Susa

Ancient city in Iran

"Shushan" redirects here. For other uses, see Shushan (disambiguation).

For other uses, see Susa (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Shusha.

Susa

شوش

The Palace of Darius in Susa

Susa

Shown within Iran

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Susa

Susa (West and Central Asia)

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Location| Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran
Region| Zagros Mountains
Coordinates| 32°11′26″N 48°15′28″E﻿ / ﻿32.19056°N 48.25778°E﻿ / 32.19056; 48.25778
Type| Settlement
Part of| Susa
History
Founded|

* 4395-4200 BCE[1]

* the late 5th millennium BCE[2]

Abandoned| 1218 CE
Events| Battle of Susa
Site notes
Condition| Abandoned and in ruins

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name| Susa
Criteria| Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv
Reference| 1455
Inscription| 2015 (39th Session)

Susa (/ˈsuːsə/ SOO-sə) was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East, Susa served as the capital of Elam and the winter capital of the Achaemenid Empire, and remained a strategic centre during the Parthian and Sasanian periods.

The site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering an area of around 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).[3] The city of Shush is located on the site of ancient Susa.

## Name

[edit]

The name Susa is of Elamiate origin and has appeared in many languages:

* Middle Elamite: 𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗, romanized: Šušen[4]
* Middle and Neo-Elamite: 𒋢𒋢𒌦, romanized: Šušun[4]
* Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid Elamite: 𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭, romanized: Šušan[5]
* Achaemenid Elamite: 𒀸𒋗𒐼, romanized: Šuša[5]
* Hebrew: שׁוּשָׁן Šūšān
* Ancient Greek: Σοῦσα Soûsa
* Old Persian: 𐏂𐎢𐏁𐎠 Çūšā
* Middle Persian: 𐭮𐭥𐭱𐭩 Sūš or 𐭱𐭥𐭮 Šūs
* New Persian: شوش Šuš [ʃuʃ]
* Syriac: ܫܘܫ Šuš[6]

## Literary references

[edit]

Map showing the area of the Elamite kingdom (in orange) and the neighboring areas. The approximate Bronze Age extension of the Persian Gulf is shown.

Susa was one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East. In historic literature, Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to Inanna, patron deity of Uruk, in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta.

### Biblical texts

[edit]

Susa is mentioned in the Ketuvim of the Hebrew Bible by the name Shushan, mainly in the Book of Esther, but also once each in the books of Ezra (Ezra 4:9), Nehemiah (Nehemiah 1:1) and Daniel (Daniel 8:2). According to these texts, Nehemiah lived in Susa during the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BC (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), while Esther became queen there, married to King Ahasuerus, and saved the Jews from genocide. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as Shush-Daniel. However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, c. 1871.[7]

### Pseudepigrapha

[edit]

Susa is further mentioned in the Book of Jubilees (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of Shem and his eldest son Elam; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.

## Excavation history

[edit]

Site of Susa Assyria. Ruins of Susa, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection

The site was examined in 1836 by Henry Rawlinson and then by A. H. Layard.[8]

In 1851, some modest excavation was done by William Loftus, accompanied by Fenwick Williams, who identified it as Susa.[9][10] Among his finds was a jar containing around 110 coins, the earliest of which was dated to 697-98 AD.[11]

In 1885 and 1886 Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy began the first French excavations, discovering glazed bricks, column bases, and capitals from the palace of the Achaemenid kings.[12] However, they failed to identify mudbrick walls, which were then destroyed in the course of excavation.[13] Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post-1885, were organized and authorized by the French government.[14]

In two treaties in 1894 and 1899, the French gained a monopoly on all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely.[13] Jacques de Morgan, after visiting the site in 1891, conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911.[15] The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s.[16][14] De Morgan's most important work was the excavation of the Grande Tranchée in the Acropole mound, where he found the stele of Naram-Sin, a collection of Babylonian kudurrus (boundary stones), the stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi, an ornamented bronze table of snakes, the bronze statue of Queen Napir-Asu, and thousands of inscribed bricks. His finds showed Susa to be the most important center of Elamite civilization, which was effectively discovered by the French mission at Susa.[13]

Excavation efforts continued under Roland De Mecquenem until 1914, at the beginning of World War I. French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until World War II in 1940.[17][18][19][20] To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.[21]

Roman Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war.[22] Together with his wife Tania Ghirshman, he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth.[23] The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.[24][25]

From 1969 until 1979 excavations were conducted under Jean Perrot.[26][27]

In 2019 the Susa salvage project was launched to counter the construction of a transportation underpass in the vicinity of the site.[28]

## History

[edit]

### Early settlement

[edit]

In urban history, Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on calibrated carbon-14 dating, the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4200 BC.[29] In the region around Susa were a number of towns (with their own platforms) and villages that maintained a trading relationship with the city, especially those along the Zagro frontier.[30]

