Testosterone (medication)

Medication and naturally occurring steroid hormone

This article is about testosterone as a medication. For the natural hormone, see Testosterone.

"Testavan" redirects here. For the wine-tasting accessory, see Tastevin.

Testosterone

Clinical data
Pronunciation| /tɛˈstɒstəroʊn/ teh-STOS-tə-rohn[1]
Trade names| AndroGel, Testim, TestoGel, others
Other names| Androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one
AHFS/Drugs.com| Monograph
MedlinePlus| a619028
License data|

* US DailyMed: Testosterone

Pregnancy
category|

* AU: D[2]
* Contraindicated due to teratogenic effects

Dependence
liability| Moderate [3]
Addiction
liability| Moderate [3]
Routes of
administration| intramuscular, transdermal (gel, cream, patch, solution) oral, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, vaginal (cream, gel, suppository), rectal (suppository), subcutaneous injection (oil solution, aqueous suspension), subcutaneous implant (pellet)
Drug class| Androgen, anabolic steroid
ATC code|

* G03BA03 (WHO)

Legal status
Legal status|

* AU: [citation needed]
* BR: Class C5 (Anabolic steroids)[5]
* CA: Schedule IV[citation needed]
* DE: [citation needed]
* NZ: [citation needed]
* UK: Class C[citation needed]
* US: WARNING[4]Schedule III[citation needed]
* UN: [citation needed]
* EU: Rx-only[6][7]
* Rx-only[citation needed]

Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability| Oral: very low (due to extensive first pass metabolism)
Protein binding| 97.0–99.5% (to SHBGTooltip sex hormone-binding globulin and albumin)[8]
Metabolism| Liver (mainly reduction and conjugation)
Elimination half-life| 2–4 hours[citation needed]
Excretion| Urine (90%), feces (6%)
Identifiers

IUPAC name

* (8R,9S,10R,13S,14S,17S)-17-hydroxy-10,13-dimethyl-1,2,6,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one

CAS Number|

* 58-22-0 Y
57-85-2 (propionate)
315-37-7 (enanthate)
58-20-8 (cypionate)
5949-44-0 (undecanoate)

PubChem CID|

* 6013

IUPHAR/BPS|

* 2858

DrugBank|

* DB00624 Y

ChemSpider|

* 5791 Y

UNII|

* 3XMK78S47O

KEGG|

* D00075 Y

ChEBI|

* CHEBI:17347 Y

ChEMBL|

* ChEMBL386630 Y

Chemical and physical data
Formula| C19H28O2
Molar mass| 288.431 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)|

* Interactive image

Specific rotation| +110.2°
Melting point| 155 °C (311 °F)

SMILES

* O=C4\C=C2/[C@]([C@H]1CC[C@@]3([C@@H](O)CC[C@H]3[C@@H]1CC2)C)(C)CC4

InChI

* InChI=1S/C19H28O2/c1-18-9-7-13(20)11-12(18)3-4-14-15-5-6-17(21)19(15,2)10-8-16(14)18/h11,14-17,21H,3-10H2,1-2H3/t14-,15-,16-,17-,18-,19-/m0/s1 Y

* Key:MUMGGOZAMZWBJJ-DYKIIFRCSA-N Y

(verify)

Testosterone (T) is a medication and naturally occurring steroid hormone.[9] It is used to treat male hypogonadism, gender dysphoria, and certain types of breast cancer.[9][10] It may also be used to increase athletic ability in the form of doping.[9] It is unclear if the use of testosterone for low levels due to aging is beneficial or harmful.[11] Testosterone can be used as a gel or transdermal patch that is applied to the skin topically, intramuscular injection (IM), buccally (a tablet dissolved between the gum and cheek inside the mouth), or as an oral tablet (tablet swallowed by mouth).[9]

Common side effects of testosterone include acne, swelling, and breast enlargement in men.[9] Serious side effects may include liver toxicity, heart disease, and behavioral changes.[9] Women and children who are exposed may develop masculinization.[9] It is recommended that individuals with prostate cancer should not use the medication.[9] It can cause harm to the baby if used during pregnancy or breastfeeding.[9] Testosterone is in the androgen family of medications.[9]

Testosterone was first isolated in 1935, and approved for medical use in 1939.[12][13] Rates of use have increased three times in the United States between 2001 and 2011.[14] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[15] It is available as a generic medication.[9] In 2021, it was the 143rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4 million prescriptions.[16][17]

## Medical uses

[edit]

See also: Androgen replacement therapy § Medical uses, and Anabolic steroid § Medical

The primary use of testosterone is the treatment of males with too little or no natural testosterone production, also termed male hypogonadism or hypoandrogenism (androgen deficiency).[18] This treatment is referred to as hormone replacement therapy (HRT), or alternatively, and more specifically, as testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) or androgen replacement therapy (ART). It is used to maintain serum testosterone levels in the normal male range. Decline of testosterone production with age has led to interest in testosterone supplementation.[19]

A 2020 guideline from the American College of Physicians supports the discussion of testosterone in adult men with age-related low levels of testosterone who have sexual dysfunction. They recommend yearly evaluation regarding possible improvement and, if none, to discontinue testosterone; physicians should consider intramuscular treatments, rather than transdermal treatments, due to costs and since the effectiveness and harm of either method is similar. Testosterone treatment for reasons other than possible improvement of sexual dysfunction may not be recommended.[20][21]

### Deficiency

[edit]

Further information: Hypogonadism § Treatment, and Androgen deficiency § Treatment

Testosterone deficiency (also termed hypotestosteronism or hypotestosteronemia) is an abnormally low testosterone production. It may occur because of testicular dysfunction (primary hypogonadism) or hypothalamic–pituitary dysfunction (secondary hypogonadism) and may be congenital or acquired.[22]

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Androgen replacement therapy formulations and dosages used in men  Route | Medication | Major brand names | Form | Dosage

|
|
|
|

Oral | Testosteronea | – | Tablet | 400–800 mg/day (in divided doses)
Testosterone undecanoate | Andriol, Jatenzo | Capsule | 40–80 mg/2–4x day (with meals)
Methyltestosteroneb | Android, Metandren, Testred | Tablet | 10–50 mg/day
Fluoxymesteroneb | Halotestin, Ora-Testryl, Ultandren | Tablet | 5–20 mg/day
Metandienoneb | Dianabol | Tablet | 5–15 mg/day
Mesteroloneb | Proviron | Tablet | 25–150 mg/day
Sublingual | Testosteroneb | Testoral | Tablet | 5–10 mg 1–4x/day
Methyltestosteroneb | Metandren, Oreton Methyl | Tablet | 10–30 mg/day
Buccal | Testosterone | Striant | Tablet | 30 mg 2x/day
Methyltestosteroneb | Metandren, Oreton Methyl | Tablet | 5–25 mg/day
Transdermal | Testosterone | AndroGel, Testim, TestoGel | Gel | 25–125 mg/day
Androderm, AndroPatch, TestoPatch | Non-scrotal patch | 2.5–15 mg/day
Testoderm | Scrotal patch | 4–6 mg/day
Axiron | Axillary solution | 30–120 mg/day
Androstanolone (DHT) | Andractim | Gel | 100–250 mg/day
Rectal | Testosterone | Rektandron, Testosteronb | Suppository | 40 mg 2–3x/day
Injection (IMTooltip intramuscular injection or SCTooltip subcutaneous injection) | Testosterone | Andronaq, Sterotate, Virosterone | Aqueous suspension | 10–50 mg 2–3x/week
Testosterone propionateb | Testoviron | Oil solution | 10–50 mg 2–3x/week
Testosterone enanthate | Delatestryl | Oil solution | 50–250 mg 1x/1–4 weeks
Xyosted | Auto-injector | 50–100 mg 1x/week
Testosterone cypionate | Depo-Testosterone | Oil solution | 50–250 mg 1x/1–4 weeks
Testosterone isobutyrate | Agovirin Depot | Aqueous suspension | 50–100 mg 1x/1–2 weeks
Testosterone phenylacetateb | Perandren, Androject | Oil solution | 50–200 mg 1x/3–5 weeks
Mixed testosterone esters | Sustanon 100, Sustanon 250 | Oil solution | 50–250 mg 1x/2–4 weeks
Testosterone undecanoate | Aveed, Nebido | Oil solution | 750–1,000 mg 1x/10–14 weeks
Testosterone buciclatea | – | Aqueous suspension | 600–1,000 mg 1x/12–20 weeks
Implant | Testosterone | Testopel | Pellet | 150–1,200 mg/3–6 months
Notes: Men produce about 3 to 11 mg of testosterone per day (mean 7 mg/day in young men). Footnotes: a = Never marketed. b = No longer used and/or no longer marketed. Sources: See template.

### Low levels due to aging

[edit]

Main article: Late-onset hypogonadism § Management

Testosterone levels may decline gradually with age.[23][24] The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated in 2015 that neither the benefits nor the safety of testosterone supplement have been established for low testosterone levels due to aging.[11] The FDA has required that labels on testosterone include warnings about increased risk of heart attacks and stroke.[11]

### Transgender men

[edit]

Further information: Transgender hormone therapy (female-to-male)

To take advantage of its virilizing effects, testosterone is administered to transgender men and other transmasculine individuals as part of masculinizing hormone therapy,[25] titrated to clinical effect with a "target level" of the average male's testosterone level.[26]

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Medications and dosages used in transgender men[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] Medication  | Brand name  | Type  | Route  | Dosage[a]

|
|
|
|

Testosterone undecanoate | Andriol, Jatenzo | Androgen | Oral | 40–80 mg up to three times/day
Testosterone  | Striant | Androgen | Buccal | 30mg twice daily
Natesto | Androgen | Nasal spray | 11mg three times daily
AndroGel[b] | Androgen | TD gel | 25–100mg/day
Androderm[b] | Androgen | TD patch | 2.5–10mg/day
Axiron | Androgen | TD liquid | 30–120mg/day
Testopel | Androgen | SC | 150–600mg every 3–6 months
Testosterone enanthate | Delatestryl[b] | Androgen | IM, SC | 50–100mg once/week or
100–250mg every 2–4 wks
Testosterone cypionate | Depo-Test[b] | Androgen | IM, SC | 50–100mg once/week or
100–250mg every 2–4 wks
Testosterone isobutyrate | Agovirin Depot | Androgen | IM, SC | 50–100mg once/week
Mixed testosterone esters | Sustanon 250[b] | Androgen | IM, SC | 250mg every 2–3 wks or
500mg every 3–6 wks
Testosterone undecanoate | Aveed[b] | Androgen | IM, SC | 750–1,000mg every 10–14 wks
Nandrolone decanoate | Deca-Durabolin | Androgen | IM, SC | ?[36]
GnRH analogues | Various | GnRH modulator | Various | Variable
Elagolix | Orilissa | GnRH antagonist | Oral | 150mg/day or 200mg twice/day
Medroxyprogesterone acetate[c] | Provera[b] | Progestin | Oral | 5–10mg/day
Depo-Provera[b] | Progestin | IM | 150mg every 3 months
Depo-SubQ Provera 104 | Progestin | SC | 104mg every 3 months
Lynestrenol[c] | Orgametril[b] | Progestin | Oral | 5–10mg/day
Finasteride[d] | Propecia[b] | 5αR inhibitor | Oral | 1mg/day
Dutasteride[d] | Avodart | 5αR inhibitor | Oral | 0.5mg/day

1. ^ The natural production of testosterone by the male testes is between 3 and 11 mg per day.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Also available under other brand names.
3. ^ a b For suppression of menses.
4. ^ a b For prevention/treatment of scalp hair loss.

