Strategic Defense Initiative

U.S. military defense program (1984–1993)

"Star Wars program" redirects here. For the media franchise, see Star Wars.

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Strategic Defense Initiative Organization

Agency overview
Formed| 1984
Preceding agency|

* Ballistic Missile Defense Organization

Dissolved| 1993 (renamed)
Superseding agency|

* Ballistic Missile Defense Organization
Missile Defense Agency

Jurisdiction| Federal government of the United States

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), derisively nicknamed the Star Wars program, was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic nuclear missiles. The program was announced in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan, a vocal critic of the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD), which he described as a "suicide pact".[1] Reagan called for a system that would end MAD and render nuclear weapons obsolete.[2] Elements of the program reemerged in 2019 under the Space Development Agency (SDA).[3]

The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within the US Department of Defense to oversee development. Advanced weapon concepts, including lasers,[4][5] particle-beam weapons, and ground and space-based missile systems were studied, along with sensor, command and control, and computer systems needed to control a system consisting of hundreds of combat centers and satellites spanning the globe. The US held a significant advantage in advanced missile defense systems through decades of extensive research and testing. Several concepts, technologies and insights obtained were transferred to subsequent programs.[6][7][8][9] Under SDIO's Innovative Sciences and Technology Office,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] investment was made in basic research at national laboratories, universities, and in industry. These programs have continued to be key sources of funding for research scientists in particle physics, supercomputing/computation, advanced materials, and other critical science and engineering disciplines.

SDI was heavily criticized for threatening to destabilize MAD and re-ignite "an offensive arms race".[17] Senator Ted Kennedy derided the program as "reckless Star Wars schemes",[18] a reference to the space opera film series Star Wars, leading to the popularisation of the monicker. In a 1986 speech, Senator Joe Biden said, "Star Wars represents a fundamental assault on the concepts, alliances and arms-control agreements that have buttressed American security for several decades, and the president's continued adherence to it constitutes one of the most reckless and irresponsible acts in the history of modern statecraft."[19] In 1987, the American Physical Society concluded that the technologies were decades away from readiness, and at least another decade of research was required to know whether such a system was even possible.[20] After the publication of the APS report, SDI's budget was cut. By the late 1980s, the effort had re-focused on the "Brilliant Pebbles" concept using small orbiting missiles.

Declassified intelligence material revealed that through the potential neutralization of its arsenal and resulting loss of a balancing power factor, SDI was a cause of grave concern for the Soviet Union and its successor state Russia.[21] Following the Cold War when nuclear arsenals were shrinking, political support for SDI collapsed. SDI ended in 1993, when the Clinton administration redirected the efforts towards theatre ballistic missiles and renamed the agency the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO).

In 2019, elements, specifically the observation portions, of the program re-emerged with President Trump's signing of the National Defense Authorization Act.[22] The program is managed by the Space Development Agency (SDA) as part of the new National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA).[23][24] CIA director Mike Pompeo called for additional funding to achieve a full-fledged "Strategic Defense Initiative for our time, the SDI II."[25] On May 20 2025, Donald Trump announced the Golden Dome, a project broadly similar to SDI, which he referenced in the announcement.

## History

[edit]

### National BMD

[edit]

The US Army considered the issue of ballistic missile defense (BMD) after World War II. Studies suggested that attacking a V-2 rocket would be difficult because the flight time was so short that it would leave little time to forward information through command and control networks to missile batteries. Bell Labs pointed out that although longer-range missiles flew much faster, their longer flight times would ease the timing issue and their high altitudes would ease long-range radar detection.[26]

This led to a series of projects including Nike Zeus, Nike-X, Sentinel and ultimately the Safeguard Program, all aimed at developing a system to defend against attacks by Soviet ICBMs. The programs proliferated because of the changing threat; the Soviets claimed to be producing missiles "like sausages", and ever-more missiles would be needed to defend against their fleet. Low-cost countermeasures such as radar decoys required additional interceptors. An early estimate suggested $20 spent on defense would be required for every $1 the Soviets spent on offense. The addition of MIRV in the late 1960s further moved the balance in favor of offensive systems. This massively skewed cost-exchange ratio prompted observers to propose that an arms race was inevitable.[27]

The Extended Range Nike Zeus/Spartan missile of the late-1960s was designed to provide full-country defense as part of the Sentinel-Safeguard programs. Projected to cost $40 billion ($388 billion in 2024) it would have offered minimal protection and damage prevention in an all-out attack.[28]

President Dwight D. Eisenhower asked ARPA to consider alternative concepts. Their Project Defender studied many approaches before concentrating on Project BAMBI. BAMBI used satellites carrying interceptors that would attack the Soviet ICBMs upon launch. This boost phase intercept rendered MIRV impotent; a successful attack would destroy all of the warheads. Unfortunately, the operational cost of such a system was so large that the US Air Force rejected the concepts. Development was cancelled in 1963.[29][30]

During this period, the entire topic of BMD became increasingly controversial. Early deployment plans were met with little interest, but by the late 1960s, public meetings on the Sentinel system were met by thousands of angry protesters.[31] After thirty years of effort, only one such system was built; a single base of the original Safeguard system became operational in April 1975, but was closed in February 1976.[32]

A Soviet military A-35 anti-ballistic missile system was deployed around Moscow to intercept enemy ballistic missiles targeting the city or its surrounding areas. The A-35 was the only Soviet ABM system allowed under the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. In development since the 1960s and in operation from 1971[33] until the 1990s, it featured the nuclear-tipped A350 exoatmospheric interceptor missile.

### Lead up to SDI

[edit]

Main article: X-ray laser

The bright spikes extending below the initial fireball of one of 1952's Operation Tumbler–Snapper test shots, are known as the "rope trick effect". They are caused by the intense flash of thermal/soft X-rays released by the explosion heating the steel tower guy-wires white hot. The development of the W71 and the Project Excalibur x-ray laser were based on enhancing the destructive effects of these x-rays.

George Shultz, Reagan's secretary of state, suggested that a 1967 lecture by physicist Edward Teller was an important precursor to SDI. In the lecture, Teller talked about the idea of defending against nuclear missiles using nuclear weapons, principally the W65 and W71, with the latter an enhanced thermal/X-ray device used on the Spartan missile in 1975. Held at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), the 1967 lecture was attended by Reagan shortly after he became governor of California.[34]

Development of laser weapons in the Soviet Union began in 1964–1965.[35] Though classified at the time, a detailed study on a Soviet space-based laser system began no later than 1976 with the Polyus, a 1 MW Carbon dioxide laser-based orbital weapons platform prototype. Development was also started on the anti-satellite Kaskad in-orbit missile platform.[36][37]

A revolver cannon (Rikhter R-23) was mounted on the 1974 Soviet Salyut 3 space station, a satellite that successfully test-fired its cannon in orbit.[38][39]

In 1979, Teller contributed to a Hoover Institution publication where he claimed that the US would be facing an emboldened USSR due to their work on civil defense. Two years later at a conference in Italy, he made the same claims about their ambitions, now emboldened by new space-based weapons. According to popular opinion, shared by author Frances FitzGerald, no evidence validated that such research was carried out. Instead, Teller was promoting his latest weapon, the X-ray laser that was finding only limited funding, his speech in Italy was a new attempt to synthsize a missile gap.[40]

In 1979, Reagan[41] visited the NORAD command base, Cheyenne Mountain Complex, where he was introduced to the extensive tracking and detection systems extending throughout the world and into space. He was struck by their comments that while they could track the attack down to the individual targets, they could not stop it. Reagan felt that in the event of an attack, this would place the president in a terrible position, having to choose between immediate counterattack or absorbing the attack while maintaining offensive dominance. Shultz suggested that this feeling of helplessness, coupled with Teller's defensive ideas combined to motivate SDI.[34]: 261–62

In the fall of 1979, at Reagan's request, Lieutenant General Daniel O. Graham, the former head of the DIA, briefed Reagan on an updated BAMBI he called High Frontier, a missile shield composed of multi-layered ground- and space-based weapons that could track, intercept, and destroy ballistic missiles, theoretically enabled by emerging technologies. It was designed to replace the MAD doctrine.[42] In September 1981, Graham formed a small, Virginia-based think tank called High Frontier to continue research on the missile shield. The Heritage Foundation provided High Frontier with research space, and Graham published a 1982 report (entitled "High Frontier: A New National Strategy") that examined in greater detail how the system would function.[43]

Since the late 1970s, another group had been pushing for the development of a high-powered orbital chemical laser attack ICBMs, the Space Based Laser (SBL). New developments under Project Excalibur by Teller's "O-Group" at LLNL suggested that a single X-ray laser could shoot down dozens of missiles with a single shot.[44] The groups began to meet in order to prepare their plans for the incoming US president Reagan.