The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at Chogha Mish, about 25 km to the west.[31] Previously, Chogha Mish was a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.[32]

Another important settlement in the area is Chogha Bonut, which was discovered in 1976.[32]

### Susa I period (4200–3800 BC)

[edit]

Goblet and cup, Iran, Susa I style, 4th millennium BC – Ubaid period; goblet height c. 12 cm; Sèvres – Cité de la céramique, France

See also: Ubaid period

Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape.[33] The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform.[34]

Susa's earliest settlement is known as the Susa I period (c. 4200–3900 BC). Two settlements named by archaeologists the Acropolis (7 ha) and the Apadana (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).[31] The Apadana was enclosed by 6 metre thick walls of rammed earth (this particular place is named Apadana because it also contains a late Achaemenid structure of this type).

Nearly two thousand pots of Susa I style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the Louvre. The vessels found attest to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.[35] Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.[35] Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children.[36] The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.

#### Metallurgy

[edit]

Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as Tepe Sialk.

As many as 40 copper axes have been found at the Susa cemetery, as well as 10 round discs probably used as mirrors. Many awls and spatulas were also found.

"Metal finds from the burials in Susa are the major metal assemblage from the end of the 5th millennium BCE. Strata 27 to 25 contained the earliest burials with a large number of axes, made from unalloyed copper and copper with elevated As [Arsenic] levels."[37][38]

The cemetery of Chega Sofla, from the same timeframe, provides a lot of similar material, with many sophisticated metal objects.[39] Chega Sofla is located in the same geographical area.

#### Ceramic objects

[edit]

*   *   * Master of animals, Susa I, Louvre Sb 2246.

* Sun and deities, Susa I, Louvre

### Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BC)

[edit]

Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the Uruk period. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk, proto-writing, cylinder seals with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture is found at Susa. The comparative periodization of Susa and Uruk at this time remains disputed among scholars with some research indicating that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.[40]Research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.[41]

The nature and extent of Uruk influence in Susa is also disputed. Daniel T. Potts argues that the influence from the highland Iranian Khuzestan area in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the alluvial plains. Potts also stresses that Susa did not simply borrow the writing and numerical systems of Uruk wholesale, but were adopted only partially and selectively as needed.

Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, raising questions about its influence. Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "the Susanians are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain".

Others emphasize Susa's relative independence. They deny that Susa was a colony of Uruk: it maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts.[42] An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and Godin Tepe at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of the Proto-Cuneiform and proto-elamite scripts.[43] Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, notes that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".[44]

* King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800–3100 BC), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.[45][46]

* Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BC). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. The Louvre

* Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.[47]

* Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.[48]

* Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.[49]

* Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.[50]

### Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BC)

[edit]

Main article: Proto-Elamite

Susa III (3100–2700 BC) is also known as the 'Proto-Elamite' period.[51] At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of Elam civilization.

Ambiguous reference to Elam (Sumerian: 𒉏, romanized: NIM) appear also in this period in Sumerian records. Susa enters recorded history in the Early Dynastic period of Sumer. A battle between Kish and Susa is recorded in 2700 BC, when En-me-barage-si is said to have "made the land of Elam submit".[52]

* Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 1484

* Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379

* Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166

* Economical tablet in Proto-Elamite script, Suse III, Louvre Museum, reference Sb 15200, circa 3100–2850 BC

### Elamites

[edit]

Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi Shushaki (𒅤𒊭𒀭𒈹𒂞 𒑐𒋼𒋛 𒈹𒂞𒆠), "Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi (Governor) of Susa", in the "Table au Lion", dated 2100 BC, Louvre Museum.[53]

In the Sumerian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern Khūzestān Province centered on the Karun River. Control of Susiana shifted between Elam, Sumer, and Akkad.

During the Elamite monarchy, many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities.[54] This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia.

The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BC.[55] Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated by Sargon the Great into his Akkadian Empire in approximately 2330 BC.[56]

Silver cup from Marvdasht, Iran, with a linear-Elamite inscription from the time of Kutik-Inshushinak. National Museum of Iran

The main goddess of the city was Nanaya, who had a significant temple in Susa.[57]

#### Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BC)

[edit]

Dynastic list of twelve kings of Awan dynasty and twelve kings of the Shimashki Dynasty, 1800–1600 BC, Susa, Louvre Museum Sb 17729.[58][59]

The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan; c. 2400–2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.

#### Kutik-Inshushinak

[edit]

Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BC, when its governor, Kutik-Inshushinak, rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist.[60] He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king of Elam. He encouraged the use of the Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered.

The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under Kindattu in ca. 2004 BC. At this time, Susa was ruled by Elam again and became its capital under the Shimashki dynasty.

