself. The poem describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers had mistaken for a German.[259] According to a review for The New York Times, Solzhenitsyn wrote the poem in trochaic tetrameter, "in imitation of, and argument with the most famous Russian war poem, Aleksandr Tvardovsky's Vasili Tyorkin."[260]
* Apricot Jam and Other Stories (2010) by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. In a short story about Marshal Georgii Zhukov's futile attempts at writing his memoirs, the retired Marshal reminisces about serving against the peasant uprising in Tambov Province. He recalls Mikhail Tukhachevsky's arrival to take command of the campaign and his first address to his men. He announced that total war and scorched earth tactics are to be used against civilians who assist or even sympathize with the peasant rebels. Zhukov proudly recalls how Tukhachevsky's tactics were adopted and succeeded in breaking the uprising. In the process, however, they virtually depopulated the surrounding countryside.
* A Man without Breath (2013) by Philip Kerr. A 1993 Bernie Gunther thriller which delves into the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau's investigations of Soviet war crimes. Kerr noted in his Afterward that the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau continued to exist until 1945. It has been written about in the book of the same name by Alfred M. de Zayas, published by the University of Nebraska Press in 1989.[261] ISBN 978-0-399-16079-0.

### Art

[edit]

* On 12 October 2013 a then 26-year-old Polish art student, Jerzy Bohdan Szumczyk, erected a movable statue next to the Soviet World War II memorial in the Polish city of Gdańsk. The statue depicted a Soviet soldier attempting to rape a pregnant woman; pulling her hair with one hand whilst pushing a pistol into her mouth. Authorities removed the artwork because it had been erected without an official permit, but there was widespread interest in many online publications. The act promoted an angry reaction from the Russian ambassador in Poland.[262][263][264]

## See also

[edit]

* Allied war crimes during World War II
* Anti-communist mass killings
* Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
* Destruction battalions
* Evacuation of East Prussia
* Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
* Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union
* German war crimes
* Human rights in the Soviet Union
* Italian war crimes
* Japanese POWs in the Soviet Union
* Japanese war crimes
* List of massacres in the Soviet Union
* List of Soviet Union perpetrated war crimes
* Mass graves in the Soviet Union
* Mass operations of the NKVD
* Military history of the Soviet Union
* Military occupations by the Soviet Union
* Nemmersdorf massacre
* NKVD prisoner massacres
* Operation Frühlingserwachen
* Population transfer in the Soviet Union
* Racism in the Soviet Union
* Red Terror
* Russian war crimes
* Soviet plunder
* United States war crimes
* War crimes and atrocities of the Waffen-SS
* War crimes of the Wehrmacht

## References

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Bolshevik repression of the Ganja revolt, August Uprising and February Uprising.[2]
2. ^ Especially during the Siege of Budapest and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956
3. ^ Especially during the Liberation of Czechoslovakia and the Warsaw Pact invasion in 1968
4. ^ Mainly during the Belgrade offensive and subsequent Liberation of Northeast Yugoslavia between 1944-1945
5. ^ Especially during the Kumul, Uyghur and Ili rebellions between 1931-1947
6. ^ Mainly during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945
7. ^ Soviet support for the Red Terror in the Spanish Civil War between 1936-1939
8. ^ During the Soviet–Afghan War between 1979-1989
9. ^ Mostly during the Stalin era, especially from the late 1930s up until Khruschev's De-Stalinization
10. ^ Stalin-era government propaganda and discourse promoting discriminatory, stereotypical and prejudiced views against Jews, Poles, Romanians, Ukrainians, Balts and Germans has sometimes been used as an example of state-sanctioned racism and antisemitism in the Soviet Union, though it is still debated if this actually affected Soviet internal policy in practice

### Citations

[edit]

