Systema Naturae

Major work by botanist Carolus Linnaeus

Systema Naturæ (1735)&rft.place=Netherlands">

Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ[1]

Author| Carl Linnaeus
(Carl von Linné)
Subject| Taxonomy
Genre| Biological classification

Publication date

| 1735 (1735)
Publication place| Netherlands
LC Class| QH43 .S21

Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Naturæ with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann,[2] Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities".[3]

The tenth edition of this book (1758) is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature.[4] In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.[5][6][7]

## Overview

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Linnaeus (later known as "Carl von Linné", after his ennoblement in 1761)[8] published the first edition of Systema Naturae in the year 1735, during his stay in the Netherlands. As was customary for the scientific literature of its day, the book was published in Latin. In it, he outlined his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom (regnum animale), the plant kingdom (regnum vegetabile), and the "mineral kingdom" (regnum lapideum).

Linnaeus's Systema Naturae lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals.[9] According to the historian of botany William T. Stearn, "Even in 1753 he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants."[9]

Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic of God's creation.[10] His sexual system, where species with the same number of stamens were treated in the same group, was convenient but in his view artificial.[10] Linnaeus believed in God's creation and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed. He is frequently quoted as saying: "God created, Linnaeus organized" (Latin: Deus creavit, Linnaeus disposuit).[11] The classification of animals was more natural. For instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates, as Anthropomorpha. They were also divided into four varieties, as distinguished by skin color and corresponding with the four known continents and temperaments.[12] The tenth edition expanded on these varieties with behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society acknowledges as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism.[13]

As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work.[14] It grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the 12th edition (1766–1768).[15] Also, as the work progressed, he made changes: in the first edition, whales were classified as fishes, following the work of Linnaeus' friend and "father of ichthyology" Peter Artedi; in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into the mammal class. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (see binomen) for animal species, something that he had done for plant species (see binary name) in the 1753 publication of Species Plantarum. The system eventually developed into modern Linnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organized biological classification.

After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.[16] Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society, as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785).[17]

## Taxonomy

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In his Imperium Naturæ, Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely Regnum Animale, Regnum Vegetabile and Regnum Lapideum. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: "Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?" The classification was based on five levels: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species. While species and genus was seen as God-given (or "natural"), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task which most say he succeeded in.

The 1735 classification of animals

Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes. Two of his works, the first edition of the Species Plantarum (1753) for plants and the 10th edition of the Systema Naturæ (1758), are accepted to be among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates, and thus take priority over those of other, later authors. In zoology there is one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders, Svenska Spindlar,[18] published by Carl Clerck in 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names.[19] His exceptional importance to science was less in the value of his taxonomy, more his deployment of skilful young students abroad to collect specimens.[20] At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard for biological classification.

### Animals

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Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:

1. Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian manatee were classified among the fishes.
2. Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals.
3. Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes.
4. Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order.
5. Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods were included as the order "Aptera".
6. Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs, and hard-shelled organisms like echinoderms.

#### Humans

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Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans as primates (originally Anthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people among animals and thus not ruling over nature.[21] He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) from Homo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated or non-human characteristics, despite finding limited evidence.[21] He divided Homo sapiens into four varieties, corresponding with the four known continents and four temperaments (some editions also classify Ferus wild children and Monstrosus monstrous to accommodate adaptations to extreme environments).[22] The first edition included Europæus albescens (whitish Europeans), Americanus rubescens (reddish Americans), Asiaticus fuscus (tawny Asians), and Africanus nigriculus (blackish Africans).[12] The tenth edition solidified these descriptions by removing the "ish" qualifiers (e.g. albus "white" instead of albescens "whitish") and revising the characterization of Asiaticus from fuscus (tawny) to luridus (pale yellow).[12][23] It also incorporates behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society recognizes as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism.[13]

### Plants

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The orders and classes of plants, according to his Systema Sexuale, were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his ordines naturales in his Philosophia Botanica) but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.