### Indus-Susa relations (2400–2100 BC)

[edit]

Numerous artifacts of Indus Valley civilization origin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals and etched carnelian beads, pointing to Indus-Mesopotamia relations during this period.[61][62]

* Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2400–2100 BC. Elongated buffalo with line of standard Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 2425.[61][63] Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola.[64][65]

* Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2340–2200 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614[66]

* Indian carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[67][68] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.[69]

* Indus bracelet, front and back, made of Pleuroploca trapezium or Turbinella pyrum imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[70] This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Balakot.[71] The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.[72]

* Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.

* Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2400–2100 BC. Louvre - SB 13099; N 601.

#### Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BC)

[edit]

Middle-Elamite basrelief of warrior gods, Susa, 1600–1100 BC

Around 1500 BC, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BC, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.[citation needed]

This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at Chogha Zanbil, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa.

In ca. 1175 BC, the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the original stele bearing the Code of Hammurabi and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901. Nebuchadnezzar I of the Babylonian empire plundered Susa around fifty years later.

* An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BC.

* The Ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha circa 1300 BC.

* Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BC

#### Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100–540 BC)

[edit]

##### Neo-Assyrians

[edit]

Main article: Battle of Susa

In 647 BC, Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard in Nineveh reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries:

> "Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt."[73]

Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BC and lasted till Median capture of Susa in 617 BC.

### Susa after Achaemenid Persian conquest

[edit]

Statue of Darius the Great, National Museum of Iran Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius the Great, on the base of his Statue.

Susa underwent a major political and ethnocultural transition when it became part of the Persian Achaemenid empire between 540 and 539 BC when it was captured by Cyrus the Great during his conquest of Elam (Susiana), of which Susa was the capital.[74] The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC.[75]

It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.[76] Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.[77] Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time. Strabo stated that Cyrus made Susa an imperial capital though there was no new construction in that period so this is in dispute.[78]

Under Cyrus' son Cambyses II, Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule, Darius the Great began a major building program in Susa and Persepolis, which included building a large palace.[79] During this time he describes his new capital in an inscription:

"This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed."[80]

The city forms the setting of The Persians (472 BC), an Athenian tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus that is the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre.

Events mentioned in the Old Testament book of Esther are said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. The King Ahasuerus mentioned in that book may refer to Xerxes I (486-465 BC).

### Seleucid period

[edit]

The marriages of Stateira II to Alexander the Great of Macedon and her sister, Drypteis, to Hephaestion at Susa in 324 BC, as depicted in a late-19th-century engraving.

Susa lost much of its importance after the invasion of Alexander the Great of Macedon in 331 BC. In 324 BC he met Nearchus here, who explored the Persian Gulf[citation needed] as he returned from the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in Susa with a mass wedding between the Persians and Macedonians.[81]

The city retained its importance under the Seleucids for approximately one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial capital to Seleucia on the Tigris to become the regional capital of the satrapy of Susiana.[82] Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade in Susa,[83] using Charax Spasinou as its port.

The city was named Seleucia on the Eulaeus or Seleucia ad Eulaeum.

Seleucus I Nicator minted coins there in substantial quantities.[84] Susa is rich in Greek inscriptions,[85] perhaps indicating a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated.

### Parthian period

[edit]

Around 147 BC Susa and the adjacent Elymais broke free from the Seleucid Empire. The city was at least temporarily ruled by the rulers of the Elymais with Kamnaskires II Nikephoros minting coins there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule, but starting with Phraates II (about 138–127 BC) to Gotarzes II (about 40–51 AD) almost all rulers of the Parthian Empire coined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuing Parthian period.[86] From second half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.[87][88]

Susa was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian Sassanid kings, as the Romans sacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297 AD. Susa was briefly captured in 116 AD by the Roman emperor Trajan during the course of his  Parthian campaign.[89] Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.[90]

### Sassanid period

[edit]

Suzan was conquered and destroyed in 224 AD by the Sassanid Ardashir I, but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily a royal residence. According to a later tradition, Shapur I is said to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition is uncertain and perhaps refers more to Shapur II.

Under the Sassanids, following the founding of Gundeshapur Susa slowly lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares. Susa was also still very significant economically and a trading center, especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian saint has been found.

During the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards.[91] Shapur II also imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans. Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa, the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants.[92] He later had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers, which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans in Amida in 359. The weaver produced silk brocade.[93] He renamed it Eran-Khwarrah-Shapur ("Iran's glory [built by] Shapur").[94]

### Islamic period

[edit]

During the Muslim conquest of Persia an Arab army invaded Khuzistan under the command of Abu Musa al-Ash'ari. After taking most of the smaller fortified towns the army captured Tustar in 642 before proceeding to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the tomb of the Jewish prophet Daniel. Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell. In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only a dajjal was fated to capture the city. A dajjal is an Islamic term for an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal, a false messiah, compatible to the Antichrist in Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver" or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus a dajjal. Abu Musa agreed to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached, Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate to take the city.[95]

In the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city wall that only an Al-Masih ad-Dajjal could capture the city, and since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and it fell open.[96]

Following their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian nobles.[96]

Once the city was taken, as Daniel (Arabic: دانيال, romanized: Danyal) was not mentioned in the Qur'an, the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliph Umar ordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed.[96] In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.[96]

Following the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiege Gundeshapur.[95]

Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size.[97] A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue. The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics. Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the Church of the East between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).