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26. ^ a b John Doyle Klier (2004). Pogroms. Shlomo Lambroza. Cambridge University Press. p. 294.
27. ^ a b "Pogroms". United States Holocaust Museum.
28. ^ Владимир Марковчин, Веди ж, Буденный, нас смелее... Sovsekretno.ru.
29. ^ "МОЖНО ЛИ ВЕРИТЬ РЕЧИСТЫМ БЫЛИННИКАМ". Retrieved 14 February 2016.
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37. ^ Applebaum, Anne (2003), Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 0-7679-0056-1, pg 583: "both archives and memoirs indicate that it was a common practice in many camps to release prisoners who were on the point of dying, thereby lowering camp death statistics."
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200. ^ Tanaka, Yuki (2017). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 114\. ISBN 978-1538102701.
201. ^ Tanaka, Yuki (1998). Sajor, Indai Lourdes (ed.). Common Grounds: Violence Against Women in War and Armed Conflict Situations. Asian Center for Women's Human Rights. p. 173\. ISBN 9719199105.
202. ^ Tanaka, Toshiyuki; Tanaka, Yukiko (1995). Rape and War: The Japanese Experience. Vol. 24 of Papers of the Japanese Studies Centre. Japanese Studies Centre. p. 38\. ISBN 0732606462. ISSN 0725-0177.
203. ^ Ward, Rowena (1 March 2007). "Left Behind: Japan's Wartime Defeat and the Stranded Women of Manchukuo". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 5 (3).
204. ^ a b c Ealey, Mark (26 February 2006). "An August Storm: the Soviet-Japan Endgame in the Pacific War". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
205. ^ "北のひめゆり事件と九人の乙女". 北海道ファンマガジン. 17 February 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
206. ^ 「樺太終戦史」(昭和48年発行 樺太終戦史刊行会編纂)
207. ^ Edele, Mark (2015), Maiolo, Joseph; Bosworth, Richard (eds.), "Soviet liberations and occupations, 1939–1949", The Cambridge History of the Second World War: Volume 2: Politics and Ideology, The Cambridge History of the Second World War, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 487–508, ISBN 978-1-107-03407-5, retrieved 9 May 2021

> In Korea, Red Army men also ‘committed depredations against the Japanese and Koreans, including rape and looting, on what appears to have been a wide scale and which went quite beyond taking revenge against the enemy and its Korean allies’

208. ^ Cumings, Bruce. "The North Wind: The Origins of the Korean War" (PDF).
209. ^ Edele, Mark (2015), Maiolo, Joseph; Bosworth, Richard (eds.), "Soviet liberations and occupations, 1939–1949", The Cambridge History of the Second World War: Volume 2: Politics and Ideology, The Cambridge History of the Second World War, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 487–508, ISBN 978-1-107-03407-5, retrieved 9 May 2021

> Even in North Korea, ‘Japanese enterprises of military and heavy industry’ were considered ‘trophies of the Red Army, since all these enterprises to one degree or another worked for the Japanese army’. These factories ‘must be transferred to the Soviet Union as partial payment of reparations’, as a December 1945 document put it.

210. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 264. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
211. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 265. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
212. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 270. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
213. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 273. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
214. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 272–273\. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
215. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 278–279\. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
216. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 279–280\. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
217. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 280. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
218. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 280. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
219. ^ Song, Joonseo (2023). "The Rise of Russophobia Against the Soviet Army in North Korea During the Post-colonial Years, 1945-1950". Asia-Pacific Research Center of Hanyang University. 47 (2): 280–281\. doi:10.21196/aprc.47.2.202308.008.
220. ^ Jacob Robinson. Transfer of Property in Enemy Occupied Territory. The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 39, No. 2 (Apr., 1945), pp. 216-230
221. ^ Isvestiya, 28 April 1942.
222. ^ a b Sanford, George (2005). Katyn and the Soviet Massacre of 1940: Truth, Justice and Memory. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-33873-8.
223. ^ Szymczak, Robert (2008). "The Vindication of Memory: The Katyn Case in the West, Poland, and Russia, 1952-2008". The Polish Review. 53 (4): 419–443\. ISSN 0032-2970. JSTOR 25779772.
224. ^ Fredericks, Vanessa (23 April 2011), "The Katyn Massacre and the Ethics of War: Negotiating Justice and Law", Thinking About War and Peace: Past, Present, and Future, Brill, pp. 63–71, ISBN 978-1-84888-084-9, retrieved 20 October 2024
225. ^ Alfred-Maurice de Zayas (1990), The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939–1945, University of Nebraska Press. pp. 164-165
226. ^ Zayas (1990), page 178.
227. ^ Zayas (1990), pp. 162-210.
228. ^ Hubertus Knabe Tag der Befreiung? Das Kriegsende in Ostdeutschland, Propyläen 2005, ISBN 3-549-07245-7
229. ^ Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt-Peterburg 1995 ISBN 5-86789-023-6
230. ^ Rüdiger Overmans. Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1
231. ^ Zayas (1990), pp. 180-186.
232. ^ Zayas (1990), pp. 187-191.
233. ^ United Nations Report of the Special Committee on the problem of Hungary (PDF). 1957.
234. ^ a b Kakar, Mohammed (3 March 1997). The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208933. "The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afghanistan."
235. ^ a b Reisman, W. Michael; Norchi, Charles H. "Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017. "According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union."
236. ^ Klass, Rosanne (1994). The Widening Circle of Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 129\. ISBN 9781412839655. "During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed in the war, many by Soviet forces and their Afghan allies.- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerrilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas."
237. ^ a b c Kakar, Mohammed (3 March 1997). The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208933. "Incidents of the mass killing of noncombatant civilians were observed in the summer of 1980...the Soviets felt it necessary to suppress defenseless civilians by killing them indiscriminately, by compelling them to flee abroad, and by destroying their crops and means of irrigation, the basis of their livelihood. The dropping of booby traps from the air, the planting of mines, and the use of chemical substances, though not on a wide scale, were also meant to serve the same purpose...they undertook military operations in an effort to ensure speedy submission: hence the wide use of aerial weapons, in particular helicopter gunships or the kind of inaccurate weapons that cannot discriminate between combatants and noncombatants."
238. ^ "Diplomats report massacre in Afghanistan". United Press International. 14 May 1985. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
239. ^ Bellamy, Alex J. (2012). Massacres and Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. OUP Oxford. p. 281\. ISBN 9780199288427.
240. ^ Richard Bernstein (1 March 1985). "U.N. Rights Study Finds Afghan Abuses by Soviets". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
241. ^ "UN report attacks Afghan massacres". The Sydney Morning Herald. Sydney, New South Wales. 4 March 1985. p. 7. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
242. ^ Ermacora, Felix (1985). "Report on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan / prepared by the Special Rapporteur, Felix Ermacora, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1984/55". United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Geneva: 31. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
243. ^ Human Rights Watch (1984). "Tears, Blood and Cries. Human Rights in Afghanistan Since the Invasion 1979–1984" (PDF). pp. 37–38. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
244. ^ Kakar, M. Hassan (1995). The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208933. "While military operations in the country were going on, women were abducted. While flying in the country in search of mujahideen, helicopters would land in fields where women were spotted. While Afghan women do mainly domestic chores, they also work in fields assisting their husbands or performing tasks by themselves. The women were now exposed to the Soviet, who kidnapped them with helicopters. By November 1980 a number of such incidents had taken place in various parts of the country, including Laghman and Kama. In the city of Kabul, too, the Soviets kidnapped women, taking them away in tanks and other vehicles, especially after dark. Such incidents happened mainly in the areas of Darul Aman and Khair Khana, near the Soviet garrisons. At times such acts were committed even during the day. KhAD agents also did the same. Small groups of them would pick up young women in the streets, apparently to question them but in reality to satisfy their lust: in the name of security, they had the power to commit excesses."