### Women

[edit]

Testosterone therapy is effective in the short-term for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) in women.[37] However, its long-term safety is unclear.[37] Because of a lack data to support its efficacy and safety, the Endocrine Society recommends against the routine use of testosterone in women to treat low androgen levels due to hypopituitarism, adrenal insufficiency, surgical removal of the ovaries, high-dose corticosteroid therapy, or other causes.[37] Similarly, because of a lack of data to support its efficacy and safety, the Endocrine Society recommends against the use of testosterone in women to improve general well-being, to treat infertility, sexual dysfunction due to causes other than HSDD, or to improve cognitive, cardiovascular, metabolic, and/or bone health.[37]

A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis of 35 studies consisting of over 5,000 postmenopausal women with normal adrenal gland function found that testosterone therapy was associated with significant improvement in a variety of domains of sexual function.[38] These domains included frequency of sexual activity, orgasm, arousal, and sexual satisfaction, among others.[38] Women who were menopausal due to ovariectomy showed significantly greater improvement in sexual function with testosterone relative to those who had normal menopause.[38] In addition to beneficial effects on sexual function, testosterone was associated with unfavorable changes in blood lipids.[38] These included decreased levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and increased levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.[38] However, the changes were small in magnitude, and the long-term significance in relation to cardiovascular outcomes is uncertain.[38] The changes were more pronounced with oral testosterone undecanoate than with parenteral routes, such as transdermal testosterone.[38] Testosterone showed no significant effect on depressed mood anxiety, bone mineral density (BMD), or anthropomorphic measures like body weight or body mass index.[38] Conversely, it was associated with a significant incidence of androgenic side effects, including acne and hirsutism (excessive facial/body hair growth).[38] Other androgenic side effects, such as weight gain, pattern hair loss, and voice deepening, were also reported in some trials, but were excluded from analyses due to insufficient data.[38] The overall quality of the evidence was rated as low and was considered to be inconclusive in certain areas, for instance on long-term safety.[38]

A subsequent 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of studies including over 3,000 postmenopausal women with HSDD similarly found that short-term transdermal testosterone therapy was effective in improving multiple domains of sexual function.[39] Androgenic adverse effects such as acne and hirsutism were significantly greater in incidence with testosterone therapy, whereas no significant differences in "increase in facial hair, alopecia, voice deepening, urinary symptoms, breast pain, headache, site reaction to the patch, total adverse events, serious adverse events, reasons for withdrawal from the study, and the number of women who completed the study" were seen relative to controls.[39]

Although testosterone has been found to be effective at improving sexual function in postmenopausal women, the doses employed have been supraphysiological.[40][41] In contrast to these high doses, there is little support for the notion that testosterone is a critical hormone for sexual desire and function in women under normal physiological circumstances.[40][41] Low doses of testosterone resulting in physiological levels of testosterone (<50 ng/dL) have not been found to significantly increase sexual desire or function in women in most studies.[40] Similarly, there appears to be little or no relationship between total or free testosterone levels in the normal physiological range and sexual desire in premenopausal women.[41][40] Only high doses of testosterone resulting in supraphysiological levels of testosterone (>50 ng/dL) significantly increase sexual desire in women, with levels of testosterone of 80 to 150 ng/dL "slightly" increasing sex drive.[40][41] In accordance, men experience sexual dysfunction at testosterone levels of below 300 ng/dL, and men that have levels of testosterone of approximately 200 ng/dL frequently experience such problems.[41] The high doses of testosterone required to increase sexual desire in women may have a significant risk of masculinization with long-term therapy.[41][40] For this reason, and due to the unknown health effects and safety of testosterone therapy, its use may be inappropriate.[41][40] In 2003, the FDA rejected Intrinsa, a 300 μg/day testosterone patch for the treatment of sexual dysfunction in postmenopausal women.[40][41] The reasons cited were limited efficacy (about one additional sexually satisfying event per month), concerns about safety and potential adverse effects with long-term therapy, and concerns about inappropriate off-label use.[40][41] It appears that in women, rather than testosterone, estradiol may be the most important hormone involved in sexual desire, although data on the clinical use of estradiol to increase sexual desire in women is limited.[40][42][43]

There are no testosterone products approved for use in women in the United States and many other countries.[44] There are approved testosterone products for women in Australia, where it is considered a drug of dependence, medicines that are subject to misuse and trafficking, [45] and some European countries.[44] Testosterone pellet implants are approved for use in postmenopausal women in the United Kingdom.[46][47] Testosterone products for men can be used off-label in women in the United States.[44] Alternatively, testosterone products for women are available from compounding pharmacies in the United States, although such products are unregulated and manufacturing quality is not ensured.[48]

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Androgen replacement therapy formulations and dosages used in women  Route | Medication | Major brand names | Form | Dosage

|
|
|
|

Oral | Testosterone undecanoate | Andriol, Jatenzo | Capsule | 40–80 mg 1x/1–2 days
Methyltestosterone | Metandren, Estratest | Tablet | 0.5–10 mg/day
Fluoxymesterone | Halotestin | Tablet | 1–2.5 mg 1x/1–2 days
Normethandronea | Ginecoside | Tablet | 5 mg/day
Tibolone | Livial | Tablet | 1.25–2.5 mg/day
Prasterone (DHEA)b | – | Tablet | 10–100 mg/day
Sublingual | Methyltestosterone | Metandren | Tablet | 0.25 mg/day
Transdermal | Testosterone | Intrinsa | Patch | 150–300 μg/day
AndroGel | Gel, cream | 1–10 mg/day
Vaginal | Prasterone (DHEA) | Intrarosa | Insert | 6.5 mg/day
Injection | Testosterone propionatea | Testoviron | Oil solution | 25 mg 1x/1–2 weeks
Testosterone enanthate | Delatestryl, Primodian Depot | Oil solution | 25–100 mg 1x/4–6 weeks
Testosterone cypionate | Depo-Testosterone, Depo-Testadiol | Oil solution | 25–100 mg 1x/4–6 weeks
Testosterone isobutyratea | Femandren M, Folivirin | Aqueous suspension | 25–50 mg 1x/4–6 weeks
Mixed testosterone esters | Climacterona | Oil solution | 150 mg 1x/4–8 weeks
Omnadren, Sustanon | Oil solution | 50–100 mg 1x/4–6 weeks
Nandrolone decanoate | Deca-Durabolin | Oil solution | 25–50 mg 1x/6–12 weeks
Prasterone enanthatea | Gynodian Depot | Oil solution | 200 mg 1x/4–6 weeks
Implant | Testosterone | Testopel | Pellet | 50–100 mg 1x/3–6 months
Notes: Premenopausal women produce about 230 ± 70 μg testosterone per day (6.4 ± 2.0 mg testosterone per 4 weeks), with a range of 130 to 330 μg per day (3.6–9.2 mg per 4 weeks). Footnotes: a = Mostly discontinued or unavailable. b = Over-the-counter. Sources: See template.

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Androgen/anabolic steroid dosages for breast cancer  Route | Medication | Form | Dosage

|
|
|

Oral | Methyltestosterone | Tablet | 30–200 mg/day
Fluoxymesterone | Tablet | 10–40 mg 3x/day
Calusterone | Tablet | 40–80 mg 4x/day
Normethandrone | Tablet | 40 mg/day
Buccal | Methyltestosterone | Tablet | 25–100 mg/day
Injection (IMTooltip intramuscular injection or SCTooltip subcutaneous injection) | Testosterone propionate | Oil solution | 50–100 mg 3x/week
Testosterone enanthate | Oil solution | 200–400 mg 1x/2–4 weeks
Testosterone cypionate | Oil solution | 200–400 mg 1x/2–4 weeks
Mixed testosterone esters | Oil solution | 250 mg 1x/week
Methandriol | Aqueous suspension | 100 mg 3x/week
Androstanolone (DHT) | Aqueous suspension | 300 mg 3x/week
Drostanolone propionate | Oil solution | 100 mg 1–3x/week
Metenolone enanthate | Oil solution | 400 mg 3x/week
Nandrolone decanoate | Oil solution | 50–100 mg 1x/1–3 weeks
Nandrolone phenylpropionate | Oil solution | 50–100 mg/week
Note: Dosages are not necessarily equivalent. Sources: See template.

### Available forms

[edit]

Androderm testosterone skin patch

Testosterone has been marketed for use by oral, sublingual, buccal, intranasal, transdermal (patches), topical (gels), intramuscular (injection), and subcutaneous (implant) administration.[49][50][51][52] It is provided unmodified and as a testosterone ester such as testosterone cypionate, testosterone enanthate, testosterone propionate, or testosterone undecanoate, which act as prodrugs of testosterone.[49][50][51] The most common route of administration for testosterone is by intramuscular injection.[49] However, it has been reported that AndroGel, a transdermal gel formulation of testosterone, has become the most popular form of testosterone in androgen replacement therapy for hypogonadism in the United States.[50]

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Available forms of testosterone[a] Route  | Ingredient  | Form  | Dose[b] | Brand names[c]

|
|
|
|

Oral | Test. undecanoate | Capsule | 40 mg | Andriol, Jatenzo
Sublingual | Testosterone | Tablet | 10 mg | Testoral
Buccal | Testosterone | Tablet | 30 mg | Striant
Intranasal | Testosterone | Nasal gel | 5.5 mg/spray, 120 sprays | Natesto
Transdermal | Testosterone | Non-scrotal patch | 2.5, 4, 5, 6 mg/day | Androderm
Non-scrotal patch | 150, 300 μg/day | Intrinsa
Scrotal patch[d] | 4, 6 mg/day | Testoderm
Topical gel | 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 mg/pump | AndroGel, Testim
Axillary solution | 30 mg/pump | Axiron
Rectal | Testosterone | Suppository | 40 mg | Rektandron
Injection[e] | Test. enanthate | Oil solution | 50, 100, 180, 200, 250 mg/mL | Delatestryl
Test. cypionate | Oil solution | 50, 100, 200, 250 mg/mL | Depo-Testosterone
Mixed test. esters[f] | Oil solution | 100, 250 mg/mL | Sustanon
Test. undecanoate | Oil solution | 750, 1000 mg | Aveed, Nebido
Implant | Testosterone | Pellet | 50, 75, 100, 200 mg | Testopel

Footnotes and sources:

1. ^ This table does not include combination products with other medications/hormones. The availability of specific products may vary by country - see Testosterone (medication) § Availability.
2. ^ These dosages may be given at varying frequencies - dosages listed are "each" (ex: per tablet, per spray, etc) and not indicative of total daily dose or equivalent.
3. ^ Other brand names may be currently or historically marketed.
4. ^ Potentially discontinued.
5. ^ May be by intramuscular injection or subcutaneous injection.
6. ^ Combination of testosterone propionate, testosterone phenylpropionate, testosterone isocaproate, and testosterone decanoate.