In 1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols and was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful.[98]

### Today

[edit]

Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of Shush to the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital of Shush County in Iran's Khuzestan province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.

## World Heritage listing

[edit]

In July 2015, it was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.[99]

## Gallery

[edit]

* Letter in Greek of the Parthian king Artabanus II to the inhabitants of Susa in the 1st century AD (the city retained Greek institutions since the time of the Seleucid empire). Louvre Museum.[100]

* Glazed clay cup: Cup with rose petals, 8th–9th centuries

* Anthropoid sarcophagus

* Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace

* Marble head representing Seleucid King Antiochus III who was born near Susa around 242 BC.[101]

* Glazed clay vase: Vase with palmtrees, 8th–9th centuries

* Winged sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa.

* Tomb of Daniel

* Ninhursag with the spirit of the forests next to the seven-spiked cosmic tree of life. Relief from Susa.

* 19th-century engraving of Daniel's tomb in Susa, from Voyage en Perse Moderne, by Flandin and Coste.

* Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze, left. Louvre Museum

* Ribbed torc with lion heads, Achaemenid artwork, excavated by Jacques de Morgan, 1901, found in the Acropole Tomb

* Shush Castle, 2011

* Children in Susa

* Herm pillar with Hermes, from the well of the "Dungeon" in Susa.

## See also

[edit]

* Iran portal

* Abulites
* Achaemenid architecture
* Choqa Zanbil
* Elam
* History of Iran
* Islamic ceramics of the Susa site
* List of cities of the ancient Near East
* List of oldest continuously inhabited cities
* Muslim conquest of Khuzestan
* Short chronology timeline

