Spain and the American Revolutionary War

18th-century war between Great Britain and Spain

Anglo-Spanish War (1779–1783)

Part of the American Revolutionary War and the Anglo-Spanish Wars

Bernardo de Gálvez at the siege of Pensacola, painting by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
| Date| June 1779 – September 1783

|

Location|

English Channel, Straits of Gibraltar, Balearic Islands, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, The Bahamas, Central America, Louisiana, Alabama, Missouri, Illinois, Florida, Arkansas

Result|

Spanish victory

* Peace of Paris
* Convention of London

Territorial
changes|  East Florida, West Florida, Mosquito Coast, Bay Islands, and Minorca ceded to Spain; Belize is demilitarized
Belligerents
Spain|  Great Britain
Commanders and leaders
Bernardo de Gálvez,
Matías de Gálvez,
Luis de Córdova y Córdova,
Juan de Lángara|  George Brydges Rodney,
Richard Howe,
George Augustus Eliott,
John Campbell

* v
* t
* e

Battles involving Spain in the American Revolutionary War
1779-1783

Europe and Atlantic

* English Channel
* Plymouth
* Gibraltar
* Azores
* Lisbon
* 20 November
* Cape Finisterre
* St. Vincent
* Cape St. Maria
* 25 February
* Málaga
* 1 May
* Minorca
* Strait of Gibraltar
* Cape Spartel

Gulf Coast

* Fort Bute
* Lake Pontchartrain
* Baton Rouge
* 1st Mobile
* The Village
* Pensacola

Louisiana and Northwest Territory

* St. Louis
* Fort St. Joseph
* Arkansas Post

Central America

* Río Hondo
* Cayo Cocina
* San Fernando
* 12 December
* Fort San Juan
* Roatán
* Black River

West Indies

* 15 January
* 1st Nassau
* 17 February
* 2nd Nassau

* v
* t
* e

Anglo-Spanish Wars

* 1585–1604
* 1625–1630
* 1654–1660
* 1662–1668
* 1702–1713
* 1718–1720
* 1727–1729
* 1739–1748
* 1762–1763
* 1779–1783
* 1796–1802
* 1804–1808
* 1815–1832
* 1833–1840

Spain, through its alliance with France and as part of its conflict with Britain, played an important role in the independence of the United States. Spain declared war on Britain as an ally of France, itself an ally of the American colonies. Most notably, Spanish forces attacked British positions in the south and captured West Florida from Britain in the siege of Pensacola. This secured the southern route for supplies and closed off the possibility of any British offensive through the western frontier of the United States via the Mississippi River. Spain also provided money, supplies, and munitions to the American forces.

Beginning in 1776, it jointly funded Roderigue Hortalez and Company, a trading company that provided critical military supplies. Spain provided financing for the final siege of Yorktown in 1781 with a collection of gold and silver in Havana, then Spanish Cuba.[1] Spain was allied with France through the Bourbon Family Compact and the Revolution was an opportunity to confront their common enemy, Great Britain. As the newly appointed Chief Minister of King Charles III of Spain, the Count of Floridablanca wrote in March 1777, "the fate of the colonies interests us very much, and we shall do for them everything that circumstances permit".[2]

## Aid to the United States: 1776–1778

[edit]

In 1776, France and Spain each contributed 1,000,000 French livres to finance the initial large-scale joint arms shipment. This marked Spain's initial aid to the poorly equipped Continental Army, funding the acquisition of 216 cannons, 27 mortars, 238 gun carriages, 12,826 grenades, 51,134 rounds, 300,000 pounds of gunpowder, 30,000 muskets with bayonets, 4,000 tents and 30,000 full uniforms. With the aid of these timely Spanish provisions, General Horatio Gates triumphed over General John Burgoyne at Saratoga on October 17, 1777.[3]

Portrait by Francisco Jover y Casanova of Aranda

The same year, in correspondence with Spain’s envoy in Paris, the Count of Aranda from Aragon, Benjamin Franklin expressed gratitude for Spain’s further loan of nearly 200,000 livres in cash, “along with naval provisions from its harbors.”[4]

Spanish aid was supplied to the new nation through four main routes: from French ports with the funding of Rodrigue Hortalez and Company, through the port of New Orleans and up the Mississippi River, from the warehouses in Havana, and from Bilbao, through the Gardoqui family trading company. Spain made loans to the United States to be used to furnish war supplies through the House of Gardoqui.