Key to the Sexual System from the 10th (1758) edition of Systema Naturæ

The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were:

* Classis 1. Monandria
* Classis 2. Diandria
* Classis 3. Triandria
* Classis 4. Tetrandria
* Classis 5. Pentandria
* Classis 6. Hexandria
* Classis 7. Heptandria
* Classis 8. Octandria
* Classis 9. Enneandria
* Classis 10. Decandria
* Classis 11. Dodecandria
* Classis 12. Icosandria
* Classis 13. Polyandra
* Classis 14. Didynamia
* Classis 15. Tetradynamia
* Classis 16. Monadelphia
* Classis 17. Diadelphia
* Classis 18. Polyadelphia
* Classis 19. Syngenesia
* Classis 20. Gynandria
* Classis 21. Monoecia
* Classis 22. Dioecia
* Classis 23. Polygamia
* Classis 24. Cryptogamia

### Minerals

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Linnaeus's taxonomy of minerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of the Systema Naturæ, the Linnaean classes were:

* Classis 1. Petræ (rocks)
* Classis 2. Mineræ (minerals and ores)
* Classis 3. Fossilia (fossils and aggregates)[24]

## Editions

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Gmelin's thirteenth (decima tertia) edition of Systema Naturae (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limited Systema Vegetabilium first prepared and published by Johan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition").[16]

Edition | Location | Year | Complete bibliographical citation | Links to online versions

|
|
|
|

1 | Leiden | 1735 | Linnæus, C. 1735. Systema naturæ, sive regna tria naturæ systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. – pp. [1–12]. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | Missouri Botanical Garden
2 | Stockholm | 1740 | Linnæus, C. 1740. Systema naturæ in quo naturæ regna tria, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponuntur. Editio secunda, auctior. – pp. [1–2], 1–80. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | Internet Archive
3 | Halle | 1740 | Lange, J. J. 1740. Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. – pp. [1–8], 1–70, [1]. Halle. (Gebauer) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
4 | Paris | 1744 | Linnæus, C. 1744. Systema naturæ in quo proponuntur naturæ regna tria secundum classes, ordines, genera & species. Editio quarta ab auctore emendata & aucta. Accesserunt nomina Gallica. – pp. i–xxvi, [1], 1–108. Parisiis. (David.) | Google Books
CSIC Madrid
5 | Halle | 1747 | Agnethler, M. G. 1747\. Caroli Linnæi systema natvræ in qvo natvræ regna tria, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponvntvr. Recvsvm et societatis, qvæ impensas contvlit, vsvi accommodatvm. Editio altera avctior et emendatior. – pp. 1–88. Halæ Magdebvrgicæ. | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
6 | Stockholm | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Editio sexta, emendata et aucta. – pp. [1–3], 1–224, [1–18], Tab. I–VIII. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter) | SUB Göttingen
7 | Leipzig | 1748 | Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Secundum sextam Stockholmiensem emendatam & auctam editionem. – pp. [A], [1–5], 1–224, [1–22], Tab. I–VIII. Lipsiae. (Kiesewetter) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
8 | Stockholm | 1753 | Haartman, J. J. 1753. Caroli Linnæi Indelning i Ö̈rt-Riket, efter Systema Naturae, på Swenska öfwersatt af Johan J. Haartman. – pp. [1–12], 1–136, [1–8]. Stockholm. (Salvius) | Umeå UB
9 | Leiden | 1756 | Linnæus, C. 1756. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta, tabulisque æneis illustrata. Accedunt vocabula gallica. Editio multo auctior & emendatior. – pp. [1–7], 1–227, [1–19], Tab. I–VIII. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak) | New York Botanical Garden
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
10,
Vol. 1 | Stockholm | 1758 | Linnæus, C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 1–824. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
SUB Göttingen
Missouri Botanical Garden
10,
Vol. 2 | Stockholm | 1759 | Linnæus, C. 1759. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 825–1384. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | Missouri Botanical Garden
11,