Sources: [53][54][55][56][57][50][58][59][60][61][52][62][63][64]

## Non-medical use

[edit]

### Athletics

[edit]

See also: Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids and Anabolic–androgenic steroids abuse

Testosterone is used as a form of doping among athletes in order to improve performance.[65] Testosterone is classified as an anabolic agent and is on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) List of Prohibited Substances and Methods.[65] Hormone supplements cause the endocrine system to adjust its production and lower the natural production of the hormone, so when supplements are discontinued, natural hormone production is lower than it was originally.[citation needed]

Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), including testosterone and its esters, have also been taken to enhance muscle development, strength, or endurance. They do so directly by increasing the muscles' protein synthesis. As a result, muscle fibers become larger and repair faster than the average person's.[citation needed]

After a series of scandals and publicity in the 1980s (such as Ben Johnson's improved performance at the 1988 Summer Olympics), prohibitions of AAS use were renewed or strengthened by many sports organizations. Testosterone and other AAS were designated a "controlled substance" by the United States Congress in 1990, with the Anabolic Steroid Control Act.[66] Their use is seen as an issue in modern sport, particularly given the lengths to which athletes and professional laboratories go to in trying to conceal such use from sports regulators. Steroid use once again came into the spotlight as a result of Canadian professional wrestler Chris Benoit's double murder-suicide in 2007; however, there is no evidence implicating steroid use as a factor in the incident.[citation needed]

Some female athletes may have naturally higher levels of testosterone than others, and may be asked to consent to sex verification and either surgery or drugs to decrease testosterone levels.[67] This has proven contentious, with the Court of Arbitration for Sport suspending the IAAF policy due to insufficient evidence of a link between high androgen levels and improved athletic performance.[68][69]

#### Detection of abuse

[edit]

A number of methods for detecting testosterone use by athletes have been employed, most based on a urine test. These include the testosterone/epitestosterone ratio (normally less than 6), the testosterone/luteinizing hormone ratio and the carbon-13/carbon-12 ratio (pharmaceutical testosterone contains less carbon-13 than endogenous testosterone). In some testing programs, an individual's own historical results may serve as a reference interval for interpretation of a suspicious finding. Another approach being investigated is the detection of the administered form of testosterone, usually an ester, in hair.[70][71][72][73]

## Contraindications

[edit]

Absolute contraindications of testosterone include prostate cancer, elevated hematocrit (>54%), uncontrolled congestive heart failure, various other cardiovascular diseases, and uncontrolled obstructive sleep apnea.[74] Breast cancer is said by some sources to be an absolute contraindication of testosterone therapy,[74] but androgens including testosterone have also actually been used to treat breast cancer.[75] Relative contraindications of testosterone include elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in men with a high risk of prostate cancer due to ethnicity or family history, severe lower urinary tract symptoms, and elevated hematocrit (>50%).[74]

## Side effects

[edit]

See also: Anabolic steroid § Adverse effects, and Androgen replacement therapy § Adverse effects

Adverse effects may also include minor side effects such as oily skin, acne, and seborrhea, as well as loss of scalp hair, which may be prevented or reduced with 5α-reductase inhibitors. In women, testosterone can produce hirsutism (excessive facial/body hair growth), deepening of the voice, and other signs of virilization. Exogenous testosterone may cause suppression of spermatogenesis in men, leading to, in some cases, reversible infertility.[76] Gynecomastia and breast tenderness may occur with high dosages of testosterone due to peripheral conversion of testosterone by aromatase into excessive amounts of the estrogen estradiol.[77] Testosterone treatment, particularly in high dosages, can also be associated with mood changes, increased aggression, increased sex drive, spontaneous erections, and nocturnal emissions.[78][79][80][81]

Other side effects include increased hematocrit, which can require venipuncture in order to treat, and exacerbation of sleep apnea.[82]

The FDA stated in 2015 that neither the benefits nor the safety of testosterone have been established for low testosterone levels due to aging.[11] The FDA has required that testosterone pharmaceutical labels include warning information about the possibility of an increased risk of heart attacks and stroke.[11] They have also required the label include concerns about abuse and dependence.[83]

Injectable forms of testosterone can cause a lung problem called pulmonary oil microembolism (POME). Symptoms of POME include cough, shortness of breath, tightening of the throat, chest pain, sweating, dizziness, and fainting.[84][85] A postmarketing analysis by the manufacturer of Aveed (testosterone undeconate injection) found that POME occurred at a rate of less than 1% per injection per year for Aveed.[86]

### Long-term adverse effects

[edit]

#### Cardiovascular disease

[edit]

See also: Testosterone and the cardiovascular system

Adverse effects of testosterone supplementation may include increased cardiovascular events (including strokes and heart attacks) and deaths based on three peer-reviewed studies involving men taking testosterone replacement.[87] In addition, an increase of 30% in deaths and heart attacks in older men has been reported.[88] Due to an increased incidence of adverse cardiovascular events compared to a placebo group, a Testosterone in Older Men with Mobility Limitations (TOM) trial (a National Institute of Aging randomized trial) was halted early by the Data Safety and Monitoring Committee.[89] On January 31, 2014, reports of strokes, heart attacks, and deaths in men taking FDA-approved testosterone-replacement led the FDA to announce that it would be investigating the issue.[90] Later, in September 2014, the FDA announced, as a result of the "potential for adverse cardiovascular outcomes", a review of the appropriateness and safety of Testosterone Replacement Therapy (TRT).[91][92][93] The FDA now requires warnings in the drug labeling of all approved testosterone products regarding deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.[94]

Up to the year 2010, studies had not shown any effect on the risk of death, prostate cancer or cardiovascular disease;[95][96] more recent[when?] studies, however, do raise concerns.[97] A 2013 study, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, reported "the use of testosterone therapy was significantly associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes." The study began after a previous, randomized, clinical trial of testosterone therapy in men was stopped prematurely "due to adverse cardiovascular events raising concerns about testosterone therapy safety."[88]

However, when given to men with hypogonadism in the short- and medium-term, testosterone replacement therapy does not increase the risk of cardiovascular events (including strokes and heart attacks and other heart diseases). The long-term safety of the therapy is not known yet.[98][99]

#### Benign prostatic hyperplasia

[edit]

Testosterone therapy for patients with late-onset hypogonadism, in addition to increasing risk of cardiovascular disease and prostate cancer, may exacerbate the risk factors associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia, a condition that involves the noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland, which can lead to urinary symptoms.[100]

#### Prostate cancer

[edit]

Testosterone in the presence of a slow-growing prostate cancer is assumed to increase its growth rate. However, the association between testosterone supplementation and the development of prostate cancer is unproven.[101] Nevertheless, physicians are cautioned about the cancer risk associated with testosterone supplementation.[102]

Testosterone may accelerate pre-existing prostate cancer growth in individuals who have undergone androgen deprivation.[82] It is recommended that physicians screen for prostate cancer with a digital rectal exam and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level before starting therapy, and monitor PSA and hematocrit levels closely during therapy.[23]

Ethnic groups have different rates of prostate cancer.[103] Differences in sex hormones, including testosterone, have been suggested as an explanation for these differences.[103] This apparent paradox can be resolved by noting that prostate cancer is very common. In autopsies, 80% of 80-year-old men have prostate cancer.[104]

### Pregnancy and breastfeeding

[edit]

Testosterone is contraindicated in pregnancy and not recommended during breastfeeding.[105] Androgens like testosterone are teratogens and are known to cause fetal harm, such as producing virilization and ambiguous genitalia.

## Interactions

[edit]

### 5α-Reductase inhibitors

[edit]

5α-Reductase inhibitors like finasteride and dutasteride can slightly increase circulating levels of testosterone by inhibiting its metabolism.[106] However, these drugs do this via prevention of the conversion of testosterone into its more potent metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and this results in dramatically reduced circulating levels of DHT (which circulates at much lower relative concentrations).[106][107] In addition, local levels of DHT in so-called androgenic (5α-reductase-expressing) tissues are also markedly reduced,[106][107] and this can have a strong impact on certain effects of testosterone.[51][108] For instance, growth of body and facial hair and penile growth induced by testosterone may be inhibited by 5α-reductase inhibitors, and this could be considered undesirable in the context of, for instance, puberty induction.[108][109] On the other hand, 5α-reductase inhibitors may prevent or reduce adverse androgenic side effects of testosterone like scalp hair loss, oily skin, acne, and seborrhea.[51] In addition to the prevention of testosterone conversion into DHT, 5α-reductase inhibitors also prevent the formation of neurosteroids like 3α-androstanediol from testosterone, and this may have neuropsychiatric consequences in some men.[110]

### Aromatase inhibitors

[edit]

Aromatase inhibitors like anastrozole prevent the conversion of testosterone into estradiol by aromatase.[51] As only a very small fraction of testosterone is converted into estradiol, this does not affect testosterone levels, but it can prevent estrogenic side effects like gynecomastia that can occur when testosterone is administered at relatively high dosages.[51] However, estradiol exerts negative feedback on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and, for this reason, prevention of its formation can reduce this feedback and disinhibit gonadal production of testosterone, which in turn can increase levels of endogenous testosterone.[111] Testosterone therapy is sometimes combined with an aromatase inhibitor for men with secondary hypogonadism who wish to conceive children with their partners.[112]

### Cytochrome P450 inhibitors

[edit]

Inhibitors and inducers of cytochrome P450 enzymes like CYP3A4 have been associated with little or no effect on circulating testosterone levels.[citation needed]

### Antiandrogens and estrogens

[edit]

Antiandrogens like cyproterone acetate, spironolactone, and bicalutamide can block the androgenic and anabolic effects of testosterone.[113][59] Estrogens can reduce the effects of testosterone by increasing the hepatic production and in turn circulating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), a carrier protein that binds to and occupies androgens like testosterone and DHT, and thereby reducing free concentrations of these androgens.[59][114]

## Pharmacology

[edit]

### Pharmacodynamics

[edit]

See also: Testosterone § Mechanism of action, and Anabolic steroid § Pharmacology

* v
* t
* e

Androgenic vs. anabolic activity ratio
of androgens/anabolic steroids  Medication | Ratioa

|

Testosterone | ~1:1
Androstanolone (DHT) | ~1:1
Methyltestosterone | ~1:1
Methandriol | ~1:1
Fluoxymesterone | 1:1–1:15
Metandienone | 1:1–1:8
Drostanolone | 1:3–1:4
Metenolone | 1:2–1:30
Oxymetholone | 1:2–1:9
Oxandrolone | 1:3–1:13
Stanozolol | 1:1–1:30
Nandrolone | 1:3–1:16
Ethylestrenol | 1:2–1:19
Norethandrolone | 1:1–1:20
Notes: In rodents. Footnotes: a = Ratio of androgenic to anabolic activity. Sources: See template.

Testosterone is a high affinity ligand for and agonist of the nuclear androgen receptor (AR). In addition, testosterone binds to and activates membrane androgen receptors (mARs) such as GPRC6A and ZIP9. Testosterone is also potentiated via transformation by 5α-reductase into the more potent androgen DHT in so-called androgenic tissues such as the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, skin, and hair follicles. In contrast to the case of testosterone, such potentiation occurs to a reduced extent or not at all with most synthetic AAS (as well as with DHT), and this is primarily responsible for the dissociation of anabolic and androgenic effects with these agents.[115] In addition to DHT, testosterone is converted at a rate of approximately 0.3% into the estrogen estradiol via aromatase.[116] This occurs in many tissues, especially adipose tissue, the liver, and the brain, but primarily in adipose tissue.[116] Testosterone, after conversion into DHT, is also metabolized into 3α-androstanediol, a neurosteroid and potent positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, and 3β-androstanediol, a potent and preferential agonist of the ERβ.[117] These metabolites, along with estradiol, may be involved in a number of the effects of testosterone in the brain, including its antidepressant, anxiolytic, stress-relieving, rewarding, and pro-sexual effects.[117] Whereas testosterone produced both anabolic and androgenic effects, despite the lack of clear boundaries between these effects, as there is a great deal of mutual overlap between them,[118] the relative potency of these effects exerted by testosterone can depend on various factors and is a topic of ongoing research.[119][120]

#### Effects in the body and brain

[edit]

The ARs are expressed widely throughout the body, including in the penis, testicles, epididymides, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, fat, skin, bone, bone marrow, muscle, larynx, heart, liver, kidneys, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and elsewhere throughout the brain.[121][122] Through activation of the ARs (as well as the mARs), testosterone has many effects, including the following:[121][49][additional citation(s) needed]