The group met with Reagan several times during 1981 and 1982, apparently with little effect, while the buildup of new offensive weaponry like the B-1 Lancer and MX missile continued. However, in early 1983, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Reagan and outlined the reasons why they might consider shifting some of the funding from the offensive side to new defensive systems.

According to a 1983 US Interagency Intelligence Assessment, good evidence indicated that in the late 1960s the Soviets were devoting serious thought to both explosive and non-explosive nuclear power sources for lasers.[45]

## Project and proposals

[edit]

President Reagan delivering the March 23, 1983, speech initiating SDI

### Announcement

[edit]

On March 23, 1983, Reagan announced SDI in a nationally televised speech, stating "I call upon the scientific community in this country, those who gave us nuclear weapons, to turn their great talents to the cause of mankind and world peace, to give us the means of rendering these nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete."[46]

### Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO)

[edit]

In 1984, the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was established to oversee the program, which was headed by Lt. General James Alan Abrahamson USAF, a past Director of the Space Shuttle program.[1]

In addition to original Heritage ideas, other concepts were considered. Notable among these were particle-beam weapons, updated versions of nuclear shaped charges, and various plasma weapons. SDIO invested in computer systems, component miniaturization, and sensors.

Initially, the program focused on large-scale systems designed to defeat a massive Soviet offensive strike. For this mission, SDIO concentrated almost entirely on "high tech" solutions like lasers. Graham's proposal was repeatedly rejected by members of the Heritage group as well as within SDIO; when asked about it in 1985, Abrahamson suggested that the concept was underdeveloped and was not considered.

By 1986, many of the promising ideas were failing. Teller's X-ray laser, run under Project Excalibur, failed several key tests in 1986 and was targeted to the anti-satellite role. The particle beam concept was demonstrated to basically not work, as was the case with several other concepts. Only the Space-Based Laser seemed to have any hope of developing in the short term, but it was growing in size due to its fuel consumption.

### APS report

[edit]

The American Physical Society (APS) had been asked by SDIO to provide a review of the various concepts. They put together an all-star panel including many of the inventors of the laser, including a Nobel laureate. Their initial report was presented in 1986, but was released to the public (in redacted form) in early 1987.[47]

The report considered all of the systems then under development and concluded none of them were anywhere near ready for deployment. Specifically, they noted that all of the systems had to improve their energy output by at least 100 times, and in some cases by as much as a million. In other cases, like Excalibur, they dismissed the concept entirely. Their summary stated simply:

> We estimate that all existing candidates for directed energy weapons (DEWs) require two or more orders of magnitude, (powers of 10) improvements in power output and beam quality before they may be seriously considered for application in ballistic missile defense systems.[47]

They concluded that none of the systems could be deployed as an anti-missile system until the next century.[47]

### Strategic Defense System

[edit]

Faced with this report and accompanying negative press, SDIO changed direction. Beginning in late 1986, Abrahamson proposed that SDI would be based on the system he had previously dismissed, a version of High Frontier now named the "Strategic Defense System, Phase I Architecture". The name implied that the concept would be replaced by more advanced systems in future phases.

Strategic Defense System (SDS) was the low-earth orbit (LEO) Smart Rocks concept with an added layer of ground-based missiles sited in the US. These missiles were intended to attack warheads that the Smart Rocks missed. In order to track them below the radar horizon, SDS added more LEO satellites that would feed tracking information to both the space-based "garages" as well as the ground-based missiles.[48] Later ground-based systems trace derived from this concept.

LLNL then introduced the Brilliant Pebbles concept. This was essentially the combination of the sensors on the garage satellites and the tracking stations. Advancements in sensors and microprocessors allowed this to be packaged in a small missile nose cone. Subsequent studies suggested that this approach would be cheaper, easier to launch and more resistant to counterattack, and in 1990 Brilliant Pebbles was selected as the baseline model for SDS Phase 1.

### Global Protection Against Limited Strikes

[edit]

While SDIO pursued SDS, the Warsaw Pact was rapidly disintegrating, culminating in the destruction of the Berlin Wall in 1989. One of the many reports on SDS considered these events and suggested that a massive defense against a Soviet launch would become unnecessary. However, short and medium range missile technology would likely proliferate as the Soviet Union disintegrated and sold off its hardware. One of the core ideas behind Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS) was that the Soviet Union would not always be the aggressor and the United States would not always be the target.[49]

Instead of a heavy defense aimed at ICBMs, this report suggested realigning GPALS deployment. Against novel threats the Brilliant Pebbles would have limited utility, largely because the missiles fired for only a short period and the warheads did not rise high enough for them to be easily tracked by a satellite above them. GPALS thus added a mobile ground-based missile and more low-orbit satellites known as Brilliant Eyes to feed the Pebbles.

GPALS was approved by President George H.W. Bush in 1991.[49] The system would cut the proposed costs of the SDI system from $53 billion to $41 billion over a decade.[49] Instead of attempting to protect against thousands of incoming missiles, GPALS sought to provide protection from up to two hundred nuclear missiles.[50] GPALS was tasked to protect the United States from attacks coming from all different parts of the world.[50]

### Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO)

[edit]

Main article: Ballistic Missile Defense Organization

In 1993, the Clinton administration further shifted the focus to ground-based interceptor missiles and theater-scale systems, renaming the SDIO to the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO).[51]

In 2002, the George W. Bush administration in turn renamed the BMDO to the Missile Defense Agency (MDA), indicating plans for a layered missile defence system that integrates different types of defences, including sea- and ground-based defences.[52]

## Ground-based programs

[edit]

Extended Range Interceptor (ERINT) launch from White Sands Missile Range

### Extended Range Interceptor (ERINT)

[edit]

The Extended Range Interceptor (ERINT) program was part of SDI's Theater Missile Defense Program and was an extension of the Flexible Lightweight Agile Guided Experiment (FLAGE), which included developing hit-to-kill technology and demonstrating the guidance accuracy of a small, agile, radar-homing vehicle.

FLAGE scored a direct hit against a MGM-52 Lance missile in flight, at White Sands Missile Range in 1987. ERINT was a prototype missile similar to the FLAGE, but it used a new solid-propellant rocket motor that allowed it to fly faster and higher than FLAGE.

ERINT was later chosen as the MIM-104 Patriot (Patriot Advanced Capability-3, PAC-3) missile.[53]

### Homing Overlay Experiment (HOE)

[edit]

13 ft (4 m) diameter web deployed by Homing Overlay Experiment

Given concerns about previous programs' nuclear-tipped interceptors, in the 1980s the US Army began studies about the feasibility of kinetic hit-to-kill vehicles, i.e. interceptors that would destroy incoming ballistic missiles by colliding with them.

The Homing Overlay Experiment (HOE) was the first such system tested by the Army, and the first successful hit-to-kill intercept of a mock ballistic missile warhead outside the Earth's atmosphere.[54]

HOE used a kinetic kill vehicle (KKV). The KKV was equipped with an infrared seeker, guidance electronics and a propulsion system. Once in space, the KKV could extend a folded structure similar to an umbrella skeleton of 13 ft (4 m) diameter to enhance its effective cross section. This device was intended to destroy an ICBM reentry vehicle on collision.