Vol. 1 | Halle | 1760 | Linnaeus, C. 1760. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, cvm characteribvs, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomvs I. Praefactvs est Ioannes Ioachimvs Langivs. Ad editionem decimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. [1–8], 1–824. Halae Magdebvrgicae. (Curt). (Linnæus 1758: p. 5 recorded probably this edition as from Leipzig 1762, "nil additum" = nothing added) | New York Botanical Garden
(pp. [1–8], 1–338)
New York Botanical Garden
(pp. 339–824)
12,
Vol. 1,
part 1 | Stockholm | 1766 | Linné, C. a 1766. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. – pp. 1–532. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
12,
Vol. 1,
part 2 | Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ, Tom. I. Pars II. Editio duodecima reformata. – pp. 533–1327, [1–37]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
12,
Vol. 2 | Stockholm | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus II. – pp. 1–735, [1–16], 1–142, [1–2]. Holmiæ. (Salvius) |
12,
Vol. 3 | Stockholm | 1768 | Linné, C. a 1768. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus III. – pp. 1–236, [1–20], Tab. I–III. Holmiæ. (Salvius) | SUB Göttingen
12a ("13"),
Vol. 1,
part. 1 | Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. 1–532. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries
Missouri Botanical Garden
Google Books
12a ("13"),
Vol. 1,
part 2 | Vienna | 1767 | Linné, C. a [1767]. Systema naturæ. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. [1–2], 1–1327, [1–37]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries
Missouri Botanical Garden
Google Books
12a ("13"),
Vol. 2 | Vienna | 1770 | Linné, C. a 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs II. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – 1–736, [1–6]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries
Missouri Botanical Garden
New York Botanical Garden
Google Books
12a ("13"),
Vol. 3 | Vienna | 1770 | Linnaeus, C. 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs III. – 1–236, [1–19]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern) | NCSU Libraries
Missouri Botanical Garden
Google Books
12b,
Vol. 1 | Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772. Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus I. Regnum Animale. – pp. [1–5], 1–240, [1–10]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries
12b,
Vol. 2 | Göttingen | 1772 | Beckmann, J. 1772. Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus II. Regnum Vegetabile. – pp. 1–356, [1–32]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck) | NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 1 | Leipzig | 1788 | Gmelin, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1–12], 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 2 | Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 3 | Leipzig | [1789] | Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars III. – pp. 1033–1516. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 4 | Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars IV. – pp. 1517–2224. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 5 | Leipzig | [1790] | Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars V. – pp. 2225–3020. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 6 | Leipzig | [1791] | Gmelin, J. F. [1791]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VI. – pp. 3021–3910. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
13,
Vol. 1,
part 7 | Leipzig | [1792] | Gmelin, J. F. [1792]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VII. – pp. [1], 3911–4120. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
13,
Vol. 2,
part 1 | Leipzig | 1791 | Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1], I–XL, 1–884. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
13,
Vol. 2,
part 2 | Leipzig | [1791]? | Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. II. Pars II. – pp. [1], 885–1661, [1]. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
13,
Vol. 3 | Leipzig | 1793 | Gmelin, J. F. 1793. Caroli a Linné (...) systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus III. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. 1–476. Lipsiae. (Beer) | Missouri Botanical Garden
NCSU Libraries
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek

The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:[25]

* Part 1: pp. [1–12], 1–500 (25 July 1788)
* Part 2: pp. 501–1032 (20 April 1789)
* Part 3: pp. 1033–1516 (20 November 1789)
* Part 4: pp. 1517–2224 (21 May 1790)
* Part 5: pp. 2225–3020 (6 December 1790)
* Part 6: pp. 3021–3910 (14 May 1791)
* Part 7: pp. 3911–4120 (2 July 1792)

## See also

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* Supplementum Plantarum
* Animalia Paradoxa
* 10th edition of Systema Naturae
* 12th edition of Systema Naturae
* Systema Vegetabilium
* English edition by William Turton, translated from Gmelin's last edition. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.37018

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius.
2. ^ Windelspecht, Michael (2002). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-31501-5. p. 28.
3. ^ Linné, Carl von (1806). A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties ... Lackington, Allen, and Company.
4. ^ Gordh, Gordon; Beardsley, John W. (1999). "Taxonomy and biological control". In Bellows, T. S.; Fisher, T. W. (eds.). Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications of Biological Control. Academic Press. pp. 45–55. ISBN 978-0-12-257305-7.
5. ^ "Sherborn, C. D. 1902". Index Animalium.
6. ^ "Neave, S. A. 1939–1940, updated". Nomenclator Zoologicus.
7. ^ Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 8: 167–178, also p. 318 in ICZN 1987. Archived 2010-06-25 at the Wayback Machine Official lists and indexes of names and works in zoology. – pp. 1–366. London. (The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature).
8. ^ Stearn, W. T. (1957). "An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Linnaeus". Species Plantarum (1957 Ray Society facsimile ed.). p. 14.
9. ^ a b Stearn, William T. (1959). "The background of Linnaeus's contributions to the nomenclature and methods of systematic biology" (PDF). Systematic Zoology. 8 (1): 4–22. doi:10.2307/2411603. JSTOR 2411603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2014.
10. ^ a b Quammen, David (June 2007). "A Passion for Order". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
11. ^ Warne, K. (May 2007). "Organization Man". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
12. ^ a b c Müller-Wille, Staffan (2014). "Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World". The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900: 191–209. doi:10.1057/9781137338211_10. hdl:10871/16833. ISBN 978-1-349-46395-4.
13. ^ a b Charmantier, Isabelle (2020). "Linnaeus and Race". The Linnean Society. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
14. ^ Everts, Sarah (2016). "Information Overload". Distillations. 2 (2): 26–33. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
15. ^ Schiebinger, Londa (April 1993). "Why mammals are called mammals: gender politics in eighteenth-century natural history" (PDF). The American Historical Review. 98 (2): 382–411. doi:10.2307/2166840. JSTOR 2166840. PMID 11623150. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2011.
16. ^ a b Linné 1774.
17. ^ Linné 1785.
18. ^ Clerck, C. (1757). Svenska Spindlar / Aranei Svecici. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. pp. [1–8], 1–154, pl. 1–6.
19. ^ ICZN Code Art. 3.1
20. ^ Sörlin, Sverker; Fagerstedt, Otto (2004). Linné och hans apostlar [Linnaeus and his apostles] (in Swedish). Örebro, Sweden: Natur & Kultur/Fakta. ISBN 978-91-27-35590-3.
21. ^ a b Frängsmyr, Tore; Lindroth, Sten; Eriksson, Gunnar; Broberg, Gunnar (1983). Linnaeus, the man and his work. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-7112-1841-3.
22. ^ Svensson, Mats (2012). "How Linnaeus classified humans: why red, white, yellow and black people were assigned particular temperaments" (PDF). Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology. 17: 303–315.
23. ^ Keevak, Michael (2011). Becoming yellow: a short history of racial thinking. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-691-14031-5.
24. ^ "Linnaeus as a mineralogist". Linné on line. Uppsala University. 2008.
25. ^ Hopkinson, John (May 1907). "Dates of Publication of the Separate Parts of Gmelin's Edition (13th) of the 'Systema Naturae' of Linnaeus". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 77 (4): 1035–1037. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1907.tb06965.x.

## Bibliography

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In Latin

* Linné, Carl von (1774). Murray, Johann Andreas (ed.). Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) (2 vols.). Göttingen: Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
* Linné, Carl von (1785) [1774]. Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae) [A System of Vegetables 2 vols.]. Lichfield: Lichfield Botanical Society. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

In English translation

* A General System of Nature translated by William Turton. Lackington, Allen, and Company, January 1806 (free, registration required)

## External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Systema Naturae.

* Linné online
* Systema Naturae is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive

* v
* t
* e

Carl Linnaeus

Published works|

* Linnaeus bibliography
* Systema Naturae (1735)
* Fundamenta Botanica (1736)
* Bibliotheca Botanica (1736)
* Musa Cliffortiana (1736)
* Critica Botanica (1737)
* Flora Lapponica (1737)
* Genera Plantarum (1737)
* Hortus Cliffortianus (1737)
* Classes Plantarum (1738)
* Flora Svecica (1745)
* Fauna Svecica (1746)
* Philosophia Botanica (1751)
* Species Plantarum (1753)
* Centuria Insectorum (1763)
* Mantissa Plantarum Altera (1771)
* Systema Vegetabilium (1774)

General|

* Taxonomy (biology)
* Linnaean Herbarium
* Linnaean taxonomy (Linnaean classification)
* Botanical nomenclature
* Zoological nomenclature
* Binomial nomenclature
* Taxa named by Linnaeus
* Natural history
* History of biology
* History of botany
* Scientific racism

Apostles of Linnaeus|

* Adam Afzelius
* Andreas Berlin
* Johan Peter Falk
* Peter Forsskål
* Pehr Kalm
* Pehr Löfling
* Pehr Osbeck
* Daniel Rolander
* Göran Rothman
* Daniel Solander
* Anders Sparrman
* Carl Peter Thunberg

Related people|

* Family (Carl Linnaeus the Younger (son)
* Elisabeth Christina von Linné (daughter))
* Students of Linnaeus
* Gaspard Bauhin
* Johann Bauhin
* Peter Artedi
* Herman Boerhaave
* Johannes Burman
* George Clifford III

Recognitions|

* Expedition Linné
* Linnaea
* Linnaean Garden (including the Linnaeus Museum)
* Linnaeite
* Linnaemya
* Linnaemyini
* 7412 Linnaeus
* Linnaeus Arboretum
* Linnaeus University
* Linnaeus's Hammarby
* Linné (crater)
* Linnéa
* Linnean Medal
* Linnean Society of London
* Swedish Linnaeus Society
* Linnean Society of New South Wales
* Linnean Tercentenary Medal
* Linneus, Maine
* Linneus, Missouri