Smuggling from New Orleans began in 1776 when General Charles Lee sent two Continental Army (the army of the United States) officers to request supplies from the New Orleans Governor, Luis de Unzaga. Unzaga, concerned about overtly antagonizing the British before the Spanish were prepared for war, agreed to assist the rebels covertly. Unzaga authorized the shipment of desperately needed gunpowder in a transaction brokered by Oliver Pollock, a Patriot (Revolutionary) and financier.[5] When Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez was appointed Governor of New Orleans in January 1777, he continued and expanded the supply operations.[6]

As the American diplomat Benjamin Franklin reported from Paris to the Congressional Committee of Secret Correspondence in March 1777, the Spanish court quietly granted the rebels direct admission to the rich, previously restricted port of Havana under most favored nation status. Franklin also noted in the same report that three thousand barrels of gunpowder were waiting in New Orleans and that the merchants in Bilbao "had orders to ship for us such necessaries as we might want".[7]

## Declaration of war

[edit]

In the Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–77) over territories in South America, Spain prevailed, allowing them to consider their next moves. In the First Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed on 1 October 1777, after Mary I of Portugal had dismissed Pombal, Spain won the Banda Oriental (Uruguay), with Colonia del Sacramento, founded by Portugal in 1680.[8] Spain also won the Misiones Orientales. In return, Spain acknowledged that Portuguese territories in Brazil extended far west of the line set in the Treaty of Tordesillas.[9] In the Treaty of El Pardo, signed 11 March 1778, Spain won Spanish Guinea[10] (Equatorial Guinea), which was administered from Buenos Aires in 1778–1810. With these treaties, Portugal had left the war, and in 1781 Portugal even joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to resist British seizures of cargo from neutral ships.[11] The countries forming the League might have aided Britain in the widening conflict, but their neutrality left Britain without European allies.

The former Spanish diplomat and then-Ambassador to the French Court, Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi, summarized the Spanish position in a letter to Arthur Lee, an American diplomat in Madrid trying to persuade Spain to make an open alliance with the fledgling United States, as France had. Genoese by birth and a shrewdly calculating politician by nature, Grimaldi demurred, replying, "You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not yet come for us. The war with Portugal – France being unprepared, and our cargo ships from South America not having arrived – makes it improper for us to declare immediately."[12] Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee, stores of clothing and powder were deposited for the Americans in the port of New Orleans, now under Spanish control, and Havana; further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao.

By June 1779 the Spanish had finalized their preparations for war. The British cause seemed to be at a particularly low ebb. The Spanish joined France in the war, implementing the Treaty of Aranjuez signed in April 1779. It did not make a treaty of alliance with the Americans.

## European waters

[edit]

The main goals of Spain were the recovery of Gibraltar and Menorca from Britain, which held them since 1704, and to damage British trade through the actions of privateers.[13] The siege of Gibraltar, June 16, 1779, to February 7, 1783, was the longest-lasting Spanish action in the war. Despite the larger size of the besieging Franco-Spanish army, at one point numbering 33,000, the British under George Augustus Elliott were able to hold out in the fortress and were resupplied by sea three times. Luis de Córdova y Córdova was unable to prevent Howe's fleet returning home after resupplying Gibraltar in October 1782.[14] The combined Franco-Spanish invasion of Menorca in 1781 met with more success; Menorca surrendered the following year,[15] and was restored to Spain after the war, nearly eighty years after it was first captured by the British.[16] In 1780 and 1781, Luis de Córdova's fleet captured America-bound British convoys, doing much damage to British military supplies and commerce.