245. ^ The War Chronicles: From Flintlocks to Machine Guns. Fair Winds. 2009. p. 393\. ISBN 9781616734046. "A final weapon of terror the Soviets used against the mujahideen was the abduction of Afghan women. Soldiers flying in helicopters would scan for women working in the fields in the absence of their men, land, and take the women captive. Russian soldiers in the city of Kabul would also steal young women. The object was rape, although sometimes the women were killed, as well. The women who returned home were often considered dishonored for life."
246. ^ Sciolino, Elaine (3 August 1984). "4 Soviet Deserters Tell Of Cruel Afghanistan War". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 January 2017. "'I can't hide the fact that women and children have been killed,' Nikolay Movchan, 20, a Ukrainian who was a sergeant and headed a grenade-launching team, said in an interview later. 'And I've heard of Afghan women being raped.'"
247. ^ Carol Harrington (22 April 2016). Politicization of Sexual Violence: From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping. Routledge. pp. 104–. ISBN 978-1-317-07861-6.
248. ^ Rodric Braithwaite (11 September 2013). Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan 1979-89. Oxford University Press. pp. 323–324\. ISBN 978-0-19-932248-0.
249. ^ Kushen, Neier, p. 45
250. ^ FS. "A Glance at the Tragedy of 20 January 1990". mfa.gov.az. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
251. ^ Latvia Gives K.G.B. Aide A Life Term Associated Press. The New York Times. 14 December 1995
252. ^ "Full text of European Court of Human Rights Decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes against Humanity". Council of Europe. 17 January 2006.
253. ^ "Augstākās tiesas pārstāvji Strasbūrā gūst ieskatu cilvēktiesību aizsardzībā" Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Augstākās Tiesa. 24 septembris 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
254. ^ "Case of Kononov v. Latvia", European Court of Human Rights. 17 May 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
255. ^ "Amid V-Day Festivities, Soviet Partisan Braces For War Crimes Verdict", Radio Free Europe. Claire Bigg. 7 May 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
256. ^ "Russians Condemn Latvia For Convicting Wwii-era Partisan", Jamestown Foundation. Charles Gurin. 3 May 2004. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
257. ^ "Lithuania convicts Russians of war crimes under Soviet rule". BBC News. 27 March 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
258. ^ Hintergrund "Anonyma". Die ungeheure sexuelle Gewalt der Roten Armee (German), [3] (in Russian)
259. ^ Davies, Norman (1982) God's Playground. A History of Poland, Columbia University Press, Vol. II, ISBN 0-231-12819-3
260. ^ Proffer, Carl R. (7 August 1977). "Russia in Prussia". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
261. ^ A Man without Breath, p. 463-4.
262. ^ "Polish artist in hot water over Soviet rapist sculpture". Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
263. ^ "Poland will not charge artist over Soviet rapist sculpture – news.net". 20 October 2013. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
264. ^ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (17 October 2013). "Skulptur einer Vergewaltigung in Polen schockiert russischen Botschafter". SPIEGEL ONLINE. Retrieved 14 February 2016.`{{cite news}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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* Bergstrom, Christer (2007). Barbarossa – The Air Battle: July–December 1941. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-270-2.
* Brauer, Birgit (2010). "Chechens and the survival of their cultural identity in exile". Journal of Genocide Research. 4 (3): 387–400\. doi:10.1080/14623520220151970. S2CID 72355205.
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* Bugay, Nikolay (1996). The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union. New York City: Nova Publishers. ISBN 9781560723714. OCLC 36402865.
* Burds, Jeffrey (2007). "The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942–4". Journal of Contemporary History. 42 (2): 267–314\. doi:10.1177/0022009407075545. S2CID 159523593.
* de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice, The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939–1945 (in Wikipedia). Preface by Professor Howard Levie. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8032-9908-7. New revised edition with Picton Press, Rockland, Maine, ISBN 0-89725-421-X.
* de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice, A Terrible Revenge. The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944–1950, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994, ISBN 0-312-12159-8
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* Dushnyck, Walter (1975). "Discrimination and Abuse of Power in the USSR". In Veenhoven, Willem Adriaan (ed.). Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Volume Two: A World Survey. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 503\. ISBN 9789024717811. LCCN 76352642.
* Fowkes, Ben, ed. (1998). Russia and Chechnia: The Permanent Crisis: Essays on Russo-Chechen Relations. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 9781349263516. LCCN 97037269.
* Hall, Steve and Lionel Quinlan (2000). KG55: Greif Geshwader. Walton on Thames: Red Kite. ISBN 0-9538061-0-3
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* Hillers, Marta, A Woman in Berlin: Six Weeks in the Conquered City Translated by Anthes Bell, ISBN 0-8050-7540-2
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* Lee, Philip; Thomas, Pradip, eds. (2012). Public Memory, Public Media and the Politics of Justice. Springer. p. 185\. ISBN 9781137265173. LCCN 2012023556.
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* Mawdsley, Evan (1998). The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719046001. LCCN 2003046365.
* Merridale, Catherine, Ivan's War, the Red Army 1939–1945, London: Faber and Faber, 2005, ISBN 0-571-21808-3
* Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7
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## External links