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "Susa timeline".
2. ^ "Unesco".
3. ^ John Curtis (2013). "Introduction". In Perrot, Jean (ed.). The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia. I.B.Tauris. p. xvi. ISBN 9781848856219.
4. ^ a b Hinz & Koch 1987, p. 1184.
5. ^ a b Hinz & Koch 1987, p. 1183.
6. ^ Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Susa — ܫܘܫ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified June 30, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/415.
7. ^ Kriwaczek, Paul, Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization, St. Martin's Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1250054166
8. ^ George Rawlinson, A Memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-178-20631-9
9. ^ [1], William K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52, Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857
10. ^ John Curtis, "William Kennett Loftus and his Excavations at Susa", Iranica Antiqua; Leiden, vol. 28, pp. 1-55, (Jan 1, 1993)
11. ^ Vaux, W. S. W., "ON COINS DISCOVERED, BY W. K. LOFTUS, Esq., AT SUSA", The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Numismatic Society, vol. 20, pp. 25–32, 1857
12. ^ [2] Jane Dieulafoy, "Perzi?, Chaldea en Susiane : De Aarde en haar Volken, 1885-1887", at Project Gutenbrg (in Dutch)
13. ^ a b c Mousavi, Ali (21 June 2013). The History of Archaeological Research in Iran. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0003.
14. ^ a b Peters, John P. (1915). "Excavations in Persia". The Harvard Theological Review. 8 (1): 82–93\. doi:10.1017/S0017816000008336. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 1507314. S2CID 163892909.
15. ^ "M. J. DE MORGAN'S EXCAVATIONS IN THE AKROPOLIS AND PALACES OF SUSA", Scientific American, vol. 82, no. 11, pp. 169–70, 1900
16. ^ V. Scheil, "Excavations Made by the French in Susa and Babylonia, 1902-1903", The Biblical World, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 146-152, Aug 1904 JSTOR
17. ^ R. de Mecquenem, "Excavations at Susa (Persia), 1930–1931", Antiquity, vol. 5, iss. 19, September 1931
18. ^ [3], Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1897–1898 et 1898–1899, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires I, 1990
19. ^ [4], Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1899–1902, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires VII, 1905
20. ^ Robert H. Dyson, Early Work on the Acropolis at Susa. The Beginning of Prehistory in Iraq and Iran, Expedition, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 21–34, 1968
21. ^ [5] Roland de Mecquenem: Archives de Suse (1912–1939) - Unpublished excavation archive (French)
22. ^ Ghirshman, Roman, "The Elamite Levels at Susa and Their Chronological Significance", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 223–25, 1970
23. ^ Roman Ghirshman, Suse au tournant du III au II millenaire avant notre ere, Arts Asiatiques, vol. 17, pp. 3–44, 1968
24. ^ Hermann Gasche, "Ville Royale de Suse: vol I : La poterie elamite du deuxieme millenaire A.C.", Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires 47, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1973 ISBN 978-9004038264
25. ^ M. Steve and Hermann H. Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse: Nouvelles fouilles (rapport preliminaire)", Memoires de la Delegation archeologique en Iran, vol. 46, Geuthner, 1971
26. ^ Jean Perrot, Les fouilles de Suš en 1975, Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran 4, pp. 224–231, 1975
27. ^ D. Canal, La haute terrase de l'Acropole de Suse, Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 169–176, 1978
28. ^ SORAGHI, S., & ZEYNIVAND, M., "The Susa salvage project in 2019, southwestern Iran", Historia I Świat, 11, pp. 71–79, 2022 https://doi.org/10.34739/his.2022.11.04
29. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 46.
30. ^ Wright, Henry T., "The Zagros Frontiers of Susa during the Late 5th Millennium", Paléorient, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 11–21, 2010
31. ^ a b Potts: Elam.
32. ^ a b Alizadeh, Abbas (2003). Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996. University of Chicago Oriental Institute publications. Chicago, Ill: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in Association with the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization. ISBN 978-1-885923-23-3. OCLC 53122624.
33. ^ [6] Hole, Frank. "A Monumental Failure: The Collapse of Susa". In Robin A. Carter and Graham Philip, eds., Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration of Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East, pp. 221–226, Studies in Oriental Civilization, no. 63, Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010
34. ^ Hole, Frank, "The Organization of Ceramic Production during the Susa I Period", Paléorient, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 23–36, 2010
35. ^ a b Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 26.
36. ^ Aruz, Joan (1992). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Abrams. p. 29.
37. ^ Thomas Rose 2022, Emergence of copper pyrotechnology in Western Asia. PhD thesis, Beer-Sheva. 342pp
38. ^ Rosenstock, E., Scharl, S., Schier, W., 2016. Ex oriente lux? Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zur Stellung der frühen Kupfermetallurgie Südosteuropas, in: Bartelheim, M., Horejs, B., Krauß, R. (Eds.), Von Baden bis Troia, Oriental and European Archaeology. Leidorf, Rahden/Westf., pp. 59–122. p. 75
39. ^ Moghaddam, A., Miri, N., 2021. Tol-e Chega Sofla Cemetery: A Phenomenon in the Context of Late 5th Millennium Southwest Iran, in: Abar, A., D’Anna, M.B., Cyrus, G., Egbers, V., Huber, B., Kainert, C., Köhler, J., Öğüt, B., Rol, N., Russo, G., Schönicke, J., Tourtet, F. (Eds.), Pearls, politics and pistachios. Ex oriente, Berlin, pp. 47–60. https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.837.c10734
40. ^ D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 1107094690 p58
41. ^ D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 1107094690 p58
42. ^ Daniel T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 1107094690 pp 58–61
43. ^ F. Desset, An Architectural Pattern in Late Fourth-Millennium BC Western Iran: A New Link Between Susa, Tal-I Malyan, and Godin Tepe, Iran, vol. 52, iss. 1, pp. 1–18, 2014
44. ^ Lawler, Andrew. 2003. Uruk: Spreading Fashion or Empire. Science. Volume 302, pp. 977–978
45. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 101\. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1.
46. ^ Cheng, Jack; Feldman, Marian (2007). Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by her Students. BRILL. p. 48\. ISBN 978-90-474-2085-9.
47. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 93\. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1.
48. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 101\. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1.
49. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 97\. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1.