## West Indies and Gulf Coast

[edit]

See also: Gulf Coast campaign

Painting depicting the Spanish advance at the lower Mississippi by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau

In the Caribbean, Spain's main effort was directed at preventing possible British landings in Cuba, remembering the British expedition against Cuba that seized Havana in the Seven Years' War, but returned to Spain in 1763 following the peace treaty. Other goals included the reconquest of Florida (which the British had divided into West Florida and East Florida in 1763), and the resolution of logging disputes involving the British in Central America.

On the mainland, the governor of Spanish Louisiana, Count Bernardo de Gálvez, led a series of successful offensives against the British forts in the Mississippi Valley, first the attack and capture of Fort Bute at Manchac, and then forcing the surrender of Baton Rouge, Natchez and Mobile in 1779 and 1780.[17] While a hurricane in 1780 halted an expedition to capture Pensacola, the capital of British West Florida, Gálvez's forces achieved a decisive victory against the British in 1781 at the Battle of Pensacola, giving the Spanish control of all of West Florida. This secured the southern route for supplies and closed off the possibility of any British offensive into the western frontier of United States via the Mississippi River.

When Spain entered the war, Britain also went on the offensive in the Caribbean, planning an expedition against Spanish Nicaragua. A British attempt to gain a foothold at San Fernando de Omoa was rebuffed in October 1779, and an expedition in 1780 against Fort San Juan in Nicaragua was at first successful, but yellow fever and other tropical diseases wiped out most of the force, which then withdrew and returned to Jamaica.

## Mississippi Valley

[edit]

Statue of the Viscount of Galveston in Málaga

At the end of the Seven Years' War, France ceded the Mississippi Valley to her ally Spain, in order to prevent it from coming under British control at the Treaty of Paris (1763).[18] The Spanish assisted the United States in their campaigns in the American Midwest. In January 1778, Virginia Governor Patrick Henry authorized an expedition by George Rogers Clark, who captured the fort at Vincennes and secured the northern region of the Ohio for the rebels. Clark relied on Gálvez and Oliver Pollock for support to supply his men with weapons and ammunition, and to provide credit for provisions. The credit lines that Pollock established to purchase supplies for Clark were supposed to be backed by the state of Virginia. However, Pollock in turn had to rely on his own personal credit and Gálvez, who allowed the funds of the Spanish government to be at Pollock's disposal as loans. These funds were usually delivered in the cover of night by Gálvez's private secretary.[19]

The Spanish garrisons in the Louisiana region repelled attacks from British units and the latter's Indian allies in the Battle of Saint Louis in 1780. A year later, a detachment traveled through present-day Illinois and took Fort St. Joseph, in the modern state of Michigan. This expedition gave Spain some claim to the Northwest Territory, which was thwarted diplomatically by Great Britain and the young United States in their separate peace in the Treaty of Paris (1783).[18]

## Siege of Yorktown

[edit]

Main article: Yorktown Campaign

Francisco Saavedra (Prado museum).

The Spanish also assisted in the siege of Yorktown in 1781, the critical and final major battle of the North America theater. French General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, commanding his country's forces in North America, sent a desperate appeal to François Joseph Paul de Grasse, the French admiral designated to assist the Americans, asking him to raise money in the Caribbean to fund the campaign at Yorktown. With the assistance of Spanish agent Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, the needed cash, over 500,000 in silver pesos, was raised in Havana, Cuba within 24 hours. This money was used to purchase critical supplies for the siege, and to fund the payroll for the Continental Army.[20]

## Antilles War

[edit]

After Spain entered the war, Major General John Dalling, the British governor and commander-in-chief of Jamaica, proposed in 1780 an expedition to the Spanish province of Nicaragua. The goal was to sail up the San Juan River to Lake Nicaragua and capture the town of Granada, which would effectively cut Spanish America in half as well as provide potential access to the Pacific Ocean. Because of disease and logistical problems, the expedition proved to be a costly debacle.[21][22]

The expedition sailed from Jamaica on February 3, 1780, escorted by twenty-one-year-old Captain Horatio Nelson in the Hinchinbrook. Nelson was the highest-ranking officer present, but his authority was limited to naval operations. The overall commander was Captain (local rank of major) John Polson of the 60th Regiment, who recognized young Nelson's abilities and worked closely with him. Polson had about three to four hundred regulars of the 60th and the 79th Regiments, about 300 men of the Loyal Irish Corps raised by Dalling, as well as several hundred local recruits, including blacks and Miskito Indians.