* Category
* Wikiquote

* v
* t
* e

Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus

10th edition|

* Mammalia
* Aves
* Amphibia
* Pisces
* Insecta
* Coleoptera
* Hemiptera
* Lepidoptera
* Neuroptera
* Hymenoptera
* Diptera
* Aptera
* Vermes

See also|

* 12th edition
* Animalia Paradoxa

* v
* t
* e

History of botany

Fields and
disciplines|

* Agriculture
* Biogeography
* Bryology
* Cladistics
* Comparative anatomy
* Cytology
* Economic botany
* Ethnobotany
* Floristics
* Forestry
* Genetic engineering
* Horticulture
* Lichenology
* Molecular phylogenetics
* Mycology
* Natural history
* Numerical taxonomy
* Paleobotany
* Palynology
* Phycology
* Phytochemistry
* Phytogeography
* Plant anatomy
* Plant ecology
* Plant genetics
* Plant morphology
* Plant pathology
* Plant physiology
* Pteridology

Institutions|

* Jardin des Plantes
* Natural History Museum, London
* Orto botanico di Padova
* Orto botanico di Pisa
* Rothamsted Research
* Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Publications|

* Historia Plantarum and Causes of Plants of Theophrastus c. 300 BC
* De Plantis of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st century BC
* De Materia Medica of Dioscorides c. 60 AD
* Naturalis Historia 77–79 AD
* De Vegetabilibus of Albertus Magnus c. 1256
* Herbarum Vivae Icones 1530
* Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus 1538
* Kreütterbuch of Hieronymus Bock 1539
* De plantis libri XVI of Caesalpino 1583
* Stirpium Historiae 1583
* Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes 1597
* Prodromus Theatrici Botanici 1620
* Pinax theatri botanici 1623
* Anatome Plantarum 1675
* Anatomy of Plants 1682
* Historia Plantarum of John Ray 1686–1704
* De Sexu Plantarum Epistola 1694
* Éléments de botanique 1694
* Vegetable Staticks 1727
* Systema Naturae 1735
* Genera Plantarum 1737
* Philosophia Botanica 1751
* Species Plantarum 1753
* Systema Naturae, 10th ed. 1758–59
* Familles des Plantes 1763–64
* Experiments Upon Vegetables 1779
* Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen 1790
* Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale 1802
* Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation 1804
* Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen 1812
* Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis 1824–1873
* Nepenthaceae
* Die Vegetabilische Zelle 1851
* Vergleichende Untersuchungen 1851
* On the Origin of Species 1859
* Experiments on Plant Hybridization 1865
* Die Vegetation der Erde 1872
* Plantesamfund 1895
* Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage 1898
* Variation and Evolution in Plants 1950
* Ontogeny and Phylogeny 1977
* An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants 1981

Theories and
concepts|

* Alternation of generations
* Cell theory
* Center of diversity
* Phylogenetic nomenclature
* Spontaneous generation
* Taxonomy
* Ultrastructure

Influential
figures|

* Theophrastus c. 371–287 BC
* Pliny the Elder 23–79 AD
* Pedanius Dioscorides c. 40–90 AD
* Otto Brunfels 1464–1534
* Hieronymus Bock 1498–1554
* Valerius Cordus 1515–1544
* William Turner 1515–1568
* Rembert Dodoens 1517–1585
* Andrea Cesalpino 1519–1603
* Cristóbal Acosta 1525–1594
* Gaspard Bauhin 1560–1624
* Joachim Jungius 1587–1657
* John Ray 1623–1705
* Nehemiah Grew 1628–1711
* Marcello Malpighi 1628–1694
* Joseph Pitton de Tournefort 1656–1708
* Rudolf Jakob Camerarius 1665–1721
* Stephen Hales 1677–1761
* Bernard de Jussieu 1699–1777
* Carolus Linnaeus 1707–1778
* Michel Adanson 1727–1806
* Jan Ingenhousz 1730–1799
* José Celestino Mutis 1732–1808
* Félix de Azara 1742–1821
* Joseph Banks 1743–1820
* Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749–1832
* Carl Ludwig Willdenow 1765–1812
* Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure 1767–1845
* Alexander von Humboldt 1769–1859
* Aimé Bonpland 1773–1858
* Thomas Nuttall 1786–1859
* Joakim Frederik Schouw 1789–1852
* Matthias Jakob Schleiden 1804–1881
* Alexander Braun 1805–1877
* George Engelmann 1809–1884
* Asa Gray 1810–1888
* August Grisebach 1814–1879
* Joseph Hooker 1817–1911
* Gregor Mendel 1822–1884
* Nathanael Pringsheim 1823–1894
* Wilhelm Hofmeister 1824–1877
* Julius von Sachs 1832–1897
* Eugenius Warming 1841–1924
* William Gilson Farlow 1844–1919
* Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper 1856–1901
* Nikolai Vavilov 1887–1943
* Barbara McClintock 1902–1992
* G. Ledyard Stebbins 1906–2000
* Eugene Odum 1913–2002
* Arthur Cronquist 1919–1992