* Promotes growth, function, and maintenance of the prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and penis during puberty and thereafter
* Promotes growth and maintenance of muscles, particularly of the upper body
* Causes subcutaneous fat to be deposited in a masculine pattern and decreases overall body fat
* Suppresses breast development induced by estrogens, but can also still produce gynecomastia via excessive conversion into estradiol if levels are too high
* Maintains skin health, integrity, appearance, and hydration and slows the rate of aging of the skin, but can also cause oily skin, acne, and seborrhea
* Promotes the growth of facial and body hair, but can also cause scalp hair loss and hirsutism
* Contributes to bone growth and causes broadening of the shoulders at puberty
* Modulates liver protein synthesis, such as the production of sex hormone-binding globulin and many other proteins
* Increases production of erythropoietin in the kidneys and thereby stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow and elevates hematocrit
* Exerts negative feedback on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis by suppressing the secretion of the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, thereby inhibiting gonadal sex hormone production as well as spermatogenesis and fertility
* Regulates the vasomotor system and body temperature via the hypothalamus, thereby preventing hot flashes
* Modulates brain function, with effects on mood, emotionality, aggression, and sexuality, as well as cognition and memory
* Increases sex drive and erectile capacity and causes spontaneous erections and nocturnal emissions
* Increases the risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia and accelerates the progression of prostate cancer
* Decreases breast proliferation and the risk of breast cancer

### Pharmacokinetics

[edit]

Main article: Pharmacokinetics of testosterone

See also: Testosterone (patch) and Androgen ester § Testosterone esters

Testosterone can be taken by a variety of different routes of administration.[123] These include oral, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, transdermal (gels, creams, patches), rectal suppositories), by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection (in oil or aqueous), and as a subcutaneous implant.[123] The pharmacokinetics of testosterone, including its bioavailability, circulating testosterone levels, metabolism, biological half-life, and other parameters, differ by route of administration.[123]

## Chemistry

[edit]

Testosterone is a naturally occurring androstane steroid and is also known by the chemical name androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one.[124] It has a double bond between the C4 and C5 positions (making it an androstene), a ketone group at the C3 position, and a hydroxyl (alcohol) group at the C17β position.[124]

### Derivatives

[edit]

See also: Androgen ester § Testosterone esters, and List of androgens/anabolic steroids

Testosterone esters are substituted at the C17β position with a lipophilic fatty acid ester moiety of varying chain length.[125] Major testosterone esters include testosterone cypionate, testosterone enanthate, testosterone propionate, and testosterone undecanoate.[59][124][126] A C17β ether prodrug of testosterone, cloxotestosterone acetate, has also been marketed, although it is little known and is used very rarely or no longer.[124] Another C17β ether prodrug of testosterone, silandrone, also exists but was never marketed, and is notable in that it is orally active.[124] In addition to ester and ether prodrugs, androgen prohormones or precursors of testosterone, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenediol, and androstenedione, exist as well, and convert into testosterone to variable extents upon oral ingestion.[127] Unlike testosterone ester and ether prodrugs however, these prohormones are only weakly androgenic/anabolic.[127]

All synthetic AAS are derivatives of testosterone.[127] Prominent examples include nandrolone (19-nortestosterone), metandienone (17α-methyl-δ1-testosterone), and stanozolol (a 17α-alkylated derivative of DHT). Unlike testosterone, AAS that are 17α-alkylated, like metandienone and stanozolol, are orally active. This is due to steric hindrance of C17β-position metabolism during the first-pass through the liver. In contrast, most AAS that are not 17α-alkylated, like nandrolone, are not active orally, and must instead be administered via intramuscular injection. This is almost always in ester form; for instance, in the case of nandrolone, as nandrolone decanoate or nandrolone phenylpropionate.

* v
* t
* e

Structural properties of major testosterone esters Androgen | Structure | Ester | Relative
mol. weight | Relative
T contentb | logPc

|
|
|
|
|

Position(s) | Moiet(ies) | Type | Lengtha
Testosterone |  | – | – | – | – | 1.00 | 1.00 | 3.0–3.4
Testosterone propionate |  | C17β | Propanoic acid | Straight-chain fatty acid | 3 | 1.19 | 0.84 | 3.7–4.9
Testosterone isobutyrate |  | C17β | Isobutyric acid | Branched-chain fatty acid | – (~3) | 1.24 | 0.80 | 4.9–5.3
Testosterone isocaproate |  | C17β | Isohexanoic acid | Branched-chain fatty acid | – (~5) | 1.34 | 0.75 | 4.4–6.3
Testosterone caproate |  | C17β | Hexanoic acid | Straight-chain fatty acid | 6 | 1.35 | 0.75 | 5.8–6.5
Testosterone phenylpropionate |  | C17β | Phenylpropanoic acid | Aromatic fatty acid | – (~6) | 1.46 | 0.69 | 5.8–6.5
Testosterone cypionate |  | C17β | Cyclopentylpropanoic acid | Cyclic carboxylic acid | – (~6) | 1.43 | 0.70 | 5.1–7.0
Testosterone enanthate |  | C17β | Heptanoic acid | Straight-chain fatty acid | 7 | 1.39 | 0.72 | 3.6–7.0
Testosterone decanoate |  | C17β | Decanoic acid | Straight-chain fatty acid | 10 | 1.53 | 0.65 | 6.3–8.6
Testosterone undecanoate |  | C17β | Undecanoic acid | Straight-chain fatty acid | 11 | 1.58 | 0.63 | 6.7–9.2
Testosterone buciclated |  | C17β | Bucyclic acide | Cyclic carboxylic acid | – (~9) | 1.58 | 0.63 | 7.9–8.5
Footnotes: a = Length of ester in carbon atoms for straight-chain fatty acids or approximate length of ester in carbon atoms for aromatic or cyclic fatty acids. b = Relative testosterone content by weight (i.e., relative androgenic/anabolic potency). c = Experimental or predicted octanol/water partition coefficient (i.e., lipophilicity/hydrophobicity). Retrieved from PubChem, ChemSpider, and DrugBank. d = Never marketed. e = Bucyclic acid = trans-4-Butylcyclohexane-1-carboxylic acid. Sources: See individual articles.

## History

[edit]

See also: Testosterone § History, and Anabolic steroid § History

Testosterone was first isolated and synthesized in 1935.[128] Shortly thereafter, in 1937, testosterone first became commercially available as a pharmaceutical drug in the form of pellets and then in ester form for intramuscular injection as the relatively short-acting testosterone propionate.[51][49][129] Methyltestosterone, one of the first synthetic AAS and orally active androgens, was introduced in 1935, but was associated with hepatotoxicity and eventually became largely medically obsolete.[129] In the mid-1950s, the longer-acting testosterone esters testosterone enanthate and testosterone cypionate were introduced.[129] They largely superseded testosterone propionate and became the major testosterone esters used medically for over half a century.[129] In the 1970s, testosterone undecanoate was introduced for oral use in Europe,[129] although intramuscular testosterone undecanoate had already been in use in China for several years.[130] Intramuscular testosterone undecanoate was not introduced in Europe and the United States until much later (in the early to mid 2000s and 2014, respectively).[8][131]

The history of testosterone as a medication has been reviewed.[132][133][134][135]

## Society and culture

[edit]

See also: Androgen replacement therapy § Society and culture, and Anabolic steroid § Society and culture

### Usage

[edit]

In the US in the 2000s, companies and figures in the popular media have heavily marketed notions of "andropause" as something parallel to menopause; these notions have been rejected by the medical community.[136][137] Additionally, advertising from drug companies selling testosterone and human growth hormone, as well as dietary supplement companies selling all kinds of "boosters" for aging men, have emphasized the "need" of middle-aged or ageing men for testosterone.[138] There is a medical condition called late-onset hypogonadism; according to Thomas Perls and David J. Handelsman, writing in a 2015 editorial in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, it appears that this condition is overdiagnosed and overtreated.[138] Perls and Handelsman note that in the US, "sales of testosterone increased from $324 million in 2002 to $2 billion in 2012, and the number of testosterone doses prescribed climbed from 100 million in 2007 to half a billion in 2012, not including the additional contributions from compounding pharmacies, Internet, and direct-to-patient clinic sales."[138]

### Generic names

[edit]

Testosterone is the generic name of testosterone in English and Italian and the INNTooltip International Nonproprietary Name, USANTooltip United States Adopted Name, USPTooltip United States Pharmacopeia, BANTooltip BAN, and DCITTooltip Denominazione Comune Italiana of the drug, while testostérone is its French name and the DCFTooltip Dénomination Commune Française.[124][139][140] It is also referred to in Latin as testosteronum, in Spanish and Portuguese as testosterona, and in German, Dutch, and Russian and other Slavic languages as testosteron.[139][140] The Cyrillic script of testosterone is тестостерон.[141]

### Brand names

[edit]

A vial of Depo-Testosterone (testosterone cypionate in oil) for intramuscular injection

Testosterone is marketed under a large number of brand names throughout the world.[139] Major brand names of testosterone and/or its esters include Andriol, Androderm, AndroGel, Axiron, Delatestryl, Depo-Testosterone, Intrinsa, Nebido, Omnadren, Primoteston, Sustanon, Testim, TestoGel, TestoPatch, Testoviron, and Tostran.[59][115][139]

### Availability

[edit]

#### United States

[edit]

See also: List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States § Testosterone and esters

As of November 2016[update], unmodified (non-esterified) testosterone is available in the United States in the following formulations:[57]

* Topical gels: AndroGel, Fortesta, Testim, Testosterone (generic)
* Topical solutions: Axiron, Testosterone (generic)
* Transdermal patches: Androderm, Testoderm (discontinued), Testoderm TTS (discontinued), Testosterone (generic)
* Intranasal gels: Natesto
* Buccal tablets: Striant
* Pellet implants: Testopel

And the following ester prodrugs of testosterone are available in the United States in oil solutions for intramuscular injection:[57]

* Testosterone cypionate: Depo-Testosterone, Testosterone Cypionate (generic)
* Testosterone enanthate: Delatestryl, Xyosted (auto-injector), Testosterone Enanthate (generic)
* Testosterone propionate: Testosterone Propionate (generic)
* Testosterone undecanoate: Aveed

Unmodified testosterone was also formerly available for intramuscular injection but was discontinued.[57]

Testosterone cypionate and testosterone enanthate were formerly available in combination with estradiol cypionate and estradiol valerate, respectively, under the brand names Depo-Testadiol and Ditate-DS, respectively, as oil solutions for intramuscular injection, but these formulations have been discontinued.[57]

Unlike in Europe, Canada, and much of the rest of the world, oral testosterone undecanoate is not available in the United States.[57]

[142][143]

#### Canada

[edit]

As of November 2016[update], testosterone is available in Canada in the form of topical gels (AndroGel, Testim), topical solutions (Axiron), transdermal patches (Androderm), and intranasal gels (Natesto).[144] Testosterone cypionate (Depo-Testosterone, Testosterone Cypionate (generic)), testosterone enanthate (Delatestryl, PMS-Testosterone Enanthate), and testosterone propionate (Testosterone Propionate (generic)) are available as oil solutions for intramuscular injection and testosterone undecanoate (Andriol, PMS-Testosterone, Taro-Testosterone) is available in the form of oral capsules.[144] Testosterone buccal tablets and pellet implants do not appear to be available in Canada.[144]

#### Other countries

[edit]

Testosterone and/or its esters are widely available in countries throughout the world in a variety of formulations.[139]

### Legal status

[edit]

See also: Anabolic steroid § Legal status

Testosterone and its esters, along with other AAS, are prescription-only controlled substances in many countries throughout the world. In the United States, they are Schedule III drugs under the Controlled Substances Act, in Canada, they are Schedule IV drugs under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, and in the United Kingdom, they are Class C drugs under the Misuse of Drugs Act.[145][146]

### Litigation

[edit]

As of 2014[update], a number of lawsuits are underway against manufacturers of testosterone, alleging a significantly increased rate of stroke and heart attack in elderly men who use testosterone supplementation.[147][needs update]

### Doping in sports

[edit]

See also: List of doping in sport cases § Testosterone and esters

There are many known cases of doping in sports with testosterone and its esters by professional athletes.