After many delays, the expedition began to move up the San Juan River on March 17, 1780. On April 9, Nelson—in the first hand-to-hand combat of his career—led an assault that captured a Spanish battery on the island of Bartola on the San Juan River. The siege of Fort San Juan, located five miles (8 km) upstream and manned with about 150 armed defenders and 86 others, began on April 13. Because of poor planning and lost supplies, the British soon began to run low on ammunition for the cannons as well as rations for the men. After the tropical rains started on April 20, men began to sicken and die, probably from malaria and dysentery, and perhaps typhoid fever.

Nelson was one of the first to become ill, and he was shipped downriver on April 28, the day before the Spanish surrendered the fort. About 450 British reinforcements arrived on May 15, but the blacks and the Indians abandoned the expedition because of illness and discontent. Although Dalling persisted in trying to gather reinforcements, a sickness continued to take a heavy toll, and the expedition was abandoned on November 8, 1780. The Spanish reoccupied the remains of the fort after the British blew it upon departure. In all, more than 2,500 men died, which "made the San Juan expedition the costliest British disaster of the entire war".[23]

Following these successes, an unauthorized Spanish force captured the Bahamas in 1782, without a battle. In 1783 Gálvez was preparing to invade Jamaica from Cuba, but these plans were aborted when Britain sued for peace.

## Peace of Paris

[edit]

Main article: Peace of Paris (1783)

The reforms made by Spanish authorities as a result of Spain's poor performance in the Seven Years' War had proved generally successful. As a result, Spain retained Menorca and West Florida in the Treaty of Paris and also regained East Florida. The lands east of the Mississippi, however, were recognized as part of the newly independent United States of America.[24]

## Contribution to victory

[edit]

The involvement of France was decisive in the British defeat. Spain's contribution was important too.[25] By allying themselves with foreign monarchies, the United States took advantage of the power struggles within European imperialism and essentially formed a united front against Britain. The new nation was eager to spread republicanism, which could threaten Spain's own colonies, and later did so, in the Latin American wars of independence. Nevertheless, Spain maintained a level of support throughout the war in pursuit of its geopolitical interests. Historian Thomas A. Bailey says of Spain:

Although she was attracted by the prospect of a war [against England] for restitution and revenge, she was repelled by the specter of an independent and powerful American republic. Such a new state might reach over the Alleghenies into the Mississippi Valley and grasp territory that Spain wanted for herself. Even worse, it might eventually seize Spain's colonies in the New World.[26]

## Aftermath

[edit]

North American borders proposed by the Spanish diplomacy near the end of the American Revolutionary War, August 3rd, 1782 Philadelphia statue of Gardoqui by Luis Antonio Sanguino

Spain's involvement in the American Revolutionary War was widely regarded as a successful one. The Spanish took a gamble in entering the war, banking on Great Britain's vulnerability caused by the effort of fighting their rebellious colonists in North America while also conducting a global war on many fronts against a coalition of major powers. This helped Spain gain some relatively easy conquests.

The war gave a boost to the kingdom's prestige, which had suffered from the losses to Britain in the Seven Years' War. Even though Spain's single most coveted target, Gibraltar, remained out of its grasp, Spain had more than compensated by recovering Menorca and by reducing the British threat to its colonies in and around the Caribbean, all of which were seen as vital to Spanish interests.