50. ^ Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020). The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC. Routledge. p. 110\. ISBN 978-1-000-03485-1.
51. ^ D. T. Potts, A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Volume 94 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons, 2012 ISBN 1405189886 p. 743
52. ^ Per Sumerian King List
53. ^ Translation of the Akkadian portion into French, in Mémoires. Paris: P. Geuthner. 1899. pp. 4–7.
54. ^ Aruz, Joan; Fino, Elisabetta Valtz (2001). "Ancient near Eastern Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 59 (1): 8. doi:10.2307/3269163. ISSN 0026-1521. JSTOR 3269163.
55. ^ Mikołajczak, Tytus K. (2011). "Elam and Persia. Edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011. pp. xviii + 493. $89.50 (cloth)". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 72 (2): 284–289\. doi:10.1086/671453. ISSN 0022-2968.
56. ^ FOSTER, BENJAMIN R, "'International' Trade at Sargonic Susa (Susa in the Sargonic Period III)", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 59-68, 1993
57. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 364.
58. ^ "Awan King List". Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
59. ^ SCHEIL, V. (1931). "Dynasties Élamites d'Awan et de Simaš". Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale. 28 (1): 1–46\. ISSN 0373-6032. JSTOR 23283945.
60. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 122.
61. ^ a b "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr.
62. ^ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. p. 425\. ISBN 9788120611795.
63. ^ Marshall, John (1996). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. p. 425\. ISBN 9788120611795.
64. ^ "Corpus by Asko Parpola". Mohenjodaro.
65. ^ Also, for another numbering scheme: Mahadevan, Iravatham (1987). The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 32–36.
66. ^ "Louvre Museum - cachet -2340 / -2200 (Akkad) - Lieu de création : Vallée de l'Indus - Lieu de découverte : Suse - SB 5614; AS 15374".
67. ^ Guimet, Musée (2016). Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan (in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. pp. 354–355\. ISBN 9782402052467.
68. ^ Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. p. 395.
69. ^ Nandagopal, Prabhakar (13 August 2018). Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat). Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78491-917-7. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
70. ^ "Louvre Museum Official Website". cartelen.louvre.fr.
71. ^ Guimet, Musée (2016). Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan (in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. p. 355\. ISBN 9782402052467.
72. ^ Art of the first cities : the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. p. 398.
73. ^ "Persians: Masters of Empire" ISBN 0-8094-9104-4 p. 7-8
74. ^ Tavernier, Jan. "Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology" (PDF). p. 27.
75. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie. "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", in The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV — Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, pp.112–138. Ed. John Boardman. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-22804-2
76. ^ Tolini, Gauthier, Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus, Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s'engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l'armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l'affrontement armé." p. 10 (PDF)
77. ^ The Harran Stelae H2 – A, and the Nabonidus Chronicle (Seventeenth year) show that Nabonidus had been in Babylon before 10 October 539, because he had already returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of Nissanu 1 [4 April], 539 BC.
78. ^ Waters, Matt, "CYRUS AND SUSA", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol.102, pp.115–18, 2008
79. ^ Unvala, J. M., "The Palace of Darius the Great and the Apadāna of Artaxerxes II in Susa", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, vol.5, no.2, pp.229–32, 1929
80. ^ Kent, Roland G., "The Record of Darius's Palace at Susa", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 1–23, 1933
81. ^ van Oppen de Rutter, Branko F., "THE SUSA MARRIAGES — A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL NOTE", Ancient Society, vol. 44, pp. 25–41, 2014
82. ^ Capdetrey, Laurent (2007). Le Pouvoir Séleucide. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. p. 252\. ISBN 978-2-753505-24-7.
83. ^ Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1 January 1991), "On the Western Edge of the Iranian Plateau: Susa and Elymais", A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule, Brill, pp. 35–48, doi:10.1163/9789004293915_004, ISBN 9789004293915
84. ^ Marest-Caffey, Laure (2016). "Seleukos I's Victory Coinage of Susa Revisited: A Die Study and Commentary". American Journal of Numismatics. 28: 1–63.
85. ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 22 March 2025.
86. ^ Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. Charleston: BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
87. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 354-409.
88. ^ Le Rider, Georges (1965). Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran XXXVIII: Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes. Paris. pp. 349–430.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
89. ^ Rawlinson, George (2007). Parthia. New York: Cosimo. p. 310\. ISBN 978-1-60206-136-1.
90. ^ Robert J. Wenke, Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 303–315, 1981
91. ^ Neusner, Jacob (1972). "Babylonian Jewry And Shapur Ii's Persecution of Christianity From 339 to 379 CE". Hebrew Union College Annual. 43. Hebrew Union College Press: 77–102.
92. ^ Harper, Prudence; Aruz, Joan; Tallon, Frangoise (1993). The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 162.
93. ^ Potts: Elam, pp. 429.
94. ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "SHAPUR II". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
95. ^ a b Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. pp. 183–184\. ISBN 978-1-84884-612-8.
96. ^ a b c d Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 128–129\. ISBN 978-0-297-84657-4.
97. ^ Amiet, Pierre (1972). Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran: Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967. Paris: P. Geuthner.
98. ^ M. Streck, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1997). Encyclopaedia of Islam, San-Sze. Vol. IX. Leiden: Brill. pp. 898–899\. ISBN 9789004104228.
99. ^ "Susa". UNESCO. 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
100. ^ Epigraphy of Later Parthia, «Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei», 7, 2013, pp. 276-284 [7]
101. ^ Jonsson, David J. (2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 566\. ISBN 978-1-59781-039-5. "Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Iran."