Four test launches were conducted in 1983 and 1984 at Kwajalein Missile Range in the Marshall Islands using first two stages of Minuteman missile, M55E1 and M56A1.[55] For each test a Minuteman missile was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California carrying a single mock re-entry vehicle targeted for Kwajalein lagoon more than 4,000 miles (6,400 km) away.[56]

After test failures with the first three flight tests because of guidance and sensor problems, the DOD reported that the fourth and final test on June 10, 1984, was successful, intercepting the Minuteman RV with a closing speed of about 3.8 mi/s (6.1 km/s) at an altitude of more than 100 mi (160 km).[57]

Although the fourth test was described as a success, the New York Times in August 1993 reported that the HOE4 test was rigged to increase the likelihood of success.[58] At the urging of Senator David Pryor, the General Accounting Office investigated the claims and concluded that though steps were taken to make it easier for the interceptor to find its target (including some of those alleged by the New York Times), the available data indicated that the interceptor had been successfully guided by its onboard infrared sensors in the collision, and not by an onboard radar guidance system as alleged.[59] Per the GAO report, the net effect of the DOD enhancements increased the infrared signature of the target vessel by 110% over the realistic missile signature initially proposed for the HOE program, but nonetheless the GAO concluded the enhancements to the target vessel were reasonable given the objectives of the program and the geopolitical consequences of its failure. Further, the report concluded that the DOD's subsequent statements before Congress about the HOE program "fairly characterize[d]" the success of HOE4, but confirmed that the DOD never disclosed to Congress the enhancements made to the target vessel.

HOE technology was later expanded into the Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interception System program.[60]

### ERIS and HEDI

[edit]

Main articles: Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interceptor Subsystem and High Endoatmospheric Defense Interceptor

Developed by Lockheed as part of the ground-based interceptor portion of SDI, the Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interceptor Subsystem (ERIS) began in 1985, with at least two tests occurring in the early 1990s. This system was never deployed, but its technology was used in the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system and the Ground-Based Interceptor currently deployed as part of the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system.[61]

## Directed-energy weapon (DEW) programs

[edit]

See also: Directed-energy weapon

### X-ray laser

[edit]

The 1984 SDI concept of a space based Nuclear reactor pumped laser or a chemical hydrogen fluoride laser satellite[62] resulted in this 1984 artist's concept of a laser-equipped satellite firing on another, causing a momentum change in the target object by laser ablation. Before having to cool and re-aim at further possible targets.

Main article: Project Excalibur

This early artwork of the Nuclear detonation pumped laser array depicts an Excalibur engaging three targets, simultaneously. In most descriptions, each Excalibur could fire at dozens of targets, which would be hundreds or thousands of miles away.

An early SDI focus was an X-ray laser powered by nuclear explosions. Nuclear explosions give off a burst of X-rays, which the Excalibur concept intended to focus using a lasing medium consisting of metal rods. Many such rods would be placed around a warhead, each aimed at a different ICBM, thus destroying many ICBMs in a single attack. It would cost much less for the US to build another Excalibur than the Soviets would need to build enough new ICBMs to counter it. The idea was first based on satellites, but when it was pointed out that these could be attacked in space, the concept moved to a "pop-up" concept, with the device launched from a submarine off the northern Soviet coast.

However, on March 26, 1983,[63] the first test (known as the Cabra event), was performed in an underground shaft and resulted in marginally positive readings possibly caused by a faulty detector. Since a nuclear explosion was used as the power source, the detector was destroyed during the experiment, and the results therefore could not be confirmed. Technical criticism[64] based upon unclassified calculations suggested that the X-ray laser would be of at best marginal use.[65] Critics often cite the X-ray laser system as SDI's primary focus, with its apparent failure warranting opposition to the program.

Despite the apparent failure, the legacy of the X-ray laser program is the knowledge gained from the research. A parallel development program advanced laboratory X-ray lasers[66] for biological imaging such as 3D holograms of living organisms. Other spin-offs include research on advanced materials like SEAgel and Aerogel, the Electron-Beam Ion Trap facility for physics research, and techniques for early detection of breast cancer.[67]

### Chemical laser

[edit]

SeaLite Beam Director, commonly used as the output for the MIRACL

See also: Chemical laser

Beginning in 1985, the Air Force tested an SDIO-funded deuterium fluoride laser known as Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) at White Sands Missile Range.[68] During a simulation, the laser successfully destroyed a Titan missile booster in 1985. However, the test setup had the booster shell pressurized and under considerable compression loads. These test conditions were used to simulate the loads a booster would be under during launch.[69] The system was later tested for the US Navy on target drones simulating cruise missiles, with some success. After SDIO closed, MIRACL was tested on an old Air Force satellite for potential use as an anti-satellite weapon, with mixed results. The technology was also used to develop the Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL) that was tested against in-flight artillery shells.[70]

During the mid-to-late 1980s panel discussions took place at various laser conferences. Proceedings include papers on the status of chemical and other high-power lasers.[5]

The Missile Defense Agency's Airborne Laser program used a chemical laser that intercepted a missile taking off, so an offshoot of SDI could be said to have successfully implemented one of the key goals of the program.[71]

### Neutral particle beam

[edit]

In July 1989, the Beam Experiments Aboard a Rocket (BEAR) program launched a sounding rocket containing a neutral particle beam (NPB) accelerator.[72] The experiment successfully demonstrated that a particle beam would operate and propagate as predicted outside the atmosphere and that no unexpected side-effects emerged when firing the beam in space. After the rocket was recovered, the particle beam was still operational. According to BMDO, the research on neutral particle beam accelerators, originally funded by SDIO, could eventually be used to reduce the half-life of nuclear waste products using accelerator-driven transmutation technology.[73]

### Laser and mirror experiments

[edit]

Technicians at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) work on the Low-Power Atmospheric Compensation Experiment (LACE) satellite.

The High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE), launched with the Space Shuttle Discovery on STS-51-G, was tested on June 21, 1985, when a Hawaii-based low-power laser successfully tracked the experiment and bounced the laser off of the HPTE mirror.

The Relay mirror experiment (RME), launched in February 1990, demonstrated critical technologies for space-based relay mirrors that would be used with an SDI directed-energy weapon system. The experiment validated stabilization, tracking, and pointing concepts and proved that a laser could be relayed from the ground to a 24 in (60 cm) mirror on an orbiting satellite and back to another ground station with a high degree of accuracy and for extended durations.[74]

Launched on the same rocket as the RME, the Low-power Atmospheric Compensation Experiment (LACE) satellite was built by the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) to explore atmospheric distortion of lasers and real-time adaptive compensation. The LACE satellite included several other experiments to help develop and improve SDI sensors, including target discrimination using background radiation and tracking ballistic missiles using Ultraviolet Plume Imaging (UVPI).[75] LACE was also used to evaluate ground-based adaptive optics, a technique now used in civilian telescopes to remove atmospheric distortions.

### Hypervelocity Railgun (CHECMATE)

[edit]

Research on hypervelocity railgun technology was conducted to build an information base about railguns. The SDI railgun investigation, called the Compact High Energy Capacitor Module Advanced Technology Experiment, was able to fire two projectiles per day during the initiative. This represented a significant improvement over previous efforts, which were only able to achieve about one shot per month. Hypervelocity railguns are, at least conceptually, an attractive alternative to a space-based defense system because of their envisioned ability to quickly shoot at many targets. Also, since only the projectile leaves the gun, a railgun system can potentially fire many times before needing to be resupplied.

A hypervelocity railgun works like a particle accelerator, converting electrical potential energy into kinetic energy for the projectile. A conductive pellet (the projectile) is attracted down the rails by electric current flowing through a rail. Through magnetic forces, a force is exerted on the projectile moving it down the rail. Railguns can generate muzzle-velocities in excess of 1.5 miles per second (2.4 km/s).[76]

Railguns face a host of technical challenges to be ready for battlefield deployment. First, the rails guiding the projectile must carry sufficient power. Each firing of the railgun sends tremendous current flow (almost half a million amperes) through the rails, causing rapid erosion of the rail's surfaces (through ohmic heating), and even vaporization of the rail surface. Early prototypes were essentially single-use weapons, requiring complete rail replacement after each firing. Another challenge is projectile survivability. The projectiles experience acceleration force in excess of 100,000 g. To be effective, the fired projectile must first survive the mechanical stress of firing and the thermal effects of a trip through the atmosphere at many times the speed of sound before hitting its target. Any on-board guidance would require the onboard navigation system to be built to the same level of sturdiness as the main mass of the projectile.