## Research

[edit]

### Depression

[edit]

Testosterone has been used to treat depression in men who are of middle age with low testosterone. However, a 2014 review showed no benefit on the mood of the men with normal levels of testosterone or on the mood of the older men with low testosterone.[148] Conversely, a 2009 review found that testosterone had an antidepressant effect in men with depression, especially those with hypogonadism, HIV/AIDS, and in the elderly.[149]

### Heart failure

[edit]

Testosterone replacement can significantly improve exercise capacity, muscle strength and reduce QT intervals in men with chronic heart failure (CHF). Over the 3 to 6-month course of the studies reviewed, testosterone therapy appeared safe and generally effective, and (ruling out prostate cancer) the authors found no justification to absolutely restrict its use in men with CHF.[150] A similar 2012 review also found increased exercise capacity and reasoned the benefits generlizable to women.[151] However, both reviews advocate larger, longer term, randomized controlled trials.[150][151]

### Male contraception

[edit]

Testosterone, as esters such as testosterone undecanoate or testosterone buciclate, has been studied and promoted as a male contraceptive analogous to estrogen-based contraceptives in women. Otherwise considered an adverse effect of testosterone, reduced spermatogenesis can be further suppressed with the addition of a progestin such as norethisterone enanthate or levonorgestrel butanoate, improving the contraceptive effect.[152][153]

### Anorgasmia

[edit]

See also: List of investigational sexual dysfunction drugs

Testosterone is under development in a low-dose intranasal formulation for the treatment of anorgasmia in women.[154]

### Miscellaneous

[edit]

Testosterone therapy may improve the management of type 2 diabetes.[155] Low testosterone has been associated with the development of Alzheimer's disease.[156][157]

Topical androgens like testosterone have been used and studied in the treatment of cellulite in women.[158]

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[edit]

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147. ^ Harris A (February 5, 2014). "Abbott Labs Sued by Five Men Claiming Androgel Injuries". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, L.P. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
148. ^ Amanatkar HR, Chibnall JT, Seo BW, Manepalli JN, Grossberg GT (February 2014). "Impact of exogenous testosterone on mood: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials". Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 26 (1): 19–32. PMID 24501728.[permanent dead link]
149. ^ Zarrouf FA, Artz S, Griffith J, Sirbu C, Kommor M (July 2009). "Testosterone and depression: systematic review and meta-analysis". J Psychiatr Pract. 15 (4): 289–305. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000358315.88931.fc. PMID 19625884. S2CID 205423837.
150. ^ a b Wang W, Jiang T, Li C, Chen J, Cao K, Qi LW, et al. (May 2016). "Will testosterone replacement therapy become a new treatment of chronic heart failure? A review based on 8 clinical trials". Journal of Thoracic Disease. 8 (5): E269–77. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.03.39. PMC 4842839. PMID 27162680.
151. ^ a b Toma M, McAlister FA, Coglianese EE, Vidi V, Vasaiwala S, Bakal JA, et al. (May 2012). "Testosterone Supplementation in Heart Failure: A Meta-Analysis". Circulation: Heart Failure. 5 (3): 315–21. doi:10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.965632. PMID 22511747.
152. ^ Wang C, Festin MP, Swerdloff RS (2016). "Male Hormonal Contraception: Where Are We Now?". Current Obstetrics and Gynecology Reports. 5: 38–47. doi:10.1007/s13669-016-0140-8. PMC 4762912. PMID 26949570.
153. ^ Chao JH, Page ST (July 2016). "The current state of male hormonal contraception". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 163: 109–17. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.03.012. PMID 27016468.
154. ^ "Testosterone intranasal (low-dose)". Archived from the original on September 6, 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
155. ^ Traish AM, Saad F, Guay A (2009). "The dark side of testosterone deficiency: II. Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance". Journal of Andrology. 30 (1): 23–32. doi:10.2164/jandrol.108.005751. PMID 18772488.
156. ^ Pike CJ, Rosario ER, Nguyen TV (April 2006). "Androgens, aging, and Alzheimer's disease". Endocrine. 29 (2): 233–41. doi:10.1385/ENDO:29:2:233. PMID 16785599. S2CID 13852805.
157. ^ Rosario ER, Chang L, Stanczyk FZ, Pike CJ (September 2004). "Age-related testosterone depletion and the development of Alzheimer disease". JAMA. 292 (12): 1431–32. doi:10.1001/jama.292.12.1431-b. PMID 15383512.
158. ^ Gruber CJ, Wieser F, Gruber IM, Ferlitsch K, Gruber DM, Huber JC (December 2002). "Current concepts in aesthetic endocrinology". Gynecol. Endocrinol. 16 (6): 431–41. doi:10.1080/gye.16.6.431.441. PMID 12626029. S2CID 37424524.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Nieschlag E, Behre JM, Nieschlag S (January 13, 2010). Andrology: Male Reproductive Health and Dysfunction. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-78355-8. Archived from the original on June 23, 2016. Retrieved November 13, 2016.
* Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Nieschlag S (July 26, 2012). Testosterone: Action, Deficiency, Substitution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01290-5. Archived from the original on April 14, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
* Hohl A (March 30, 2017). Testosterone: From Basic to Clinical Aspects. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-46086-4. Archived from the original on April 14, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
* Nieschlag E, Nieschlag S (2014). "Testosterone deficiency: a historical perspective". Asian J. Androl. 16 (2): 161–8. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.122358. PMC 3955324. PMID 24435052.
* Llewellyn W (2011). Anabolics. Molecular Nutrition Llc. ISBN 978-0-9828280-1-4. Archived from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
* Shoskes JJ, Wilson MK, Spinner ML (December 2016). "Pharmacology of testosterone replacement therapy preparations". Translational Andrology and Urology. 5 (6): 834–843. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.07.10. PMC 5182226. PMID 28078214.
* Celec P, Ostatníková D, Hodosy J (February 2015). "On the effects of testosterone on brain behavioral functions". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 9: 12. doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00012. PMC 4330791. PMID 25741229.

## External links

[edit]

* "Testosterone Transdermal Patch". MedlinePlus.
* "Testosterone Buccal". MedlinePlus.
* "Testosterone Topical". MedlinePlus.
* "Testosterone Injection". MedlinePlus.
* "Testosterone Nasal Gel". MedlinePlus.

* v
* t
* e

Testosterone

Topics|

* Testosterone (as a hormone)
* Testosterone (as a medication)
* Pharmacodynamics of testosterone
* Pharmacokinetics of testosterone
* Androgen (as a hormone)
* Androgen/anabolic steroid (as a medication)
* Androgen replacement therapy
* Masculinizing hormone therapy

Esters|

* Androgen ester
* Testosterone ester
* Testosterone buciclate
* Testosterone caproate
* Testosterone cypionate
* Testosterone decanoate
* Testosterone enanthate
* Testosterone isobutyrate
* Testosterone isocaproate
* Testosterone phenylpropionate
* Testosterone propionate
* Testosterone undecanoate
* Mixed testosterone esters

Related|

* Dihydrotestosterone (DHT; androstanolone)
* Methyltestosterone
* Nandrolone (19-nortestosterone)
* Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA; prasterone)
* Estradiol

* v
* t
* e

Androgens and antiandrogens

Androgens
(incl. AASTooltip anabolic–androgenic steroid)|

| ARTooltip Androgen receptor agonists|

* Testosterone derivatives: Androstenediol dipropionate
* Boldenone undecylenate
* Clostebol
* Clostebol acetate
* Clostebol caproate
* Clostebol propionate
* Cloxotestosterone acetate
* Prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone, DHEA)
* Prasterone enanthate (DHEA enanthate)
* Prasterone sulfate (DHEA sulfate)
* Quinbolone
* Testosterone#
* Testosterone esters (e.g., testosterone cypionate, testosterone enanthate, testosterone propionate, testosterone undecanoate, testosterone ester mixtures (Deposterona, Omnadren, Sustanon, Testoviron Depot))

* Dihydrotestosterone derivatives: Androstanolone (stanolone, dihydrotestosterone, DHT)
* Androstanolone esters
* Bolazine capronate
* Drostanolone propionate (dromostanolone propionate)
* Epitiostanol
* Mepitiostane
* Mesterolone
* Metenolone acetate (methenolone acetate)
* Metenolone enanthate (methenolone enanthate)
* Stenbolone acetate

* 19-Nortestosterone derivatives: Bolandiol dipropionate
* Nandrolone esters (e.g., nandrolone decanoate, nandrolone phenylpropionate)
* Norclostebol
* Norclostebol acetate
* Oxabolone cipionate (oxabolone cypionate)
* Trenbolone acetate
* Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate (trenbolone cyclohexylmethylcarbonate)

* 17α-Alkylated testosterone derivatives: Bolasterone
* Calusterone
* Chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (CDMT)
* Fluoxymesterone
* Formebolone
* Metandienone (methandienone, methandrostenolone)
* Methandriol (methylandrostenediol)
* Methandriol bisenanthoyl acetate
* Methandriol dipropionate
* Methandriol propionate
* Methyltestosterone
* Methyltestosterone 3-hexyl ether
* Oxymesterone
* Penmesterol
* Tiomesterone (thiomesterone)

* 17α-Alkylated dihydrotestosterone derivatives: Androisoxazole
* Furazabol
* Mebolazine (dimethazine)
* Mestanolone
* Oxandrolone
* Oxymetholone
* Stanozolol

* 17α-Alkylated 19-nortestosterone derivatives: Ethylestrenol
* Mibolerone
* Norethandrolone
* Normethandrone (methylestrenolone, normethisterone)
* Propetandrol (propethandrol)

* 17α-Vinyltestosterone derivatives: Norvinisterone (vinylnortestosterone)

* 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives: Danazol
* Gestrinone
* Progestins (e.g., ethisterone (ethynyltestosterone), levonorgestrel, norgestrel, norethisterone (norethindrone), lynestrenol, norgestrienone)
* Tibolone

* Progesterone derivatives: Medroxyprogesterone acetate

|

Progonadotropins|

* Antiestrogens (e.g., tamoxifen, clomifene)
* GnRH agonists (e.g., GnRH (gonadorelin), leuprorelin)
* Gonadotropins (e.g., LHTooltip luteinizing hormone, hCGTooltip human chorionic gonadotropin)

Antiandrogens|

| ARTooltip Androgen receptor antagonists|

* Steroidal: Abiraterone acetate +niraparib
* Canrenone
* Chlormadinone acetate
* Cyproterone acetate
* Delmadinone acetate
* Dienogest
* Drospirenone
* Medrogestone
* Megestrol acetate
* Nomegestrol acetate
* Osaterone acetate
* Oxendolone
* Potassium canrenoate
* Spironolactone

* Nonsteroidal: Apalutamide
* Bicalutamide
* Cimetidine
* Darolutamide
* Enzalutamide
* Flutamide
* Ketoconazole
* Nilutamide
* Seviteronel†
* Topilutamide (fluridil)

|

Steroidogenesis
inhibitors|

| 5α-Reductase|

* Alfatradiol
* Dutasteride
* Epristeride
* Finasteride
* Saw palmetto extract

|

Others|

* Abiraterone acetate +niraparib
* Aminoglutethimide
* Bifluranol
* Cyproterone acetate
* Flutamide
* Ketoconazole
* Nilutamide
* Seviteronel†
* Spironolactone