[edit]

Media related to War crimes committed by the Soviet Union at Wikimedia Commons

* The forgotten victims of WWII: Masculinities and rape in Berlin, 1945, James W. Messerschmidt, University of Southern Maine
* Book Review: A Woman in Berlin: Eight Weeks in the Conquered City, ISBN 0-8050-7540-2
* Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); 18 October 1907
* Swiss legation report of the Russian invasion of Hungary in the spring of 1945
* German rape victims find a voice at last, Kate Connolly, The Observer, 23 June 2002
* "They raped every German female from eight to 80", Antony Beevor, The Guardian, 1 May 2002
* Excerpt, Chapter one Archived 13 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945–2002 – William I. Hitchcock – 2003 – ISBN 0-385-49798-9 ( The occupation of East Prussia)
* Description of the atrocities of the Red Army in East Prussia, quotations from Ilya Ehrenburg, poems by anti-cruelty Red Army officers and details of suicides and rapings of German women and children in East Prussia.
* Book Review: The Siege of Budapest: 100 Days in World War II
* HNet review of The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949.
* Mark Ealey: As World War II entered its final stages the belligerent powers committed one heinous act after another History News Network (Focus on the Asian front)
* 27 Jan 2002 on-line article regarding author Antony Beevor's references to Soviet rapes in Germany
* Report of an eyewitness: Erika Morgenstern, who survived Königsberg 1945 as a child (in German): part 1 on YouTube, part 2 on YouTube, part 3 on YouTube

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Opposition|

* Anti-Soviet agitation
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* List

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* Soviet Union portal
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World War II

* Outline
* Battles
* Operations
* Leaders
* Allied
* Axis
* Commanders
* Casualties
* Conferences

General|

| Topics|

* Air warfare of World War II
* In Europe
* Blitzkrieg
* Comparative military ranks
* Cryptography
* Declarations of war
* Diplomacy
* Governments in exile
* Home front
* Australian
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Lend-Lease
* Manhattan Project
* British contribution
* Military awards
* Military equipment
* Military production
* Naval history
* Nazi plunder
* Opposition
* Technology
* Allied cooperation
* Mulberry harbour
* Total war
* Strategic bombing
* Puppet states
* Women
* Art and World War II
* Music in World War II
* Weather events during World War II

|

Theaters|

* Asia and Pacific
* China
* South-East Asia
* Pacific
* North and Central Pacific
* South-West Pacific
* Indian Ocean
* Europe
* Western Front
* Eastern Front
* Mediterranean and Middle East
* North Africa
* East Africa
* Italy
* West Africa
* Atlantic
* timeline
* Americas

Aftermath|

* Chinese Civil War
* Cold War
* Decolonization
* Division of Korea
* First Indochina War
* Expulsion of Germans
* Greek Civil War
* Indonesian National Revolution
* Keelhaul
* Marshall Plan
* Occupation of Germany
* Occupation of Japan
* Osoaviakhim
* Paperclip
* Soviet occupations
* Baltic
* Hungary
* Poland
* Romania
* Territorial changes of Germany
* Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
* United Nations

War crimes|

* Allied war crimes
* Soviet war crimes
* Atrocities against prisoners of war
* British war crimes
* United States war crimes
* German war crimes
* forced labour
* Wehrmacht war crimes
* The Holocaust
* Aftermath
* Response
* Nuremberg trials
* Italian war crimes
* Japanese war crimes
* Nanjing Massacre
* Unit 731
* Prosecution
* Croatian war crimes
* Genocide of Serbs
* Persecution of Jews
* Romanian war crimes
* Sexual violence
* German military brothels
* Camp brothels
* Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria
* Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia
* Sook Ching
* Comfort women
* Rape of Manila
* Marocchinate