In addition to destroying ballistic missile threats, railguns were also planned for service in space platform (sensor and battle station) defense. This potential role reflected defense planner expectations that future railguns would be capable of rapid fire and on the order of tens to hundreds of shots.[77]

## Space-based programs

[edit]

Main article: Space weapon

### Space-Based Interceptor

[edit]

The Space-Based Interceptor (SBI) concept involved groups of interceptors housed in orbital modules. Hover testing was completed in 1988 and demonstrated integration of the sensor and propulsion systems. It demonstrated the ability of the seeker to shift its aiming point from a rocket's hot plume to its cool body, a first for infrared ABM seekers. Final hover testing occurred in 1992 using miniaturized components similar to those that would have been used in an operational interceptor. These prototypes eventually evolved into Brilliant Pebbles.[78]

### Brilliant Pebbles

[edit]

Main article: Brilliant Pebbles

Brilliant Pebbles concept diagram

Brilliant Pebbles was a non-nuclear system of satellite-based interceptors designed to use high-velocity, watermelon-sized, teardrop-shaped tungsten projectiles as kinetic warheads.[79][80] It was designed to operate in conjunction with the Brilliant Eyes sensor system. The project was conceived in November 1986 by Lowell Wood at LLNL.[81] Detailed studies were undertaken by several advisory boards, including the Defense Science Board and JASON, in 1989.

The Pebbles were designed so that autonomous operation was possible without external guidance from planned SDI sensor systems. This was attractive as a cost saving measure, as it would allow scaling back of those systems, and was estimated to save $7 to $13 billion versus the standard Phase I Architecture.[82] Brilliant Pebbles later became the centerpiece under the Bush Administration.

John H. Nuckolls, LLNL director from 1988 to 1994, described the system as "The crowning achievement of the Strategic Defense Initiative". The sensors and cameras developed for Brilliant Pebbles systems became components of the Clementine mission.[83]

Though regarded as one of the most capable SDI systems, Brilliant Pebbles was canceled in 1994 by BMDO.[84]

## Sensor programs

[edit]

Delta 183 launch vehicle lifts off, carrying the SDI sensor experiment "Delta Star", March 24, 1989

SDIO sensor research encompassed visible light, ultraviolet, infrared, and radar technologies, and eventually led to the Clementine mission though that mission occurred just after the program transitioned to the BMDO. Like other parts of SDI, the sensor system initially was very large-scale, but after the Soviet threat diminished it was cut back.

### Boost Surveillance and Tracking System

[edit]

Boost Surveillance and Tracking System (BSTS) was part of SDIO in the late 1980s, and was designed to detect missile launches, especially during the boost phase; however, once the SDI program shifted toward theater missile defense in the early 1990s, the system left SDIO control and was transferred to the Air Force.[85]

### Space Surveillance and Tracking System

[edit]

"SSTS" redirects here. For "SSTs", see SST.

Space Surveillance and Tracking System (SSTS) was a system originally designed for tracking mid-course ballistic missiles. It was designed to work in conjunction with BSTS but was later scaled down in favor of Brilliant Eyes.[78]

### Brilliant Eyes

[edit]

Brilliant Eyes was a simpler derivative of SSTS that focused on theater ballistic missiles rather than ICBMs and was meant to operate in conjunction with Brilliant Pebbles.

Brilliant Eyes was renamed Space and Missile Tracking System (SMTS) and scaled back further under BMDO, and in the late 1990s it became the low earth orbit component of the Air Force's Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS).[86]

### Other sensor experiments

[edit]

The Delta 183 program used a satellite known as Delta Star to test sensor-related technologies. Delta Star carried a thermographic camera, a long-wave infrared imager, an ensemble of imagers and photometers covering several visible and ultraviolet bands as well as a laser detector and ranging device. The satellite observed several ballistic missile launches including some releasing liquid propellant as a detection countermeasure.[87]

## Countermeasures

[edit]

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An artist's concept of a ground / space-based hybrid laser weapon, 1984

In war-fighting, countermeasures encompass multiple meanings:

* Immediate tactical action to reduce vulnerability, such as chaff, decoys, and maneuvering
* Counter strategies that exploit a weakness of an opposing system, such as adding more warheads that are less expensive than the interceptors fired against them.
* Defense suppression - that is, attacking elements of the defensive system.

Countermeasures have long been a key part of warfighting strategy; however, with SDI they attained a special prominence due to the system cost, scenario of a massive sophisticated attack, strategic consequences of a less-than-perfect defense, basing many proposed weapons systems in space, and political debate.

Whereas the United States national missile defense system targets a relatively limited and unsophisticated attack, SDI planned for a massive attack by a sophisticated opponent. This raised significant issues about economic and technical costs associated with defending against anti-ballistic missile defense countermeasures used by the attacking side.

For example, if it had been much cheaper to add attacking warheads than to add defenses, an attacker of similar economic power could have simply outproduced the defender. The "cost effective at the margin" requirement was first formulated by Paul Nitze in November 1985.[88]

In addition, SDI envisioned many space-based systems in fixed orbits, ground-based sensors, command, control and communications facilities, etc. In theory, an advanced opponent could have targeted those, in turn requiring self-defense capability or increased numbers to compensate for attrition.

A sophisticated attacker having the technology to use decoys, shielding, maneuvering warheads, defense suppression, or other countermeasures would have multiplied the difficulty and cost of intercepting the real warheads. SDI design and operational planning had to factor in these countermeasures and the associated cost.

## Response from the Soviet Union

[edit]

See also: Dead Hand and Biopreparat

SDI was high on Mikhail Gorbachev's agenda at the Geneva Summit.

SDI failed to dissuade the USSR from investing in development of ballistic missiles.[89] The Soviet response to SDI from March 1983 through November 1985 provided indications of their view of the program both as a threat and as an opportunity to weaken NATO. SDI was likely seen not only as a threat to the physical security of the Soviet Union, but also as part of a larger effort by the United States to seize the strategic initiative in arms control by neutralizing the military component of Soviet strategy. The Kremlin expressed concerns that space-based missile defenses would make nuclear war inevitable.[90]

A major objective of that strategy was the political separation of Western Europe from the United States, which the Soviets sought to facilitate by aggravating allied concern over the SDI's potential implications for European security and economic interests. The Soviet predisposition to see deception behind SDI was reinforced by their assessment of US intentions and capabilities and the utility of military deception in furthering the achievement of political goals.[91][92]

Until the failing Soviet economy and the dissolution of the country between 1989 and 1991 which marks the end of the Cold War and with it the relaxation of the "arms race", warhead production had continued unabated in the USSR. Total deployed US and Soviet strategic weapons increased steadily from 1983 until the Cold War ended.[93]

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In 1986 Carl Sagan summarized what he heard Soviet commentators saying about SDI. They commonly expressed the notion that SDI was equivalent to starting an economic war through a defensive arms race to further cripple the Soviet economy with extra military spending. Another common Soviet perception suggested that SDI served as a disguise for a US desire to initiate a first strike on the Soviet Union.[94]

Though classified at the time, a detailed study on a Soviet space-based LASER system began no later than 1976 as the Skif, a 1 MW carbon dioxide laser along with the anti-satellite Kaskad, an in-orbit missile platform. The devices were reportedly designed to pre-emptively destroy US satellites that might be launched in the future that could otherwise aid US missile defense.

DIA drawing of the Soviet Terra-3 laser in the USSR

Terra-3 was a Soviet laser testing centre, located on the Sary Shagan anti-ballistic missile (ABM) testing range in the Karaganda Region of Kazakhstan. It was originally built to test missile defense concepts. In 1984, officials within the United States Department of Defense (DoD) suggested it was the site of a prototypical anti-satellite weapon system.[95]

In 1987 a disguised Mir space station module was lifted on the inaugural flight of the Energia booster as the Polyus. It was later revealed that this craft housed a number of Skif lasers, intended to be clandestinely tested in orbit. However, the spacecraft's attitude control system malfunctioned upon separation from the booster, and it failed to reach orbit.[37] More tentatively, it is also suggested that the Zarya module of the International Space Station, capable of station keeping and providing sizable battery power, was initially developed to power the Skif laser system.[37]

The Polyus was a prototype of the Skif orbital weapons platform designed to destroy satellites with a megawatt carbon-dioxide laser.[96] Soviet motivations behind attempting to launch components of the Skif laser in the form of Polyus were, according to interviews conducted years later, more for propaganda purposes in the prevailing climate of focus on US SDI, than as an effective defense technology, as the phrase "Space based laser" has political capital.[97][clarification needed]

## Post-Soviet

[edit]

In 2014, a declassified CIA paper stated that "In response to SDI, Moscow threatened a variety of military countermeasures in lieu of developing a parallel missile defense system".[98][99]

In January 2025 President Donald Trump ordered the building of a national "Iron Dome" missile defense shield. [100]

## Controversy and criticism

[edit]

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Jessica Savitch reported on the technology in episode No.111 of Frontline, "Space: The Race for High Ground", on November 4, 1983. The opening sequence shows Jessica Savitch seated next to a laser that she used to destroy a model of a communication satellite. The demonstration was perhaps the first televised use of a weapons-grade laser. No theatrical effects were used. The model was actually destroyed by the heat from the laser. The model and the laser were realized by Marc Palumbo, a High Tech Romantic artist from the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at MIT.