Antigonadotropins|

* D2 receptor antagonists (prolactin releasers) (e.g., domperidone, metoclopramide, risperidone, haloperidol, chlorpromazine, sulpiride)
* Estrogens (e.g., bifluranol, diethylstilbestrol, estradiol, estradiol esters, ethinylestradiol, ethinylestradiol sulfonate, paroxypropione)
* GnRH agonists (e.g., leuprorelin)
* GnRH antagonists (e.g., cetrorelix)
* Progestogens (incl., chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, hydroxyprogesterone caproate, gestonorone caproate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate)

Others|

* Androstenedione immunogens: Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
* Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)

* #WHO-EM
* ‡Withdrawn from market
* Clinical trials:
* †Phase III
* §Never to phase III

See also
Androgen receptor modulators
Estrogens and antiestrogens
Progestogens and antiprogestogens
List of androgens/anabolic steroids

Pharmacodynamics

* v
* t
* e

Androgen receptor modulators

ARTooltip Androgen receptor|

| Agonists|

* Testosterone derivatives: 4-Androstenediol
* 4-Dehydroepiandrosterone (4-DHEA)
* 4-Hydroxytestosterone
* 4,17α-Dimethyltestosterone
* 5-Androstenedione
* 11-Ketotestosterone
* 11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione
* Adrenosterone (11-ketoandrostenedione, 11-oxoandrostenedione)
* Androstenediol (5-androstenediol)
* Androstenediol 3β-acetate
* Androstenediol 17β-acetate
* Androstenediol diacetate
* Androstenediol dipropionate
* Androstenedione (4-androstenedione)
* Atamestane
* Boldenone
* Boldenone undecylenate
* Boldione (1,4-androstadienedione)
* Clostebol
* Clostebol acetate
* Clostebol caproate
* Clostebol propionate
* Cloxotestosterone
* Cloxotestosterone acetate
* Dehydroandrosterone
* DHEA (androstenolone, prasterone; 5-DHEA)
* DHEA enanthate (prasterone enanthate)
* DHEA sulfate
* Exemestane
* Formestane
* Plomestane
* Quinbolone
* Silandrone
* Testosterone# (+dutasteride)
* Testosterone esters
* Polytestosterone phloretin phosphate

* 5α-Dihydrotestosterone derivatives: 1-Androstenediol
* 1-Androstenedione
* 1-Androsterone (1-andro, 1-DHEA)
* 1-Testosterone
* 3α-Androstanediol
* 5α-Androst-2-en-17-one
* 7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
* 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone
* Androsterone
* Bolazine
* Bolazine capronate
* Dihydroethyltestosterone
* Dihydrofluoxymesterone
* Dihydromethylandrostenediol
* Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (androstanolone, stanolone)
* Dihydrotestosterone esters
* Drostanolone
* Drostanolone propionate
* Epiandrosterone
* Epitiostanol
* Mepitiostane
* Mesabolone
* Mesterolone
* Mesterolone cipionate
* Methyldiazinol
* Nisterime
* Nisterime acetate
* Prostanozol
* Stenbolone
* Stenbolone acetate
* Testifenon (testiphenon, testiphenone)

* 19-Nortestosterone derivatives: 7α-Methyl-19-norandrostenedione (MENT dione, trestione)
* 11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone
* 11β-Methyl-19-nortestosterone dodecylcarbonate
* 19-Nor-5-androstenediol
* 19-Nor-5-androstenedione
* 19-Nordehydroepiandrosterone
* Bolandiol
* Bolandiol dipropionate
* Bolandione (19-nor-4-androstenedione)
* Bolmantalate (nandrolone adamantoate)
* Dienedione
* Dienolone
* Dimethandrolone
* Dimethandrolone buciclate
* Dimethandrolone dodecylcarbonate
* Dimethandrolone undecanoate
* LS-1727 (nandrolone 17β-N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-nitrosocarbamate)
* Methoxydienone (methoxygonadiene)
* Nandrolone
* Nandrolone esters
* Norclostebol
* Norclostebol acetate
* Normethandrone (methylestrenolone, normethisterone)
* Oxabolone
* Oxabolone cipionate (oxabolone cypionate)
* Trenbolone
* Trenbolone acetate
* Trenbolone enanthate
* Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate
* Trenbolone undecanoate
* Trendione
* Trestolone (MENT)
* Trestolone acetate
* Trestolone enanthate

* 5α-Dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydronandrolone
* 5α-Dihydrotrestolone
* 19-Norandrosterone

* 17α-Alkylated testosterone derivatives: Bolasterone
* Calusterone
* Chlorodehydromethylandrostenediol (CDMA)
* Chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (CDMT)
* Chloromethylandrostenediol (CMA)
* Enestebol
* Ethyltestosterone
* Fluoxymesterone
* Formebolone
* Hydroxystenozole
* Metandienone (methandrostenolone)
* Methandriol (methylandrostenediol)
* Methandriol bisenanthoyl acetate
* Methandriol diacetate
* Methandriol dipropionate
* Methandriol propionate
* Methylclostebol (chloromethyltestosterone)
* Methyltestosterone (+esterified estrogens)
* Methyltestosterone 3-hexyl ether
* Oxymesterone
* Penmesterol
* Tiomesterone

* 17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydrotestosterone derivatives: Androisoxazole
* Desoxymethyltestosterone
* Furazabol
* Mebolazine (dimethazine)
* Mestanolone
* Metenolone
* Metenolone acetate
* Metenolone enanthate
* Methasterone
* Methyl-1-testosterone
* Methylepitiostanol
* Methylstenbolone
* Oxandrolone
* Oxymetholone
* Stanozolol

* 17α-Alkylated 19-nortestosterone derivatives: Bolenol
* Dimethyldienolone
* Dimethyltrienolone
* Ethyldienolone
* Ethylestrenol
* Methyldienolone
* Methylhydroxynandrolone (MOHN, MHN)
* Metribolone
* Mibolerone
* Norboletone
* Norethandrolone
* Propetandrol
* RU-2309
* Tetrahydrogestrinone

* 17α-Alkylated 5α-dihydro-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydronorethandrolone
* 5α-Dihydronormethandrone

* 17α-Vinyltestosterone derivatives: Norvinisterone (vinylnortestosterone)

* 17α-Vinyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: Vinyltestosterone

* 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives: Danazol
* Ethinylandrostenediol
* Ethandrostate
* Ethisterone (ethynyltestosterone)

* 5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyltestosterone derivatives: 17α-Ethynyl-3α-androstanediol
* 17α-Ethynyl-3β-androstanediol
* Dihydroethisterone

* 17α-Ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: Δ4-Tibolone
* Desogestrel
* Etonogestrel
* Etynodiol
* Etynodiol diacetate
* Gestodene
* Gestrinone
* Levonorgestrel
* Levonorgestrel esters (e.g., levonorgestrel butanoate)
* Lynestrenol
* Lynestrenol phenylpropionate
* Norethisterone
* Norethisterone esters (e.g., norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate)
* Norgestrel
* Norgestrienone
* Quingestanol
* Quingestanol acetate
* Tibolone

* 5α-Dihydro-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives: 5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
* 5α-Dihydronorethisterone

* Progesterone derivatives: 6α-Methylprogesterone
* Medroxyprogesterone acetate
* Megestrol acetate

* Others/unsorted: 3-Keto-5α-abiraterone
* 5α-Androstane
* Alternariol
* Cl-4AS-1
* Drupanol
* Trilostane
* ZM-182345

|

SARMsTooltip Selective androgen receptor modulator|

* Nonsteroidal: 198RL26
* ACP-105
* AC-262,536
* Acetothiolutamide
* Acetoxolutamide
* Andarine (acetamidoxolutamide, androxolutamide, GTx-007, S-4)
* BMS-564,929
* DTIB
* Enobosarm (ostarine, MK-2866, GTx-024, S-22)
* FTBU-1
* GLPG-0492
* GSK2881078
* GSK-4336A
* GSK-8698
* LG121071 (LGD-121071)
* LGD-2226
* LGD-2941 (LGD-122941)
* LGD-3303
* LGD-4033
* LY305
* JNJ-26146900
* JNJ-28330835
* JNJ-37654032
* OPK-88004 (LY-2452473, TT-701)
* ORM-11984
* PF-06260414
* R-1
* RU-59063
* S-1
* S-23
* S-40503
* S-101479
* Vosilasarm

* Steroidal: EM-9017
* MK-0773
* TFM-4AS-1
* YK-11

Antagonists|

* Steroidal: 7α-Thioprogesterone
* 7α-Thiospironolactone
* 7α-Thiomethylspironolactone
* 11α-Hydroxyprogesterone
* 15β-Hydroxycyproterone acetate
* Abiraterone
* Abiraterone acetate
* Allyltestosterone
* Benorterone
* BOMT
* Canrenoic acid
* Canrenone
* Chlormadinone acetate
* Clascoterone
* Clometerone
* Cyproheptadine
* Cyproterone
* Cyproterone acetate
* Delanterone
* Delmadinone acetate
* Dicirenone
* Dienogest
* Drospirenone
* DU-41165
* Edogestrone
* EM-4350
* EM-5854
* EM-5855
* EM-6537
* Epitestosterone
* Galeterone
* Guggulsterone
* Ludaterone
* Medrogestone
* Megestrol acetate
* Mespirenone
* Metogest
* Mexrenone
* Mifepristone
* Nomegestrol acetate
* Nordinone
* Osaterone
* Osaterone acetate
* Oxendolone
* Potassium canrenoate
* Promegestone
* Prorenone
* Rosterolone
* RU-15328
* SC-5233 (spirolactone)
* Spironolactone
* Spirorenone
* Spiroxasone
* Topterone
* Trimegestone
* Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956)
* Zanoterone

* Nonsteroidal: 5N-Bicalutamide
* AA560
* Antarlides
* Arabilin
* Apalutamide
* Atraric acid
* AZD-3514
* Bakuchiol
* Bavdegalutamide
* BAY-1024767
* Bicalutamide
* Bisphenols (e.g., BADGE, BFDGE, bisphenol A, bisphenol F, bisphenol S)
* BMS-501949
* BMS-570511
* BMS-641988
* CH5137291
* Cimetidine
* Cioteronel
* Cyanonilutamide
* Darolutamide
* DDT (via metabolite p,p’-DDE)
* Dieldrin
* DIMP
* Endosulfan
* Enzalutamide
* EPI-001
* Fenarimol
* Flutamide
* Hydroxyflutamide
* Inocoterone
* Inocoterone acetate
* Ketoconazole
* Ketodarolutamide
* Lavender oil
* LG-105
* LG-120907
* LGD-1331
* Linuron
* Masofaniten
* Methiocarb
* N-Butylbenzenesulfonamide
* N-Desmethylapalutamide
* N-Desmethylenzalutamide
* Nilutamide
* ONC1-13B
* Pentomone
* PF-998425
* Phenothrin
* Prochloraz
* Procymidone
* Proxalutamide
* Pyrilutamide
* Ralaniten (EPI-002)
* Ralaniten acetate (EPI-506)
* RD-162
* Rezvilutamide
* Ro 2-7239
* Ro 5-2537
* RU-22930
* RU-56187
* RU-57073
* RU-58642
* RU-58841
* Seviteronel
* Thalidomide
* Topilutamide (fluridil)
* Valproic acid
* Vinclozolin
* YM-580
* YM-92088
* YM-175735

GPRC6A|

| Agonists|

* Cations (incl. aluminium, calcium, gadolinium, magnesium, strontium, zinc)
* Dehydroandrosterone
* Dihydrotestosterone
* Estradiol
* L-α-Amino acids (incl. L-arginine, L-lysine, L-ornithine)
* Osteocalcin
* SHBGTooltip Sex hormone-binding globulin
* Testosterone

|

See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Androgens and antiandrogens
Estrogen receptor modulators
Progesterone receptor modulators
List of androgens and anabolic steroids