Participants|

| Allies|

* Algeria
* Australia
* Belgium
* Brazil
* Bulgaria (from September 1944)
* Canada
* China
* Cuba
* Czechoslovakia
* Denmark
* Ethiopia
* Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)
* Finland (from September 1944)
* France
* Free France
* Greece
* India
* Italy (from September 1943)
* Liberia
* Luxembourg
* Mexico
* Netherlands
* Newfoundland
* New Zealand
* Norway
* Philippines
* Poland
* Romania (from August 1944)
* Sierra Leone
* South Africa
* Southern Rhodesia
* Soviet Union
* Tuva
* United Kingdom
* British Empire
* United States
* Puerto Rico
* Yugoslavia

|

Axis|

* Albania protectorate
* Bulgaria (until September 1944)
* State of Burma
* Republic of China (Wang Jingwei)
* Independent State of Croatia
* Finland (until September 1944)
* German Reich
* Hungary
* Azad Hind
* Iraq
* Italy (until September 1943)
* Italian Social Republic
* Empire of Japan
* Manchukuo
* Mengjiang
* Philippines
* Romania (until August 1944)
* Slovak Republic
* Thailand
* Vichy France
* Guangzhouwan
* French Indochina
* French Madagascar
* Syria–Lebanon
* French North Africa
* French West Africa
* Collaboration

Neutral|

* Afghanistan
* Andorra
* Bhutan
* Ireland
* Liechtenstein
* Monaco
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Saudi Arabia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Tibet
* Turkey
* Vatican City
* Yemen

Resistance|

* Albania
* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Czech lands
* Denmark
* Dutch East Indies
* Estonia
* Ethiopia
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hong Kong
* Italy
* Japan
* Jews
* Korea
* Korean Liberation Army
* Korean Volunteer Army
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malaya
* Netherlands
* Northeast China
* Norway
* Philippines
* Poland
* Romania
* Thailand
* Soviet Union
* Slovakia
* Western Ukraine
* Vietnam
* Quốc dân Đảng
* Viet Minh
* Yugoslavia

POWs|

* Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union
* German prisoners
* Soviet Union
* Azerbaijan
* United States
* United Kingdom
* Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union
* Japanese prisoners
* Soviet Union
* German atrocities against Polish POWs
* Soviet prisoners
* Finland
* atrocities by Germans
* Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union
* Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union

Timeline|

| Prelude|

* Africa
* Second Italo-Ethiopian War
* Asia
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* Battles of Khalkhin Gol
* Europe
* Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
* Anschluss
* Munich Agreement
* Occupation of Czechoslovakia
* Operation Himmler
* Italian invasion of Albania

|

1939|

* Invasion of Poland
* Battle of the Atlantic
* Phoney War
* First Battle of Changsha
* Battle of South Guangxi
* Winter War
* 1939–1940 Winter Offensive

1940|

* Norwegian campaign
* German invasion of Denmark
* Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang
* German invasion of Luxembourg
* German invasion of the Netherlands
* German invasion of Belgium
* Battle of France
* Dunkirk evacuation
* Battle of Britain
* Battle of the Mediterranean
* North Africa
* West Africa
* British Somaliland
* Hundred Regiments Offensive
* Baltic states
* Eastern Romania
* Japanese invasion of French Indochina
* Italian invasion of Greece
* Compass

1941|

* Battle of South Henan
* Battle of Shanggao
* Invasion of Yugoslavia
* German invasion of Greece
* Battle of Crete
* Anglo-Iraqi War
* Battle of South Shanxi
* Syria–Lebanon campaign
* East African campaign
* Invasion of the Soviet Union
* Summer War
* Finland (Silver Fox)
* Lithuania
* Battle of Kiev
* Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
* Second Battle of Changsha
* Siege of Leningrad
* Battle of Moscow
* Bombing of Gorky
* Siege of Sevastopol
* Attack on Pearl Harbor
* Japanese invasion of Thailand
* Fall of Hong Kong
* Fall of the Philippines
* Battle of Guam
* Battle of Wake Island
* Malayan campaign
* Battle of Borneo
* Japanese invasion of Burma
* Third Battle of Changsha
* Greek famine of 1941–1944

1942|

* Fall of Singapore
* Battle of the Java Sea
* St Nazaire Raid
* Battle of Christmas Island
* Battle of the Coral Sea
* Battle of Madagascar
* Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign
* Battle of Gazala
* Battle of Dutch Harbor
* Battle of Midway
* Aleutian Islands campaign
* Kiska
* Attu
* Blue
* First Battle of El Alamein
* Battle of Stalingrad
* Kokoda Track campaign
* Rzhev
* Jubilee
* Second Battle of El Alamein
* Guadalcanal campaign
* Torch
* Chinese famine of 1942–1943