Ashton Carter, then a board member at MIT, assessed SDI for Congress in 1984, noting difficulties in creating an adequate missile defense shield, with or without lasers. Carter said X-rays had a limited scope because they become diffused by the atmosphere, much like the beam of a flashlight spreading outward in all directions. This means the X-ray sources needed to be close to the Soviet Union, especially during the boost phase, for the Soviet missiles to be both detectable to radar and targeted by the lasers. Opponents disagreed, saying advances in technology, such as using stronger beams, and by "bleaching" the column of air surrounding the laser beam, could increase the distance that the X-ray could travel to successfully hit its target.[citation needed]

Physicists Hans Bethe and Richard Garwin, who worked with Teller on both the atomic bomb and hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos, claimed a laser defense shield was unfeasible. They said that a defensive system was costly and difficult to build yet simple to destroy and claimed that the Soviets could easily use thousands of decoys to overwhelm it during a nuclear attack. They dismissed the idea of a technical solution to the Cold War, saying that a defense shield could be viewed as threatening because it would inhibit Soviet offensive capabilities while leaving America's offense intact. In March 1984, Bethe coauthored a 106-page report for the Union of Concerned Scientists that concluded "the X-ray laser offers no prospect of being a useful component in a system for ballistic missile defense."[101]

In response, when Teller testified before Congress he stated that "instead of [Bethe] objecting on scientific and technical grounds, which he thoroughly understands, he now objects on the grounds of politics, on grounds of military feasibility of military deployment, on other grounds of difficult issues which are quite outside the range of his professional cognizance or mine."[102]

On June 28, 1985, David Lorge Parnas resigned from SDIO's Panel on Computing in Support of Battle Management, arguing in eight short papers that the SDI software could never be made trustworthy and that such a system would inevitably be unreliable and menace humanity in its own right.[103] Parnas said he joined the panel with the desire to make nuclear weapons "impotent and obsolete" but soon concluded that the concept was "a fraud".

### The nickname "Star Wars"

[edit]

SDI drew criticism from abroad as well. This 1986 Socialist German Workers Youth graffiti in Kassel, West Germany, says "Keinen Krieg der Sterne! Stoppt SDI! SDAJ" (No star wars! Stop SDI! SDAJ).

Historians from the Missile Defense Agency attribute the term "Star Wars" to a Washington Post article published March 24, 1983. It quoted a speech delivered by Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy the previous day, describing the proposal as "reckless Star Wars schemes", a reference to the space opera film series Star Wars.[104] Some critics used the term derisively, implying it was an impractical science fiction. In addition, the American media's liberal use of the moniker (despite President Reagan's request) did much to damage the program's credibility.[105] In comments to the media on March 7, 1986, SDIO Acting Deputy Director Dr. Gerold Yonas described "Star Wars" as an important tool for Soviet disinformation and asserted that the nickname gave an entirely wrong impression of SDI.[106]

Supporters of the SDI program eventually began to use the nickname as well. George Lucas, the creator of the Star Wars franchise, sued public interest groups High Frontier (a liberal organization that supported the program) and Committee for a Strong, Peaceful America (a conservative organization) in 1985 for trademark infringement. The lawsuit was dismissed by Judge Gerhard Gesell, who ruled that political application of the term was a non-commercial usage outside of the scope of trademark.[107][108][109][110]

### Treaty obligations

[edit]

SDI was not just lasers; in this kinetic energy weapon test, a 0.25-ounce (7 g) Lexan projectile was fired from a light-gas gun at a velocity of 23,000 feet per second (7,000 m/s; 16,000 mph) at a cast aluminum block.

Another criticism of SDI argued that it would be inconsistent with existing treaties. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and its subsequent protocol,[111] which limited missile defenses to one location per country at 100 missiles each (which the USSR had and the US did not)[clarification needed], would have been violated by SDI ground-based interceptors. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty requires that "Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control." Many[who?] viewed deployment of ABM systems as an escalation, and therefore a violation of this clause, although this view was not universal.[citation needed]

The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 required "States Party to the Treaty undertake not to place in orbit around the Earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, install such weapons on celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer space in any other manner."[112] This clause forbade the US from pre-positioning in Earth orbit any devices powered by nuclear weapons and any devices capable of "mass destruction". A space-stationed nuclear-pumped X-ray laser would have violated this treaty, since other SDI systems did not require the pre-positioning of nuclear explosives in space.

### Mutual assured destruction

[edit]

SDI threatened to disrupt the strategic equilibrium ensured by the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). This doctrine postulated that neither the U.S. nor the USSR could attack the other without considering the strong probability that both sides would be annihilated.[113] A defensive weapon system that could neutralize much of an adversary's nuclear counter-strike force would potentially embolden the possessor to strike first.[114]

During the Reykjavík talks with Mikhail Gorbachev in 1986, Reagan addressed Gorbachev's concerns about imbalance by stating that SDI technology could be provided to the entire world – including the Soviet Union – to prevent the imbalance from occurring. Gorbachev answered dismissively. When Reagan proposed technology sharing again, Gorbachev stated "we cannot assume an obligation relative to such a transition", referring to the cost of implementing such a program.[115]

### Whistleblower

[edit]

In 1992, scientist Aldric Saucier was given whistleblower protection after he was fired and complained about "wasteful spending on research and development" at SDI.[116] Saucier lost his security clearance.[117]

## Timeline

[edit]

## See also

[edit]

* Anti-ballistic missile
* Anti-satellite weapons
* Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO)
* Comparison of anti-ballistic missile systems
* Directed-energy weapons
* Zenith Star
* Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD)
* Golden Dome (missile defense system)
* International Conference of Laser Applications
* Militarization of space
* Missile Defense Agency (MDA)
* Missile defense systems by country
* Polyus (spacecraft)
* Rockwell X-30 – partly funded by the SDIO
* THAAD missile defense system
* United States national missile defense
* United States Space Force

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[edit]

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### Works cited

[edit]

* Frances Fitzgerald (2001). Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0023-3.
* Broad, William J. (1985). Star Warriors: A penetrating look into the lives of the young scientists behind our space age weaponry. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7881-5115-0. (Reprint edition 1993; Diane Pub. Co.)
* Kent, Glenn (2008). Thinking About America's Defense. RAND. ISBN 978-0-8330-4452-5.
* Jayne, Edward Randolph (1969). The ABM debate: strategic defense and national security (PDF) (Technical report). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. OCLC 19300718. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
* Ritter, Scott (2010). Dangerous Ground: America's Failed Arms Control Policy, from FDR to Obama. Nation Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-2743-8.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Bateman, Aaron (2024). Weapons in Space: Technology, Politics, and the Rise and Fall of the Strategic Defense Initiative. The MIT Press.
* Broad, William J. (1992). Teller's War: The Top-Secret Story Behind the Star Wars Deception. New York: Simon & Schuster.
* Guertner, Gary; Snow, Donald (1986). The Last Frontier: An Analysis of the Strategic Defense Initiative. D.C. Heath and Company. ISBN 0-669-12370-6.
* Linenthal, Edward Tabor (1989). Symbolic Defense: The Cultural Significance of the Strategic Defense Initiative. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press.
* Payne, Keith (1986). Strategic Defense: "Star Wars" in Perspective. Hamilton Press. ISBN 0-8191-5109-2.
* Saltoun-Ebin, Jason. "The Strategic Defense Initiative". The Reagan Files. Archived from the original on January 14, 2024. Retrieved June 5, 2024.
* Weapons in Space, 2 vols. Daedalus 114, nos. 2 (Spring 1985) & 3 (Summer 1985).

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Strategic Defense Initiative.