Related|

* Botanical garden
* Herbal
* Plant taxonomy
* History of plant systematics
* Systems of plant taxonomy
* Herbalism
* History of agricultural science
* History of agriculture
* History of biochemistry
* History of biology
* History of biotechnology
* History of ecology
* History of evolutionary thought
* History of genetics
* History of geology
* History of medicine
* History of molecular biology
* History of molecular evolution
* History of paleontology
* History of phycology
* History of science
* Natural philosophy
* Philosophy of biology
* Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Natural history

Pioneering
naturalists|

| Classical
antiquity|

* Aristotle (History of Animals)
* Theophrastus (Historia Plantarum)
* Aelian (De Natura Animalium)
* Pliny the Elder (Natural History)
* Dioscorides (De Materia Medica)

|

Renaissance|

* Ulisse Aldrovandi
* Gaspard Bauhin (Pinax theatri botanici)
* Otto Brunfels
* Hieronymus Bock
* Andrea Cesalpino
* Valerius Cordus
* Leonhart Fuchs
* Conrad Gessner (Historia animalium)
* Frederik Ruysch
* William Turner (Avium Praecipuarum, New Herball)
* John Gerard (Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes)

Enlightenment|

* Robert Hooke (Micrographia)
* Marcello Malpighi
* Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
* William Derham
* Hans Sloane
* Jan Swammerdam
* Regnier de Graaf
* Carl Linnaeus (Systema Naturae)
* Georg Steller
* Joseph Banks
* Johan Christian Fabricius
* James Hutton
* John Ray (Historia Plantarum)
* Comte de Buffon (Histoire Naturelle)
* Bernard Germain de Lacépède
* Gilbert White (The Natural History of Selborne)
* Thomas Bewick (A History of British Birds)
* Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Philosophie zoologique)

19th century|

* George Montagu (Ornithological Dictionary)
* Georges Cuvier (Le Règne Animal)
* William Smith
* Charles Darwin (On the Origin of Species)
* Alfred Russel Wallace (The Malay Archipelago)
* Henry Walter Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazons)
* Alexander von Humboldt
* John James Audubon (The Birds of America)
* William Buckland
* Charles Lyell
* Mary Anning
* Jean-Henri Fabre
* Louis Agassiz
* Philip Henry Gosse
* Asa Gray
* William Jackson Hooker
* Joseph Dalton Hooker
* William Jardine (The Naturalist's Library)
* Ernst Haeckel (Kunstformen der Natur)
* Richard Lydekker (The Royal Natural History)

20th century|

* Martinus Beijerinck
* Abbott Thayer (Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom)
* Hugh B. Cott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals)
* Niko Tinbergen (The Study of Instinct)
* Konrad Lorenz (On Aggression)
* Karl von Frisch (The Dancing Bees)
* Ronald Lockley (Shearwaters)

Topics|

* Natural history museums (List)
* Parson-naturalists (List)
* Natural History Societies
* List of natural history dealers

* v
* t
* e

History of biology (timeline)

Fields,
disciplines|

* Agricultural science
* Anatomy
* Biochemistry
* Biotechnology
* Botany
* Ecology
* Evolutionary thought
* Genetics
* Geology
* Immunology
* Medicine
* Model organisms
* Molecular biology
* Molecular evolution
* Paleontology
* Phycology
* Plant systematics
* RNA biology
* Zoology (through 1859)
* Zoology (since 1859)

Theories,
concepts|

* Germ theory of disease
* Central dogma of molecular biology
* Darwinism
* Great chain of being
* Hierarchy of life
* Lamarckism
* One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
* Protocell
* RNA world
* Sequence hypothesis
* Spontaneous generation

Related|

* History of science
* Philosophy of biology
* Teleology
* Ethnobotany
* Eugenics
* Dysgenics
* History of the creation-evolution controversy
* Human Genome Project
* Humboldtian science
* Natural history
* Natural philosophy
* Natural theology
* Relationship between religion and science

* Category

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* Israel
* United States

*[LC Class]: Library of Congress Classification
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