* v
* t
* e

Estrogen receptor modulators

ERTooltip Estrogen receptor|

| Agonists|

* Steroidal: 2-Hydroxyestradiol
* 2-Hydroxyestrone
* 3-Methyl-19-methyleneandrosta-3,5-dien-17β-ol
* 3α-Androstanediol
* 3α,5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
* 3β,5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel
* 3α-Hydroxytibolone
* 3β-Hydroxytibolone
* 3β-Androstanediol
* 4-Androstenediol
* 4-Androstenedione
* 4-Fluoroestradiol
* 4-Hydroxyestradiol
* 4-Hydroxyestrone
* 4-Methoxyestradiol
* 4-Methoxyestrone
* 5-Androstenediol
* 7-Oxo-DHEA
* 7α-Hydroxy-DHEA
* 7α-Methylestradiol
* 7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
* 8,9-Dehydroestradiol
* 8,9-Dehydroestrone
* 8β-VE2
* 10β,17β-Dihydroxyestra-1,4-dien-3-one (DHED)
* 11β-Chloromethylestradiol
* 11β-Methoxyestradiol
* 15α-Hydroxyestradiol
* 16-Ketoestradiol
* 16-Ketoestrone
* 16α-Fluoroestradiol
* 16α-Hydroxy-DHEA
* 16α-Hydroxyestrone
* 16α-Iodoestradiol
* 16α-LE2
* 16β-Hydroxyestrone
* 16β,17α-Epiestriol (16β-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
* 17α-Estradiol (alfatradiol)
* 17α-Dihydroequilenin
* 17α-Dihydroequilin
* 17α-Epiestriol (16α-hydroxy-17α-estradiol)
* 17α-Ethynyl-3α-androstanediol
* 17α-Ethynyl-3β-androstanediol
* 17β-Dihydroequilenin
* 17β-Dihydroequilin
* 17β-Methyl-17α-dihydroequilenin
* Abiraterone
* Abiraterone acetate
* Alestramustine
* Almestrone
* Anabolic steroids (e.g., testosterone and esters, methyltestosterone, metandienone (methandrostenolone), nandrolone and esters, many others; via estrogenic metabolites)
* Atrimustine
* Bolandiol
* Bolandiol dipropionate
* Butolame
* Clomestrone
* Cloxestradiol
* Cloxestradiol acetate
* Conjugated estriol
* Conjugated estrogens
* Cyclodiol
* Cyclotriol
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* ent-Estradiol
* Epiestriol (16β-epiestriol, 16β-hydroxy-17β-estradiol)
* Epimestrol
* Equilenin
* Equilin
* ERA-63 (ORG-37663)
* Esterified estrogens
* Estetrol
* Estradiol
* Estradiol esters
* Lipoidal estradiol
* Polyestradiol phosphate
* Estramustine
* Estramustine phosphate
* Estrapronicate
* Estrazinol
* Estriol
* Estriol esters
* Polyestriol phosphate
* Estrofurate
* Estrogenic substances
* Estromustine
* Estrone
* Estrone esters
* Estrone methyl ether
* Estropipate
* Etamestrol (eptamestrol)
* Ethinylandrostenediol
* Ethandrostate
* Ethinylestradiol
* Ethinylestradiol 3-benzoate
* Ethinylestradiol sulfonate
* Ethinylestriol
* Ethylestradiol
* Etynodiol
* Etynodiol diacetate
* Hexolame
* Hippulin
* Hydroxyestrone diacetate
* Lynestrenol
* Lynestrenol phenylpropionate
* Mestranol
* Methylestradiol
* Moxestrol
* Mytatrienediol
* Nilestriol
* Norethisterone
* Noretynodrel
* Orestrate
* Pentolame
* Prodiame
* Prolame
* Promestriene
* RU-16117
* Quinestradol
* Quinestrol
* Tibolone

* Nonsteroidal: (R,R)-THC
* (S,S)-THC
* 2,8-DHHHC
* β-LGND1
* β-LGND2 (GTx-878)
* AC-186
* Allenestrol
* Allenolic acid
* Benzestrol
* Bifluranol
* Bisdehydrodoisynolic acid
* Butestrol
* Carbestrol
* D-15414
* DCW234
* Diarylpropionitrile
* Dienestrol
* Dienestrol diacetate
* Diethylstilbestrol
* Diethylstilbestrol esters
* Dimestrol (dianisylhexene)
* Dimethylstilbestrol
* Doisynoestrol (fenocycline)
* Doisynolic acid
* Efavirenz
* Elacestrant
* ERB-196 (WAY-202196)
* Erteberel (SERBA-1, LY-500307)
* Estrobin (DBE)
* Fenestrel
* FERb 033
* Fosfestrol (diethylstilbestrol diphosphate)
* Furostilbestrol (diethylstilbestrol difuroate)
* GTx-758
* Hexestrol
* Hexestrol esters
* ICI-85966 (Stilbostat)
* M2613
* meso-Butestrol
* meso-Hexestrol
* Mestilbol
* Methallenestril
* Methestrol
* Methestrol dipropionate
* Paroxypropione
* Pentafluranol
* Phenestrol
* Prinaberel (ERB-041, WAY-202041)
* Propylpyrazoletriol
* Quadrosilan
* SC-3296
* SC-4289
* SERBA-2
* SKF-82,958
* Terfluranol
* Triphenylbromoethylene
* Triphenylchloroethylene
* Triphenyliodoethylene
* Triphenylmethylethylene (triphenylpropene)
* WAY-166818
* WAY-169916
* WAY-200070
* WAY-204688 (SIM-688)
* WAY-214156

* Unknown/unsorted: ERB-26
* ERA-45
* ERB-79
* ZK-283197

* Xenoestrogens: Anise-related (e.g., anethole, anol, dianethole, dianol, photoanethole)
* Chalconoids (e.g., isoliquiritigenin, phloretin, phlorizin (phloridzin), wedelolactone)
* Coumestans (e.g., coumestrol, psoralidin)
* Flavonoids (incl. 7,8-DHF, 8-prenylnaringenin, apigenin, baicalein, baicalin, biochanin A, calycosin, catechin, daidzein, daidzin, ECG, EGCG, epicatechin, equol, formononetin, glabrene, glabridin, genistein, genistin, glycitein, kaempferol, liquiritigenin, mirificin, myricetin, naringenin, penduletin, pinocembrin, prunetin, puerarin, quercetin, tectoridin, tectorigenin)
* Lavender oil
* Lignans (e.g., enterodiol, enterolactone, nyasol (cis-hinokiresinol))
* Metalloestrogens (e.g., cadmium)
* Pesticides (e.g., alternariol, dieldrin, endosulfan, fenarimol, HPTE, methiocarb, methoxychlor, triclocarban, triclosan)
* Phytosteroids (e.g., digitoxin (digitalis), diosgenin, guggulsterone)
* Phytosterols (e.g., β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol)
* Resorcylic acid lactones (e.g., zearalanone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalenone, zeranol (α-zearalanol), taleranol (teranol, β-zearalanol))
* Steroid-like (e.g., deoxymiroestrol, miroestrol)
* Stilbenoids (e.g., resveratrol, rhaponticin)
* Synthetic xenoestrogens (e.g., alkylphenols, bisphenols (e.g., BPA, BPF, BPS), DDT, parabens, PBBs, PHBA, phthalates, PCBs)
* Others (e.g., agnuside, rotundifuran)

|

Mixed
(SERMsTooltip Selective estrogen receptor modulators)|

* 2-Phenylbenzofuran
* 2-Phenylbenzothiophene
* 4'-Hydroxynorendoxifen
* 27-Hydroxycholesterol
* Acefluranol
* Acolbifene
* Afimoxifene
* Anordiol
* Anordrin
* Arzoxifene
* Bazedoxifene
* Brilanestrant
* Broparestrol
* Camizestrant
* Chlorotrianisene
* Clomifene
* Clomifenoxide
* CN-55945-27
* Cyclofenil
* D-15413
* Desmethylchlorotrianisene
* Droloxifene
* Enclomifene
* Endoxifen
* Etacstil (GW-5638, DPC-974)
* Ethamoxytriphetol (MER-25)
* Femarelle
* Fispemifene
* GW-7604
* ICI-55548
* Idoxifene
* Lasofoxifene
* Levormeloxifene
* LN-1643
* LN-2299
* LY-117018
* Menerba
* Miproxifene
* Miproxifene phosphate
* MRL-37
* Nafoxidine
* Nitromifene
* NNC 45-0095
* NNC 45-0320
* NNC 45-0781
* NNC 45-1506
* Ormeloxifene
* Ospemifene
* Panomifene
* Pipendoxifene
* Promensil
* Raloxifene
* Rimostil (P-081)
* Spironolactone
* SS1010
* Tamoxifen
* TAS-108 (SR-16234)
* Toremifene
* Trioxifene
* TZE-5323
* U-11555A
* U-11634
* Y-134
* Zindoxifene
* Zuclomifene

Antagonists|

* (R,R)-THC
* 7β-Hydroxy-DHEA
* Chloroindazole
* Cytestrol acetate
* EM-800 (SCH-57050)
* Epitiostanol
* ERA-90
* ERB-88
* Fulvestrant (ICI-182780)
* Glyceollins (I, II, III, IV)
* ICI-164384
* MDL-101906
* Mepitiostane
* Methylepitiostanol
* Methylpiperidinopyrazole
* MIBE
* Oxabicycloheptene sulfonate
* Phenytoin
* PHTPP
* Prochloraz
* RU-39411
* RU-58668
* SS1020
* TAS-108 (SR-16234)
* ZB716
* ZK-164015
* ZK-191703

* Coregulator-binding modulators: ERX-11

* Noncompetitive inhibitors: Trilostane

GPERTooltip G protein-coupled estrogen receptor|

| Agonists|

* 2-Methoxyestradiol
* 7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
* Afimoxifene (4-hydroxytamoxifen)
* Aldosterone
* Atrazine
* Bisphenol A
* Daidzein
* DDT (p,p'-DDT, o',p'-DDE)
* Diarylpropionitrile
* Equol
* Estradiol
* Ethinylestradiol
* Fulvestrant (ICI-182780)
* G-1
* Genistein
* GPER-L1
* GPER-L2
* Hydroxytyrosol
* Kepone
* Niacin
* Niacinamide
* Nonylphenol
* Oleuropein
* PCBs (2,2',5'-PCB-4-OH)
* Propylpyrazoletriol
* Quercetin
* Raloxifene
* Resveratrol
* STX
* Tamoxifen
* Tectoridin

|

Antagonists|

* CCL18
* Estriol
* G-15
* G-36
* MIBE

Unknown|

* Diethylstilbestrol
* Zearalenone

See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Estrogens and antiestrogens
Androgen receptor modulators
Progesterone receptor modulators
List of estrogens

* v
* t
* e

GABAA receptor positive modulators

Alcohols|

* Brometone
* Butanol
* Chloralodol
* Chlorobutanol (cloretone)
* Ethanol (alcohol) (alcoholic drink)
* Ethchlorvynol
* Isobutanol
* Isopropanol
* Menthol
* Methanol
* Methylpentynol
* Pentanol
* Petrichloral
* Propanol
* tert-Butanol (2M2P)
* tert-Pentanol (2M2B)
* Tribromoethanol
* Trichloroethanol
* Triclofos
* Trifluoroethanol