* Strategic Defense Initiative – Ronald Reagan Presidential Library

* v
* t
* e

Ronald Reagan

* 40th President of the United States (1981–1989)
* 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975)

Life and
politics|

* Birthplace
* Pitney Store
* Boyhood home
* General Electric Showcase House
* Rancho del Cielo
* 668 St. Cloud Road
* Filmography
* Political positions
* Governorship of California
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Reagan era
* Official White House portraits
* 1989 trip to Japan
* Death and state funeral
* Riderless horse

Presidency|

* Transition
* First inauguration
* Second inauguration
* Domestic policy
* Economic policy
* Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981
* Tax Reform Act of 1986
* Assassination attempt
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Foreign policy
* Reagan Doctrine
* Cold War
* 1st term
* 2nd term
* Soviet Union summits
* Geneva
* Reykjavík
* Washington
* INF Treaty
* Moscow
* Governors Island
* Constructive engagement
* Invasion of Grenada
* Iran–Contra affair
* Libya bombing
* Cannabis policy
* International trips
* The Grace Commission
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* controversies
* Administration scandals
* "We begin bombing in five minutes"
* Impeachment efforts
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations
* Bush transition

Speeches|

* Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine (1961)
* "A Time for Choosing" (1964)
* Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech (1980)
* First inaugural address (1981)
* Joint session of Congress (1981)
* "Ash heap of history" (1982)
* "Evil empire" (1983)
* Second inaugural address (1985)
* "Tear down this wall!" (1987)
* State of the Union
* 1982
* 1983
* 1984
* 1985
* 1986
* 1987
* 1988

Books|

* An American Life
* The Reagan Diaries

Elections|

* 1966 California gubernatorial election
* 11th commandment
* 1970 California gubernatorial election
* Republican presidential primaries (1968
* 1976
* 1980
* 1984)
* Republican National Convention (1968
* 1976
* 1980
* 1984)
* 1976 presidential campaign
* 1980 presidential campaign
* "There you go again"
* "Let's make America great again"
* 1984 presidential campaign
* "Morning in America"
* "Bear in the woods"
* United States presidential election (1976
* 1980
* 1984)

Cultural
depictions|

* Bibliography
* In music
* Let Them Eat Jellybeans! (1981)
* U.S. Postage stamps
* Rap Master Ronnie
* Ed the Happy Clown (1983 comic series)
* Spitting Image (TV series) (1984)
* A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985 game)
* The Dark Knight Returns (1986)
* film adaptation
* Pizza Man (1991 film)
* The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001 film)
* Reagan's War (2002 book)
* The Reagans (2003 film)
* Reagan (2011 documentary)
* The Butler (2013 film)
* Killing Reagan (2015 book)
* Killing Reagan (2016 film)
* Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (2020 game)
* The Reagans (2020 miniseries)
* Reagan (2024 film)
* Reykjavik (TBA)

Memorials|

* U.S. Capitol statue
* Namesakes and memorials
* Ronald Reagan Day
* Reagan Day Dinner
* USS Ronald Reagan
* Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center
* Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
* Virginia statue
* Budapest statue
* Ronald Reagan Monument, Warshaw

Family|

* Jane Wyman (first wife)
* Nancy Reagan (second wife)
* Maureen Reagan (daughter)
* Michael Reagan (adopted son)
* Patti Davis (daughter)
* Ron Reagan (son)
* Jack Reagan (father)
* Nelle Wilson Reagan (mother)
* Neil Reagan (brother)
* Rex (dog)

Related|

* "What would Reagan do?"

* <- Jimmy Carter
* George H. W. Bush ->
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Cold War

* United States
* Soviet Union
* NATO
* Warsaw Pact
* ANZUS
* METO
* SEATO
* NEATO
* Rio Pact
* Non-Aligned Movement

1940s|

* Morgenthau Plan
* Hukbalahap rebellion
* Jamaican political conflict
* Dekemvriana
* Guerrilla war in the Baltic states
* Operation Priboi
* Operation Jungle
* Occupation of the Baltic states
* Cursed soldiers
* Operation Unthinkable
* Gouzenko Affair
* Division of Korea
* Indonesian National Revolution
* Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949)
* Operation Beleaguer
* Operation Blacklist Forty
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Greek Civil War
* Baruch Plan
* Corfu Channel incident
* Turkish Straits crisis
* Restatement of Policy on Germany
* First Indochina War
* 1947 Polish parliamentary election
* Truman Doctrine
* Asian Relations Conference
* May 1947 crises
* Partition of India
* Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948
* 1947–1949 Palestine war
* 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine
* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
* Marshall Plan
* Comecon
* 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
* Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council
* Al-Wathbah uprising
* Tito–Stalin split
* Berlin Blockade
* Annexation of Hyderabad
* Madiun Affair
* Western betrayal
* Iron Curtain
* Eastern Bloc
* Western Bloc
* Chinese Civil War
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* Malayan Emergency
* March 1949 Syrian coup d'état
* Operation Valuable

1950s|

* Bamboo curtain
* McCarthyism
* First Indochina War
* Korean War
* Arab Cold War (1952–1979)
* 1952 Egyptian revolution
* Iraqi Intifada (1952)
* Mau Mau rebellion
* East German uprising of 1953
* 1953 Iranian coup d'état
* Pact of Madrid
* Bricker Amendment
* 1954 Syrian coup d'état
* Petrov Affair
* Domino theory
* 1954 Geneva Conference
* 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état
* Capture of the Tuapse
* First Taiwan Strait Crisis
* Jebel Akhdar War
* Algerian War
* Kashmir Princess
* Bandung Conference
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Cyprus Emergency
* "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences"
* 1956 Poznań protests
* Hungarian Revolution of 1956
* Polish October
* Suez Crisis
* "We will bury you"
* Operation Gladio
* Syrian Crisis of 1957
* Sputnik crisis
* Ifni War
* Iraqi 14 July Revolution
* 1958 Lebanon crisis
* Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
* 1959 Mosul uprising
* 1959 Tibetan uprising
* Kitchen Debate
* Cuban Revolution
* Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution
* Sino-Soviet split
* Night Frost Crisis

1960s|

* Congo Crisis
* Laotian Civil War
* Simba rebellion
* 1960 U-2 incident
* John F. Kennedy
* Bay of Pigs Invasion
* 1960 Turkish coup d'état
* Albanian–Soviet split
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* First Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* Berlin Wall
* Vietnam War
* Annexation of Goa
* Papua conflict
* Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
* Sand War
* Portuguese Colonial War
* Angolan War of Independence
* Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
* Mozambican War of Independence
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* El Porteñazo
* Sino-Indian War
* Communist insurgency in Sarawak
* Ramadan Revolution
* Eritrean War of Independence
* North Yemen civil war
* 1963 Syrian coup d'état
* Assassination of John F. Kennedy
* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Aden Emergency
* Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964
* Shifta War
* Mexican Dirty War
* Tlatelolco massacre
* Guatemalan Civil War
* Colombian conflict
* 1964 Brazilian coup d'état
* Dominican Civil War
* Rhodesian Bush War
* Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966
* Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)
* ASEAN Declaration
* 1966 Syrian coup d'état
* Cultural Revolution
* Cambodian Civil War
* Argentine Revolution
* South African Border War
* Korean DMZ Conflict
* 12-3 incident
* Greek junta
* 1967 Hong Kong riots
* Years of Lead (Italy)
* Six-Day War
* War of Attrition
* Dhofar War
* Al-Wadiah War
* Nigerian Civil War
* Protests of 1968
* May 68
* Prague Spring
* USS Pueblo incident
* 1968 Polish political crisis
* Communist insurgency in Malaysia
* Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
* 17 July Revolution
* 1968 Peruvian coup d'état
* Revolutionary Government
* 1969 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1969 Libyan revolution
* Goulash Communism
* Sino-Soviet border conflict
* New People's Army rebellion
* Note Crisis