1943|

* Black May
* Tunisian campaign
* Battle of West Hubei
* Battle of Attu
* Bombing of Gorky
* Battle of Kursk
* Allied invasion of Sicily
* Smolensk
* Solomon Islands campaign
* Cottage
* Battle of the Dnieper
* Allied invasion of Italy
* Armistice of Cassibile
* Burma
* Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
* Changde
* Second Battle of Kiev
* Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
* Tarawa
* Makin
* Bengal famine of 1943

1944|

* Tempest
* Monte Cassino / Anzio
* Korsun–Cherkassy
* Narva
* U-Go
* Imphal
* Ichi-Go
* Kohima
* Overlord
* Neptune
* Mariana and Palau
* Bagration
* Western Ukraine
* Second Battle of Guam
* Tannenberg Line
* Warsaw Uprising
* Eastern Romania
* Liberation of Paris
* Dragoon
* Gothic Line
* Belgrade offensive
* Battle of San Marino
* Lapland
* Market Garden
* Estonia
* Crossbow
* Pointblank
* Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945
* Philippines (1944–1945)
* Leyte
* Syrmian Front
* Hungary
* Budapest
* Burma (1944–1945)
* Ardennes
* Bodenplatte
* Dutch famine of 1944–1945

1945|

* Vistula–Oder
* Battle of Manila
* Battle of Iwo Jima
* Indochina
* Vienna offensive
* Project Hula
* Western invasion of Germany
* Bratislava–Brno offensive
* Battle of Okinawa
* Second Guangxi campaign
* West Hunan
* Italy (Spring 1945)
* Battle of Berlin
* Prague offensive
* Surrender of Germany
* document
* Borneo
* Taipei
* Naval bombardment of Japan
* Manchuria
* Atomic bombings
* Debate
* South Sakhalin
* Kuril Islands
* Shumshu
* Surrender of Japan
* Potsdam Declaration
* document
* End of World War II in Asia

* World portal
* Bibliography
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Joseph Stalin

* General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952)
* Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union (1946–1953)
* Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
* Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union

History
and politics|

| Overviews|

* Early life
* Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War
* Rise
* Rule as Soviet leader
* Political views
* Cult of personality
* Death and state funeral
* Death toll

|

Chronology|

* August Uprising
* Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)/(1928–1941)
* Collectivization
* Kolkhoz
* Sovkhoz
* Chinese Civil War
* First five-year plan
* Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)
* 16th / 17th Congress of the Communist Party
* 1931 Menshevik Trial
* Spanish Civil War
* Soviet invasion of Xinjiang
* Soviet–Japanese border conflicts
* 1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang
* 1937 legislative election
* 18th Congress of the Communist Party
* Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
* World War II
* Invasion of Poland
* Winter War
* Moscow Peace Treaty
* Occupation of the Baltic states
* German–Soviet Axis talks
* Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact
* Great Patriotic War
* Tehran Conference
* Yalta Conference
* Potsdam Conference
* Soviet atomic bomb project
* Ili Rebellion
* Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance
* 1946 legislative election
* Cold War
* 1946 Iran crisis
* Turkish Straits crisis
* First Indochina War
* Eastern Bloc
* Comecon
* Cominform
* Greek Civil War
* 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
* Berlin Blockade
* Korean War
* Sino-Soviet Treaty
* Tito–Stalin split
* 1950 legislative election
* 19th Congress of the Communist Party

Concepts|

* Stalinism
* Socialism in one country
* Neo-Stalinism
* Korenizatsiya
* Socialism in One Country
* Great Break
* Socialist realism
* Stalinist architecture
* Aggravation of class struggle under socialism
* Five-year plans
* Great Construction Projects of Communism
* Engineers of the human soul
* 1936 Soviet Constitution
* New Soviet man
* Stakhanovite
* Transformation of nature
* Backwardness brings on beatings by others