Spain was seen to have received tangible results out of the war, especially in contrast to its ally France. The French king had invested huge amounts of manpower, funds and material resources for little clear military or economic gain. France had been left with crippling debts which it struggled to pay off, and which would become one of the major causes of the French Revolution that broke out in 1789. Spain, in comparison, disposed of its debts more easily, partly due to the stunning increases in silver production from the mines in Mexico and Bolivia.[27]

One particular outcome of the war was the manner in which it enhanced the position of Prime Minister Floridablanca, and his government continued to dominate Spanish politics until 1792.

Don Diego de Gardoqui, of the Gardoqui trading company that had greatly assisted the rebels during the war, was appointed as Spain's first ambassador to the United States of America in 1784. Gardoqui became well acquainted with George Washington, and marched in the newly elected President Washington's inaugural parade. King Charles III of Spain continued communications with Washington, sending him livestock from Spain that Washington had requested for his farm at Mount Vernon.[28]

## See also

[edit]

* Spain-United States relations
* Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War
* Spain and the American Civil War

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Thomas E. Chavez (January 2004). Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. UNM Press. p. 225\. ISBN 978-0-8263-2794-9.
2. ^ Fernández y Fernández, p. 4
3. ^ Guerrero Acosta, José Manuel (2018). Recovered Memories. Spain, New Orleans and the Support for the American Revolution (PDF). Iberdrola. pp. 132–137\. ISBN 978-84-934989-93. Retrieved 24 June 2025.
4. ^ Cummins, Light Townsend; Eslava Galán, Juan; Ferreiro, Larrie D.; Freeland, Robert Gray; García Lerma, Mar; González López-Briones, Carmen; Guerrero Acosta, José Manuel; Olmedo Checa, Manuel; Reyero, Francisco; Santiago Rodríguez, Cristina; Sjostrom, Kristine L. (2019). Unveiling Memories. Spain and the Hispanic Contribution to U.S. Independence (PDF). Bilbao: Iberdrola - Avangrid. p. 30\. ISBN 978-84-933107-1-4. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
5. ^ Caughey, p. 87
6. ^ Mitchell, p. 99
7. ^ Sparks, 1:201
8. ^ Robert S. Chamberlain, "Latin America", in An Encyclopedia of History (1948), Revised Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 501.
9. ^ Robert S. Chamberlain, "Latin America", in An Encyclopedia of History (1948), Revised Edition, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 502.
10. ^ "Spanish Guinea", in The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia (1953), New York: Viking.
11. ^ John D. Grainger (2005), The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: A Reassessment, Bognor Regis, West Sussex: Boydell & Brewer, p. 10.
12. ^ Sparks, 1:408
13. ^ Jack Russell, Gibraltar besieged, 1779–1783 (Heinemann, 1965).
14. ^ Chartrand p.84
15. ^ Chartrand 54–56
16. ^ Harvey p.532
17. ^ Harvey p.413-14
18. ^ a b Collins, William. "The Spanish Attack on Fort St. Joseph". National Park Service. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
19. ^ Caughey pp. 98–99
20. ^ Dull p. 245
21. ^ Coleman, Terry (2004). The Nelson Touch: The Life and Legend of Horatio Nelson. London, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 32\. ISBN 978-0-19-517322-2.
22. ^ This account follows John Sugden, Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 1758–1797, ch. VII.
23. ^ Sugden, p. 173
24. ^ Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (1965).
25. ^ Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire (Hachette UK, 2008).
26. ^ Thomas A. Bailey, A diplomatic history of the American people (10th ed. 1980) p 32-33.
27. ^ In the mid-18th century, production in Mexico increased by about 600%, and by 250% in Peru and Bolivia. Castillero Calvo p. 193
28. ^ Chávez p. 2

## Further reading

[edit]