## References

[edit]

* Potts, Daniel T. (1999). The archaeology of Elam: Formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0. World Archaeology Series.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Bosworth, C. E. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6.
* [8][permanent dead link]Charvát, Petr, "Archaeology and social history: the Susa sealings, ca. 4000-2340 BC.", Paléorient, 57-63, 1988
* Clawson, H. Phelps, "Pottery of Susa I", Parnassus, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 26–27, 1939
* Daryaee, Touraj (2014). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0857716668.
* Jalalipour, Saeid (2014). The Arab Conquest of Persia: The Khūzistān Province before and after the Muslims Triumph (PDF). Sasanika.[permanent dead link]
* Le Breton, L., "The Early Periods at Susa, Mesopotamian Relations", Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 79–124, 1957
* Pelzel, Suzanne M., "Dating the Early Dynastic Votive Plaques from Susa", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 1977
* Jean Perrot, "Le Palais de Darius à Suse. Une résidence royale sur la route de Persépolis à Babylone", SORBONNE PUPS, Paris, 2010 ISBN 978-2840506812
* Poebel, Arno, "The Acropolis of Susa in the Elamite Inscriptions", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 125–40, 1933
* UNVALA, J. M., "Three Panels from Susa", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 179–85, 1928
* Westenholtz, J. G.; Guthartz, L. Taylor (1996). Royal Cities of the Biblical World. Jerusalem: Rubin Mass. ISBN 978-9657027011.
* Woolley, C. Leonard, "The Painted Pottery of Susa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1, pp. 35–50, 1928

### Excavation reports

[edit]

Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans.

* Pierre Amiet, "Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967", Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran, Paris 1972.
* Elizabeth Carter, "Suse, Ville Royale", Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 197–211, 1979 DOI: 10.3406/paleo.1978.4222
* Elizabeth Carter, "The Susa Sequence – 3000–2000 B. C. Susa, Ville Royale I", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 451–454, 1979
* Elizabeth Carter, "Excavations in Ville-Royale-I at Susa: The third Millennium B.C.", Cahiers de la DAFI, vol. 11, pp. 11–139, 1980
* Roman Ghirshman, "Cinq campagnes de fouilles a Suse (1946–1951)", In: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale 46, pp 1–18, 1952
* Ghirshman, Roman, and M. J. STEVE, "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1964-1965: Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 13, pp. 3–32, 1966
* GHIRSHMAN, R., "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1965-1966 Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 15, pp. 3–27, 1967
* Florence Malbran-Labat, "Les inscriptions royales de Suse: briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l 'empire néo-élamite", Paris 1995.
* Laurianne Martinez-Sève, "Les figurines de Suse", Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris 2002, ISBN 2-7118-4324-6.
* de Mecquenem, R., "LES DERNIERS RÉSULTATS DES FOUILLES DE SUSE", Revue Des Arts Asiatiques, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 73–88, 1929
* de MECQUENEM, R., "FOUILLES DE SUSE: CAMPAGNES DES ANNÉES 1914-1921-1922", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 109–40, 1922
* [9] Jacques de Morgan, "Histoire et travaux de la Délégation en Perse du Ministère de l'instruction publique, 1897-1905", E. Leroux, 1905
* Jacques de Morgan, G. Jéquier, G. Lampre, "Fouilles à Suse, 1897–1898 et 1898–1899", Paris 1900
* Perrot, Jean, et al., "Recherches Archéologiques a Suse et En Susiane En 1969 et En 1970", Syria, vol. 48, no. 1/2, pp. 21–51, 1971
* Georges Le Rider, "Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes: les trouvailles monétaires et l'histoire de la ville", Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran, Paris 1965.
* Vincent Scheil, "Inscriptions of Achéménides à Suse. Actes juridiques susiens", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse, vol. 21–24, Paris 1929–1933.
* Agnes Spycket, "Les figurines de Suse", Paris 1992.
* Marie-Joseph Steve, Hermann Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse. Nouvelles fouilles (rapport préliminaire)", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse vol. 46, Leiden 1971.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Susa.

## External links

[edit]

* Hinz, Walther [in German]; Koch, Heidemarie (1987). Elamisches Wörterbuch [Elamite Wordbook] (in German). Vol. 2\. Berlin, Germany: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.
* "Early Works on the Acropolis at Susa" Expedition Magazine 10.4 1968
* Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre - Metropolitan Museum - 1992
* Aerial views of Susa at the Oriental Institute
* Digital Images of Cuneiform Tablets from Susa – CDLI
* Hamid-Reza Hosseini, Shush at the foot of Louvre (Shush dar dāman-e Louvre), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009.
* Archaeological findings may push back Susa's history by millennia - Tehran Times - August 21, 2022

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* Shiraz
* Susa
* Tabriz
* Takht-e Soleymān
* Tehran
* Yazd

Theory and analysis|

* Islamic architecture
* Traditional Persian residential architecture
* Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity

Lists|

* Architects of Iran
* Args, castles, and ghal'ehs
* List of ab anbars of Qazvin
* List of mosques
* List of ziyarat-gahs