Crimes, repressions,
and controversies|

* 1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi
* 1907 Tiflis bank robbery
* National delimitation in the Soviet Union
* Georgian Affair
* Decossackization
* Dekulakization
* Wittorf affair
* Great Break
* Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour
* Soviet famine of 1932–33
* Holodomor
* Gulag
* Murder of Sergey Kirov
* Great Purge
* Vasiliy Ulrikh
* NKVD prisoner massacres
* Berezhany
* Berezwecz
* Dubno
* Chortkiv
* Kurapaty
* Katyn
* Lutsk
* Lviv
* Medvedev Forest
* Sambir
* Valozhyn
* Vileyka
* Vinnytsia
* Zolochiv
* Moscow Trials
* Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"
* Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization
* Dewey Commission
* Hotel Lux
* Repressions in Azerbaijan
* Ideological repression in science
* Suppressed research
* Lysenkoism
* Japhetic theory, Slavists case
* 1937 Soviet Census
* 1941 Red Army purge
* Soviet offensive plans controversy
* Hitler Youth Conspiracy
* Soviet war crimes
* Allegations of antisemitism
* Population transfer (German–Soviet)
* Deportations
* Operation "Lentil"
* Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
* Koreans
* Operation "North"
* Operation "Priboi"
* Nazino affair
* Forced settlement
* Tax on trees
* 1946-1947 Soviet famine
* Leningrad Affair
* Mingrelian Affair
* Rootless cosmopolitan
* Night of the Murdered Poets
* Doctors' plot
* Censorship of images
* Mass graves in the Soviet Union
* Kommunarka shooting ground
* Stalin's shooting lists

Works|

* "Anarchism or Socialism?"
* "Marxism and the National Question"
* "Foundations of Leninism"
* "Dizzy with Success"
* "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia"
* "Ten Blows" speech
* Alleged 19 August 1939 speech
* Falsifiers of History
* Stalin Note
* The History of the Communist Party
* 1936 Soviet Constitution
* Stalin's poetry
* Dialectical and Historical Materialism
* Order No. 227
* Order No. 270
* "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics"
* Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR

De-Stalinization|

* 20th Congress of the Communist Party
* Pospelov Commission
* Rehabilitation
* Khrushchev thaw
* On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences
* Gomulka thaw (Polish October)
* Soviet Nonconformist Art
* Shvernik Commission
* 22nd Congress of the Communist Party
* Era of Stagnation
* 1956 Georgian demonstrations

Criticism and
opposition

* Stalin Epigram
* Lenin's Testament
* Ryutin Affair
* Anti-Stalinist left
* Trotskyism
* Kremlin Plot
* True Communists
* Darkness at Noon
* Animal Farm
* Nineteen Eighty-Four
* Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism
* The Soviet Story
* Antisemitism

Remembrance|

* Iosif Stalin tank
* Iosif Stalin locomotive
* Generalissimo of the Soviet Union
* Stalin statues
* Pantheon, Moscow
* 1956 Georgian demonstrations
* List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin
* Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin
* Stalin Monument in Budapest
* Stalin Monument in Prague
* Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori
* Batumi Stalin Museum
* Places named after Stalin
* State Stalin Prize
* Stalin Peace Prize
* Stalin Society
* Stalin Bloc – For the USSR

Cultural depictions|

* Apocalypse: Stalin
* The Death of Stalin
* Mikheil Gelovani

Family|

* Besarion Jughashvili (father)
* Keke Geladze (mother)
* Kato Svanidze (first wife)
* Yakov Dzhugashvili (son)
* Konstantin Kuzakov (son)
* Artyom Sergeyev (adopted son)
* Nadezhda Alliluyeva (second wife)
* Vasily Stalin (son)
* Svetlana Alliluyeva (daughter)
* Yevgeny Dzhugashvili (grandson)
* Galina Dzhugashvili (granddaughter)
* Joseph Alliluyev (grandson)
* Sergei Alliluyev (second father-in-law)
* Alexander Svanidze (brother-in-law)
* Yuri Zhdanov (son-in-law)
* William Wesley Peters (son-in-law)

Stalin's residences|

* Stalin's house, Gori
* Tiflis Seminary
* Kureika
* Room at Kremlin
* Kuntsevo
* Stalin's bunker

* Category

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