1970s|

* Détente
* Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
* Black September
* Alcora Exercise
* Corrective Movement (Syria)
* Western Sahara conflict
* Communist insurgency in Thailand
* 1970 Polish protests
* Koza riot
* Realpolitik
* Ping-pong diplomacy
* 1971 JVP insurrection
* Corrective revolution (Egypt)
* 1971 Turkish military memorandum
* 1971 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1971 Bolivian coup d'état
* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China
* North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972
* First Yemenite War
* Munich massacre
* 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* Paris Peace Accords
* 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état
* 1973 Afghan coup d'état
* 1973 Chilean coup d'état
* Yom Kippur War
* 1973 oil crisis
* Carnation Revolution
* Ethiopian Civil War
* Vietnam War
* Spanish transition to democracy
* Metapolitefsi
* Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
* Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Turkish invasion of Cyprus
* 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état
* Siege of Dhaka (1975)
* Sipahi-Janata revolution
* Angolan Civil War
* Indonesian invasion of East Timor
* Cambodian genocide
* June 1976 protests
* Mozambican Civil War
* Oromo conflict
* Ogaden War
* 1978 Somali coup attempt
* Western Sahara War
* Lebanese Civil War
* Sino-Albanian split
* Third Indochina War
* Cambodian–Vietnamese War
* Cambodian conflict
* Operation Condor
* Dirty War (Argentina)
* 1976 Argentine coup d'état
* Egyptian–Libyan War
* German Autumn
* Korean Air Lines Flight 902
* Nicaraguan Revolution
* Uganda–Tanzania War
* NDF Rebellion
* Chadian–Libyan War
* Second Yemenite War
* Grand Mosque seizure
* Iranian revolution
* Saur Revolution
* Sino-Vietnamese War
* New Jewel Movement
* 1979 Herat uprising
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

1980s|

* Salvadoran Civil War
* Soviet–Afghan War
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts
* Gera Demands
* Peruvian Revolution
* Gdańsk Agreement
* Solidarity
* 1980 Turkish coup d'état
* Ugandan Bush War
* Gulf of Sidra incident
* Martial law in Poland
* Casamance conflict
* Falklands War
* 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War
* Ndogboyosoi War
* United States invasion of Grenada
* Able Archer 83
* Star Wars
* 1985 Geneva Summit
* Iran–Iraq War
* Somali Rebellion
* Reykjavík Summit
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* South Yemen civil war
* Toyota War
* 1987 Lieyu massacre
* Operation Denver
* 1987–1989 JVP insurrection
* Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* 8888 Uprising
* Solidarity (Soviet reaction)
* Contras
* Central American crisis
* Operation RYAN
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* People Power Revolution
* Glasnost
* Perestroika
* Bougainville conflict
* First Nagorno-Karabakh War
* Afghan Civil War
* United States invasion of Panama
* 1988 Polish strikes
* Polish Round Table Agreement
* 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
* Revolutions of 1989
* Fall of the Berlin Wall
* Fall of the inner German border
* Velvet Revolution
* Romanian Revolution
* Peaceful Revolution

1990s|

* Mongolian Revolution of 1990
* Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident
* Gulf War
* Min Ping Yu No. 5202
* German reunification
* Yemeni unification
* Fall of communism in Albania
* Breakup of Yugoslavia
* Dissolution of the Soviet Union
* 1991 August Coup
* Dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Frozen conflicts|

* Abkhazia
* China-Taiwan
* Korea
* Kosovo
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria
* Sino-Indian border dispute
* North Borneo dispute

Foreign policy|

* Truman Doctrine
* Containment
* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Domino theory
* Hallstein Doctrine
* Kennedy Doctrine
* Peaceful coexistence
* Ostpolitik
* Johnson Doctrine
* Brezhnev Doctrine
* Nixon Doctrine
* Ulbricht Doctrine
* Carter Doctrine
* Reagan Doctrine
* Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine
* Rollback
* Kinmen Agreement

Ideologies|

| Capitalism|

* Liberalism
* Chicago school
* Conservatism
* American conservatism
* Keynesianism
* Libertarianism
* Monetarism
* Neoclassical economics
* Reaganomics
* Supply-side economics
* Democratic capitalism

|

Socialism|

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Castroism
* Eurocommunism
* Guevarism
* Hoxhaism
* Juche
* Ho Chi Minh Thought
* Maoism
* Trotskyism
* Stalinism
* Titoism

Other|

* Imperialism
* Anti-imperialism
* Nationalism
* Ultranationalism
* Chauvinism
* Ethnic nationalism
* Racism
* Zionism
* Anti-Zionism
* Fascism
* Neo-Nazism
* Islamism
* Totalitarianism
* Authoritarianism
* Autocracy
* Liberal democracy
* Illiberal democracy
* Guided democracy
* Social democracy
* Third-worldism
* White supremacy
* White nationalism
* White separatism
* Apartheid
* Finlandization

Organizations|

* NATO
* SEATO
* METO
* EEC
* Warsaw Pact
* Comecon
* Non-Aligned Movement
* NN States
* ASEAN
* SAARC
* Safari Club

Propaganda|

| Pro-communist|

* Active measures
* Izvestia
* Neues Deutschland
* Pravda
* Radio Moscow
* Rudé právo
* Trybuna Ludu
* TASS
* Soviet Life

|

Pro-Western|

* Amerika
* Crusade for Freedom
* Paix et Liberté
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

* Red Scare
* Voice of America

Technological
competition|

* Arms race
* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race

Historians|

* Gar Alperovitz
* Thomas A. Bailey
* Michael Beschloss
* Archie Brown
* Warren H. Carroll
* Adrian Cioroianu
* John Costello
* Michael Cox
* Nicholas J. Cull
* Norman Davies
* Willem Drees
* Robert D. English
* Herbert Feis
* Robert Hugh Ferrell
* André Fontaine
* Anneli Ute Gabanyi
* John Lewis Gaddis
* Lloyd Gardner
* Timothy Garton Ash
* Gabriel Gorodetsky
* Fred Halliday
* Jussi Hanhimäki
* John Earl Haynes
* Patrick J. Hearden
* Tvrtko Jakovina
* Tony Judt
* Harvey Klehr
* Gabriel Kolko
* Walter LaFeber
* Walter Laqueur
* Melvyn P. Leffler
* Geir Lundestad
* Vojtech Mastny
* Jack F. Matlock Jr.
* Thomas J. McCormick
* Timothy Naftali
* Marius Oprea
* David S. Painter
* William B. Pickett
* Ronald E. Powaski
* Yakov M. Rabkin
* M. E. Sarotte
* Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
* Ellen Schrecker
* Giles Scott-Smith
* Shen Zhihua
* Timothy Snyder
* Athan Theoharis
* Andrew Thorpe
* Vladimir Tismăneanu
* Patrick Vaughan
* Alex von Tunzelmann
* Odd Arne Westad
* William Appleman Williams
* Jonathan Reed Winkler
* Rudolph Winnacker
* Ken Young

Espionage and
intelligence|

* List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States
* Soviet espionage in the United States
* Russian espionage in the United States
* American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation
* CIA and the Cultural Cold War
* CIA
* MI5
* MI6
* United States involvement in regime change
* Soviet involvement in regime change
* MVD
* KGB
* Stasi

See also|

* Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
* Soviet Union–United States relations
* Soviet Union–United States summits
* Russia–NATO relations
* War on terror
* Brinkmanship
* Pax Atomica
* Second Cold War
* Russian Revolution

* Category
* List of conflicts
* Timeline

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
* Space policy
* Space traffic management
* Space debris management
* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
* Planetary protection principle
* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War Space Race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
* Space competition

Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
* European Space Research and Technology Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
* European Data Relay System
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme
* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* list of scientists
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble Space Telescope
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)
* list of scientists

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* South Korean space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* African Space Agency
* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* Australia
* Brazil
* Canada
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Germany
* Iran
* AJA
* IRGC
* Israel
* Japan
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Russia
* South Korea
* Spain
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Vietnam
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* Italy
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African
and pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* EgSA
* NARSS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* KSA
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

Latin America
and the Caribbean|

* ALCE
* AEM
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian|

* APSCO

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* PLAASF
* CASIC
* JAXA
* ISAS
* JSS
* NICT
* NATA
* KASA
* KARI
* KASI
* SaTReC
* TASA

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* BRIN
* ORPA
* INASA
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

West Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSA
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESTEC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR2
* BELSPO
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSA
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NOSA
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VVKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA
* UNOSAT

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* LAPAN
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* MOM
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

* v
* t
* e

Soviet Union–United States relations

Diplomatic posts|

* Embassy of the Soviet Union, Washington, D.C.
* Ambassadors of the Soviet Union to the United States
* Soviet ambassador's residence
* Embassy of the United States, Moscow
* Ambassadors of the United States to the Soviet Union
* Spaso House
* Consulate-General of the Soviet Union, New York City
* John Henry Hammond House
* Consulate-General of the Soviet Union, San Francisco
* Elmcroft Estate
* Lothrop Mansion
* Pioneer Point
* Permanent Mission of the Soviet Union to the United Nations
* Killenworth
* Russian Soviet Government Bureau
* Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs

Diplomacy|

* Lend-Lease
* Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
* Moscow Conference (1941)
* Moscow Conference (1942)
* Moscow Conference (1943)
* Declaration of the Four Nations
* Moscow Conference (1944)
* Yalta Conference
* Potsdam Conference
* Tehran Conference
* Moscow Conference (1945)
* Stalin Note
* Berlin Conference (1954)
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Lacy-Zarubin Agreement
* United States restitution to the Soviet Union
* State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States
* United Nations Security Council Resolution 135
* Dartmouth Conference
* Vienna summit
* Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament
* Moscow–Washington hotline
* Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
* Glassboro Summit Conference
* Détente
* Linkage
* Bion program
* Kosmos 782
* Kosmos 936
* Kosmos 1129
* Kosmos 1514
* Kosmos 1667
* Kosmos 1887
* Kosmos 2044
* TOPAZ nuclear reactor
* Moscow Summit (1972)
* Washington Summit (1973)
* 1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal
* Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions
* Geneva Conference (1973)
* Moscow Summit (1974)
* Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control
* NATO Double-Track Decision
* Zero Option
* Geneva Summit (1985)
* Reykjavík Summit
* Washington Summit (1987)
* Geneva Accords (1988)
* Moscow Summit (1988)
* Governors Island Summit
* US/USSR Joint Statement on Uniform Acceptance of Rules of International Law Governing Innocent Passage
* Malta Summit
* Helsinki Summit (1990)
* Madrid peace conference letter of invitation
* European Advisory Commission
* Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
* Council for American–Soviet Trade
* Council of Foreign Ministers

Cold War|

* Origins
* Timeline
* 1947–1948
* 1948–1953
* 1953–1962
* 1962–1979
* 1979–1985
* 1985–1991
* Espionage
* Cold War in Asia
* Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine
* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race
* Timeline
* United States war plans (1945–1950)
* U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B
* American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation
* Active Measures Working Group
* Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States
* CIA activities in the Soviet Union
* Containment
* Rollback
* Red Scare
* The Moscow rules
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Sheldon names
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union
* Bomber gap
* Missile gap
* NSC 68
* Smolensk Archive
* Soviet Military Power
* Operation Shocker
* Plan Totality
* Nitrophenyl pentadienal
* Venona project
* Operation Anadyr
* Operation Breakthrough
* Operation Cedar
* Operation Chrome Dome
* Operation Cyclone
* Operation Dropshot
* Operation Giant Lance
* Operation Gold
* Operation Denver
* Operation Ivy Bells
* Operation Keelhaul
* Operation Lincoln
* Operation Monopoly
* Operation RYAN
* Operation Safe Haven (1957)
* Operation Sunrise
* 7th Air Escadrille
* Project Azorian
* Project Coldfeet
* Project Dark Gene
* Project Genetrix
* Project Grab Bag
* Project HOMERUN
* Project Moby Dick
* Project Mogul
* Project Hula

Incidents|

* Sisson Documents
* Turkish Straits crisis
* Welles Declaration
* Gorin v. United States
* Atomic spies
* Baruch Plan
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Niš incident
* Berlin Blockade
* Kasenkina Case
* Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.
* Hollow Nickel Case
* Moscow Signal
* Capture of the Tuapse
* We will bury you
* Kuzma's mother
* Sputnik crisis
* Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959
* 1958 C-130 shootdown incident
* 1960 U-2 incident
* 1960 RB-47 shootdown incident
* Transfermium Wars
* Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett
* Martin and Mitchell defection
* Shoe-banging incident
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* Crateology
* SS Metallurg Anosov
* Ich bin ein Berliner
* 1964 T-39 shootdown incident
* Pan Am Flight 708
* Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A
* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
* Aeroflot Flight 244
* Gambell incident
* Project Azorian
* Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)
* Feodor Fedorenko
* Siberian Seven
* United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union
* 1980 Summer Olympics boycott
* Yellow rain
* Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline
* Evil Empire speech
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident
* Able Archer 83
* Autumn Forge 83
* 1984 Summer Olympics boycott
* We begin bombing in five minutes
* Arthur D. Nicholson
* John Anthony Walker
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* Soviet submarine K-219
* Karl Linnas
* Tear down this wall!
* Yeniseysk-15
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* Chicken Kiev speech

Military relations|

* Allied Control Council
* Allied Kommandatura
* Allied technological cooperation during World War II
* ALSIB
* Arctic convoys of World War II
* Berlin Victory Parade of 1945
* Elbe Day
* Four Policemen
* Four Power Naval Commission
* Four-Power Authorities
* GIUK gap
* Line of Contact
* Military liaison missions
* Northwest Staging Route
* Pacific Route
* Persian Corridor
* Persian Gulf Command
* Warsaw airlift
* Tripartite Naval Commission
* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Truman Doctrine
* Reagan Doctrine
* Stimson Doctrine
* Bell P-63 Kingcobra
* Belorussia-class cargo ship
* SS Dakotan
* SS Indigirka
* SS Iowan
* Tupolev Tu-4
* Tupolev Tu-70
* Tupolev Tu-80
* USCGC Southwind
* USS West Bridge
* United States and the Russian Revolution
* American Expeditionary Force, North Russia
* American Expeditionary Force, Siberia
* North Russia intervention
* Siberian intervention

Legislation|

* Russian Famine Relief Act
* Executive Order 8484
* Jackson–Vanik amendment
* Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991
* Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992
* FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993

Treaties|

* Moscow Declarations
* Potsdam Agreement
* Wanfried agreement
* McCloy–Zorin Accords
* Outer Space Treaty
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes
* U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement
* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
* Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War
* Threshold Test Ban Treaty
* Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
* National technical means of verification
* Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
* 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord
* USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement
* Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
* START I
* Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe

Organizations|

* American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia
* Ark Project
* American National Exhibition
* Kitchen Debate
* American Peace Mobilization
* American Relief Administration
* American Russian Institute
* American University speech
* American–Soviet friendship movement
* American-Soviet Peace Walks
* Amerika (magazine)
* Amtorg Trading Corporation
* And you are lynching Negroes
* Androgynous Peripheral Attach System
* Anglo-American School of Moscow
* Anglo-American School of St. Petersburg
* Ansonia Clock Company
* Apollo–Soyuz
* Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette)
* Center for Citizen Initiatives
* Communist Party USA
* Dewey Commission
* Institute for US and Canadian Studies
* International Conference of Laser Applications
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* International Publishers
* Kennan Institute
* Kersten Committee
* Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews
* Friends of Soviet Russia
* Foundation for Social Inventions
* Gennady Alferenko
* Friendship Flight '89
* Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines)
* Fund for Armenian Relief
* National Committee for a Free Europe
* National Council of American–Soviet Friendship
* Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
* Russian-American Industrial Corporation
* Russian War Relief
* Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
* Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia
* Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S.
* U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine
* U.S. Peace Council

Related|

* Russian Empire–United States relations
* Russia–United States relations
* Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.
* 1972 Olympic men's basketball final
* 1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game
* 1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States
* Baltic Freedom Day
* Bush legs
* Captive Nations
* Captive Nations Week
* GAZ
* Goodwill Games
* Glasnost Bowl
* Little Joe
* Miracle on Ice
* New world order (politics)
* Pushinka
* Refusenik
* SAGE
* Self-propelled barge T-36
* Shvetsov M-25
* Super Series
* Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War
* Sovfoto
* Triangular diplomacy
* U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge
* US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945
* USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series
* Uzel
* White Coke
* World Chess Championship 1972
* X Article
* Yardymly
* Russian Life
* Soviet Interview Project
* Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
* Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
* Bobby Fischer
* Georgi Bolshakov
* Samantha Smith
* Roswell Garst
* Suzanne Massie
* Who's Who in the CIA
* Eagles East
* The Admiral's Daughter
* Deep Black
* The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks
* Stalingrad
* Free to Be... a Family
* "In Soviet Georgia"
* Red Wave
* "Ordinary People"

Category:Soviet Union–United States relations

Authority control databases

National|

* Japan

Other|

* NARA

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