* v
* t
* e

Khuzestan province, Iran

Capital|

* Ahvaz

Counties
and cities|

| Abadan County|

* Abadan
* Arvandkenar

|

Aghajari County|

* Aghajari

Ahvaz County|

* Ahvaz

Andika County|

* Qaleh-ye Khvajeh

Andimeshk County|

* Andimeshk
* Hoseyniyeh

Bagh-e Malek County|

* Bagh-e Malek
* Qaleh Tall
* Seydun

Bavi County|

* Mollasani
* Sheyban
* Veys

Behbahan County|

* Behbahan
* Sardasht

Dasht-e Azadegan County|

* Susangerd
* Bostan

Dezful County|

* Dezful
* Dezab
* Mianrud
* Safiabad
* Saland

Gotvand County|

* Gotvand
* Jannat Makan

Haftkel County|

* Haftkel

Hendijan County|

* Hendijan
* Zohreh

Hoveyzeh County|

* Hoveyzeh
* Rafi

Izeh County|

* Izeh
* Dehdez

Karun County|

* Karun

Khorramshahr County|

* Khorramshahr
* Minushahr
* Moqavemat

Lali County|

* Lali

Mahshahr County|

* Bandar-e Mahshahr
* Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni
* Chamran

Masjed Soleyman County|

* Masjed Soleyman

Omidiyeh County|

* Omidiyeh
* Jayezan

Ramhormoz County|

* Ramhormoz

Ramshir County|

* Ramshir

Shadegan County|

* Shadegan

Shush County|

* Shush
* Alvan
* Horr

Shushtar County|

* Shushtar

Sights|

* Abadan's museum
* Gundishapur
* Acropole of Shush
* Apadana in Susa
* Arjan castle, Behbahan
* Asak ancient city, Hendijan
* Chagadom tappe fire temple
* Chogha Mish Proto-Elamite site
* Chogha Zanbil
* Dav o Dokhtar castle, Ramhormoz
* Dez Dam
* Eshkaft-e Salman
* Gargar bridge, Shushtar
* Haft Tepe
* Hoor-al-azim lagoon
* Imamzadeh Roudband, Dezful
* Imamzadeh Sabz-e-ghaba, Dezful
* Karkheh Dam
* Khorramshahr mosque, Battle of Khorramshahr
* Kul-e Farah
* lake of Karkheh dam
* Lake of Karun
* Lali bridge
* Meyangaran lagoon
* Rangooni's mosque
* Salasel castle, Shushtar
* Shadegan lagoon
* Shevi waterfall, Dezful
* Shush-Daniel
* Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System
* Shushtar Watermills
* Susa
* Shush Castle
* Taryana
* Tobiron valley, Dezful
* Tomb of Daniel, Shush
* White bridge, Ahvaz
* Ya'qub-i Laith's tomb, Dezful

Populated places|

* List of cities, towns and villages in Khuzestan Province

* v
* t
* e

World Heritage Sites in Iran

List of World Heritage Sites in Iran

Cultural|

* The Armenian Monastic Ensembles
* St. Thaddeus Monastery
* St. Stepanos Monastery
* Chapel of Dzordzor
* Chapel of Chupan
* Church of the Holy Mother of God
* Bam and its cultural landscape
* Behistun
* Chogha Zanbil
* Cultural landscape of Maymand
* Golestan Palace
* Gonbad-e Qabus
* Jameh Mosque of Isfahan
* Naqsh-e Jahan Square
* Pasargadae
* Persepolis
* The Persian gardens
* Pasargadae
* Chehel Sotoun
* Fin
* Eram
* Shazdeh
* Dolatabad
* Abbasabad
* Akbarieh
* Pahlevanpour
* Shahr-e Sukhteh
* Sheikh Safi's Tomb
* Dome of Soltaniyeh
* Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System
* Susa
* Bazaar of Tabriz
* Takht-e Soleymān
* The Persian Qanat
* Ghasabeh
* Baladeh
* Zarch
* Hassan Abad Moshir
* Goharriz
* Akbarabad
* Ghasemabad
* Moun
* Vazvan
* Mozdabad
* Ebrahimabad
* Historic city of Yazd
* Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region
* Qal'eh Dokhtar
* Ardashir Investiture Relief
* Victory Relief of Ardashir
* Ardashir Khurreh
* Palace of Ardashir
* City of Bishapur
* Colossal Statue of Shapur I
* Shapur cave
* Sarvestan Palace
* Trans-Iranian Railway
* Cultural Landscape of Uramanat
* The Persian Caravanserai

Flag of Iran

Natural|

* Lut Desert
* Hyrcanian Forests

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt–Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Meshkiangasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indo-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mesh-he
Melem-ana
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi
Enna-Dagan | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-Tarana
Napi-Ilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kikku-Siwe-Temti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugal-Anne-Mundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugal-zage-si
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025–1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil An-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty of Egypt
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty of Egypt

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire (1450–1180 BCE)
Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II

Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states
Carchemish
Tabal | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Eight Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judaea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, William W.; Simpson, William Kelly (1971). The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49\. ISBN 978-0-15-502755-8.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy, eds. (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per the Sumerian King List.
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* Czech Republic
* Norway
* Vatican
* Israel

Geographic|

* Pleiades

Other|

* Kulturenvanteri monument
* Yale LUX

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