* Calderón Cuadrado, Reyes (2004). Empresarios españoles en el proceso de independencia norteamericana: La casa Gardoqui e hijos de Bilbao. Madrid: Union Editorial, S.A.
* Castillero Calvo, Alfredo (2004). Las Rutas de la Plata: La Primera Globalización. Madrid: Ediciones San Marcos. ISBN 84-89127-47-6.
* Caughey, John W. (1998). Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana 1776–1783. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company. ISBN 1-56554-517-6.
* Chávez, Thomas E. (2002). Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2794-X.
* Cummins, Light Townsend. Spanish Observers and the American Revolution, 1775-1783. Baton Rouge: LSU Press 1977.
* Dull, Jonathan R. (1975). The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774–1787. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
* Fernández y Fernández, Enrique (1985). Spain's Contribution to the independence of the United States. Embassy of Spain: United States of America.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
* Harvey, Robert (2004). A Few Bloody Noses: The American Revolutionary War. Robinson. ISBN 1-84119-952-4.
* Legacy: Spain and the United States in the Age of Independence, 1763-1848 / Legado: España y los Estados Unidos en la era de la Independencia, 1763-1848. Catalogue of an Exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 978-84-95146-36-6
* McFarlane, Anthony. "The American Revolution and the Spanish Monarchy." In Europe's American Revolution, edited by Simon P. Newman. Palgrave Macmillan 2006, 26-50.
* Mitchell, Barbara A. (Autumn 2012). "America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez". MHQ (Military History Quarterly). pp. 98–104.
* Sparks, Jared (1829–1830). The Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution. Boston: Nathan Hale and Gray & Bowen.

## External links

[edit]

* Spanish Assistance in the Independence of the United States, Google Arts & Culture
* Unveiling Memories. Spain and the Hispanic Contribution to U.S. Independence, Iberdrola/Avangrid

* v
* t
* e

Spanish colonial campaigns

Early empire|

* Guinea (1478)
* Morocco (1497)

Habsburg era|

* Algeria (1516)
* Algeria (1517–18)
* Mexico (1519–1933)
* Mexico (1519–1521)
* Chiapas (1523–1695)
* Guatemala (1524–1697)
* Petén (1618-1697)
* Yucatán (1527–1697)
* Algeria (1529)
* Peru (1531–1572)
* Tunisia (1534)
* Tunisia (1535)
* Chile (1536–1810)
* Algeria (1541)
* Tunisia (1550)
* Libya (1551)
* Algeria (1555)
* Algeria (1556)
* Algeria (1558)
* Tunisia (1560)
* Algeria (1563)
* Philippines (1565–1900)
* Philippines (1567–1872)
* Tunisia (1574)
* Puerto Rico (1595)
* Cuba (1596)
* Puerto Rico (1598)
* Morocco (1614)
* Formosa (1626)
* St. Kitts (1629)
* Philippines (1646)
* Hispaniola (1655)
* Jamaica (1655)
* Canary Islands (1657)
* Jamaica (1657)
* Jamaica (1658)

Bourbon era|

* North America (1702–1713)
* Chiloé (1712)
* Bahamas (1720)
* Banda Oriental (1735–1737)
* North America (1739–1748)
* Sacramento (1762–63)
* Cuba (1762)
* Nicaragua (1762)
* Philippines (1762)
* Sacramento (1776–77)
* Gulf Coast (1779–1783)
* Caribbean (1779–1783)
* Río de la Plata (1806–07)

Spanish American
wars of independence|

* Ecuador (1809)
* Peru (1811–1824)
* Bolivia (1809–1825)
* Florida (1810)
* Paraguay (1810–11)
* Argentina (1810–1818)
* Mexico (1810–1821)
* Chile (1810–1826)
* El Salvador (1811)
* Uruguay (1811)
* Venezuela (1811–1823)
* Colombia (1815–16)
* Colombia (1819–20)
* Ecuador (1820–1822)
* Mexico (1821–1829)

Late empire|

* Balanguingui (1848)
* Cochinchina (1858–1862)
* Morocco (1859–60)
* Dominican Republic (1863–1865)
* Chile/Peru (1864–1866)
* Cuba (1868–1878)
* Cuba (1879–80)
* Cuba (1895–1898)
* Philippines (1896–1898)
* Puerto Rico (1898)
* Guam (1898)
* Morocco (1920–1926)
* Morocco (1957–58)

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template