Barbiturates|

* (-)-DMBB
* Allobarbital
* Alphenal
* Amobarbital
* Aprobarbital
* Barbexaclone
* Barbital
* Benzobarbital
* Benzylbutylbarbiturate
* Brallobarbital
* Brophebarbital
* Butabarbital/Secbutabarbital
* Butalbital
* Buthalital
* Butobarbital
* Butallylonal
* Carbubarb
* Crotylbarbital
* Cyclobarbital
* Cyclopentobarbital
* Difebarbamate
* Enallylpropymal
* Ethallobarbital
* Eterobarb
* Febarbamate
* Heptabarb
* Heptobarbital
* Hexethal
* Hexobarbital
* Metharbital
* Methitural
* Methohexital
* Methylphenobarbital
* Narcobarbital
* Nealbarbital
* Pentobarbital
* Phenallymal
* Phenobarbital
* Phetharbital
* Primidone
* Probarbital
* Propallylonal
* Propylbarbital
* Proxibarbital
* Reposal
* Secobarbital
* Sigmodal
* Spirobarbital
* Talbutal
* Tetrabamate
* Tetrabarbital
* Thialbarbital
* Thiamylal
* Thiobarbital
* Thiobutabarbital
* Thiopental
* Thiotetrabarbital
* Valofane
* Vinbarbital
* Vinylbital

Benzodiazepines|

* 2-Oxoquazepam
* 3-Hydroxyphenazepam
* Adinazolam
* Alprazolam
* Arfendazam
* Avizafone
* Bentazepam
* Bretazenil
* Bromazepam
* Bromazolam
* Brotizolam
* Camazepam
* Carburazepam
* Chlordiazepoxide
* Ciclotizolam
* Cinazepam
* Cinolazepam
* Clazolam
* Climazolam
* Clobazam
* Clonazepam
* Clonazolam
* Cloniprazepam
* Clorazepate
* Clotiazepam
* Cloxazolam
* CP-1414S
* Cyprazepam
* Delorazepam
* Demoxepam
* Diazepam
* Diclazepam
* Dimdazenil
* Doxefazepam
* Elfazepam
* Estazolam
* Ethyl carfluzepate
* Ethyl dirazepate
* Ethyl loflazepate
* Etizolam
* FG-8205
* Fletazepam
* Flubromazepam
* Flubromazolam
* Fludiazepam
* Flunitrazepam
* Flunitrazolam
* Flurazepam
* Flutazolam
* Flutemazepam
* Flutoprazepam
* Fosazepam
* Gidazepam
* Halazepam
* Haloxazolam
* Iclazepam
* Imidazenil
* Irazepine
* Ketazolam
* Lofendazam
* Lopirazepam
* Loprazolam
* Lorazepam
* Lormetazepam
* Meclonazepam
* Medazepam
* Menitrazepam
* Metaclazepam
* Mexazolam
* Midazolam
* Motrazepam
* N-Desalkylflurazepam
* Nifoxipam
* Nimetazepam
* Nitrazepam
* Nitrazepate
* Nitrazolam
* Nordazepam
* Nortetrazepam
* Oxazepam
* Oxazolam
* Phenazepam
* Pinazepam
* Pivoxazepam
* Prazepam
* Premazepam
* Proflazepam
* Pyrazolam
* QH-II-66
* Quazepam
* Reclazepam
* Remimazolam
* Rilmazafone
* Ripazepam
* Ro48-6791
* Ro48-8684
* SH-053-R-CH3-2′F
* Sulazepam
* Temazepam
* Tetrazepam
* Tolufazepam
* Triazolam
* Triflubazam
* Triflunordazepam (Ro5-2904)
* Tuclazepam
* Uldazepam
* Zapizolam
* Zolazepam
* Zomebazam

Carbamates|

* Carisbamate
* Carisoprodol
* Clocental
* Cyclarbamate
* Difebarbamate
* Emylcamate
* Ethinamate
* Febarbamate
* Felbamate
* Hexapropymate
* Hydroxyphenamate
* Lorbamate
* Mebutamate
* Meprobamate
* Nisobamate
* Pentabamate
* Phenprobamate
* Procymate
* Styramate
* Tetrabamate
* Tybamate

Flavonoids|

* 6-Methylapigenin
* Ampelopsin (dihydromyricetin)
* Apigenin
* Baicalein
* Baicalin
* Catechin
* EGC
* EGCG
* Hispidulin
* Linarin
* Luteolin
* Rc-OMe
* Skullcap constituents (e.g., baicalin)
* Wogonin

Imidazoles|

* Etomidate
* Metomidate
* Propoxate

Kava constituents|

* 10-Methoxyyangonin
* 11-Methoxyyangonin
* 11-Hydroxyyangonin
* Desmethoxyyangonin
* 11-Methoxy-12-hydroxydehydrokavain
* 7,8-Dihydroyangonin
* Kavain
* 5-Hydroxykavain
* 5,6-Dihydroyangonin
* 7,8-Dihydrokavain
* 5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroyangonin
* 5,6-Dehydromethysticin
* Methysticin
* 7,8-Dihydromethysticin
* Yangonin

Monoureides|

* Acecarbromal
* Apronal (apronalide)
* Bromisoval
* Carbromal
* Capuride
* Ectylurea

Neuroactive steroids|

* Acebrochol
* Allopregnanolone (brexanolone)
* Alfadolone
* Alfaxalone
* 3α-Androstanediol
* Androstenol
* Androsterone
* Certain anabolic-androgenic steroids
* Cholesterol
* DHDOC
* 3α-DHP
* 5α-DHP
* 5β-DHP
* DHT
* Etiocholanolone
* Ganaxolone
* Hydroxydione
* Minaxolone
* ORG-20599
* ORG-21465
* P1-185
* Posovolone
* Pregnanolone (eltanolone)
* Progesterone
* Renanolone
* SAGE-105
* SAGE-324
* SAGE-516
* SAGE-689
* SAGE-872
* Testosterone
* THDOC
* Zuranolone

Nonbenzodiazepines|

* Cyclopyrrolones: Eszopiclone
* Pagoclone
* Pazinaclone
* Suproclone
* Suriclone
* Zopiclone

* Imidazopyridines: Alpidem
* DS-1
* Necopidem
* Saripidem
* Zolpidem

* Pyrazolopyrimidines: Divaplon
* Fasiplon
* Indiplon
* Lorediplon
* Ocinaplon
* Panadiplon
* Taniplon
* Zaleplon

* Others: Adipiplon
* CGS-8216
* CGS-9896
* CGS-13767
* CGS-20625
* CL-218,872
* CP-615,003
* CTP-354
* ELB-139
* GBLD-345
* Imepitoin
* JM-1232
* L-838,417
* Lirequinil (Ro41-3696)
* NS-2664
* NS-2710
* NS-11394
* Pipequaline
* ROD-188
* RWJ-51204
* SB-205,384
* SX-3228
* TGSC01AA
* TP-003
* TPA-023
* TP-13
* U-89843A
* U-90042
* Viqualine
* Y-23684

Phenols|

* Fospropofol
* Propofol
* Thymol

Piperidinediones|

* Glutethimide
* Methyprylon
* Piperidione
* Pyrithyldione

Pyrazolopyridines|

* Cartazolate
* Etazolate
* ICI-190,622
* Tracazolate

Quinazolinones|

* Afloqualone
* Cloroqualone
* Diproqualone
* Etaqualone
* Mebroqualone
* Mecloqualone
* Methaqualone
* Methylmethaqualone
* Nitromethaqualone
* SL-164

Volatiles/gases|

* Acetone
* Acetophenone
* Acetylglycinamide chloral hydrate
* Aliflurane
* Benzene
* Butane
* Butylene
* Centalun
* Chloral
* Chloral betaine
* Chloral hydrate
* Chloroform
* Cryofluorane
* Desflurane
* Dichloralphenazone
* Dichloromethane
* Diethyl ether
* Enflurane
* Ethyl chloride
* Ethylene
* Fluroxene
* Gasoline
* Halopropane
* Halothane
* Isoflurane
* Kerosine
* Methoxyflurane
* Methoxypropane
* Nitric oxide
* Nitrogen
* Nitrous oxide
* Norflurane
* Paraldehyde
* Propane
* Propylene
* Roflurane
* Sevoflurane
* Synthane
* Teflurane
* Toluene
* Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform)
* Trichloroethylene
* Vinyl ether

Others/unsorted|

* 3-Hydroxybutanal
* α-EMTBL
* AA-29504
* Alogabat
* Avermectins (e.g., ivermectin)
* Bromide compounds (e.g., lithium bromide, potassium bromide, sodium bromide)
* Carbamazepine
* Chloralose
* Chlormezanone
* Clomethiazole
* Darigabat
* DEABL
* Deuterated etifoxine
* Dihydroergolines (e.g., dihydroergocryptine, dihydroergosine, dihydroergotamine, ergoloid (dihydroergotoxine))
* DS2
* Efavirenz
* Etazepine
* Etifoxine
* Fenamates (e.g., flufenamic acid, mefenamic acid, niflumic acid, tolfenamic acid)
* Fluoxetine
* Flupirtine
* Hopantenic acid
* KRM-II-81
* Lanthanum
* Lavender oil
* Lignans (e.g., 4-O-methylhonokiol, honokiol, magnolol, obovatol)
* Loreclezole
* Menthyl isovalerate (validolum)
* Monastrol
* Niacin
* Niacinamide
* Org 25,435
* Phenytoin
* Propanidid
* Retigabine (ezogabine)
* Safranal
* Seproxetine
* Stiripentol
* Sulfonylalkanes (e.g., sulfonmethane (sulfonal), tetronal, trional)
* Terpenoids (e.g., borneol)
* Topiramate
* Valerian constituents (e.g., isovaleric acid, isovaleramide, valerenic acid, valerenol)

* Unsorted benzodiazepine site positive modulators: α-Pinene
* MRK-409 (MK-0343)
* TCS-1105
* TCS-1205

See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • GABA receptor modulators • GABA metabolism/transport modulators

* v
* t
* e

Growth factor receptor modulators

Angiopoietin|

* Agonists: Angiopoietin 1
* Angiopoietin 4

* Antagonists: Angiopoietin 2
* Angiopoietin 3

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* CE-245677
* Rebastinib

* Antibodies: Evinacumab (against angiopoietin 3)
* Nesvacumab (against angiopoietin 2)

CNTF|

* Agonists: Axokine
* CNTF
* Dapiclermin

EGF (ErbB)|

| EGF
(ErbB1/HER1)|

* Agonists: Amphiregulin
* Betacellulin
* EGF (urogastrone)
* Epigen
* Epiregulin
* Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF)
* Murodermin
* Nepidermin
* Transforming growth factor alpha (TGFα)

* Kinase inhibitors: Afatinib
* Agerafenib
* Brigatinib
* Canertinib
* Dacomitinib
* Erlotinib
* Gefitinib
* Grandinin
* Icotinib
* Lapatinib
* Neratinib
* Osimertinib
* Vandetanib
* WHI-P 154

* Antibodies: Cetuximab
* Depatuxizumab
* Depatuxizumab mafodotin
* Futuximab
* Imgatuzumab
* Matuzumab
* Necitumumab
* Nimotuzumab
* Panitumumab
* Zalutumumab

|

ErbB2/HER2|

* Agonists: Unknown/none

* Antibodies: Ertumaxomab
* Pertuzumab
* Trastuzumab
* Trastuzumab deruxtecan
* Trastuzumab duocarmazine
* Trastuzumab emtansine

* Kinase inhibitors: Afatinib
* Lapatinib
* Mubritinib
* Neratinib
* Tucatinib

ErbB3/HER3|

* Agonists: Neuregulins (heregulins) (1, 2, 6 (neuroglycan C))

* Antibodies: Duligotumab
* Patritumab
* Seribantumab

ErbB4/HER4|

* Agonists: Betacellulin
* Epigen
* Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF)
* Neuregulins (heregulins) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (tomoregulin, TMEFF))

FGF|

| FGFR1|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 (KGF2), 20)
* Repifermin
* Selpercatinib
* Trafermin
* Velafermin

|

FGFR2|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (KGF), 8, 9, 10 (KGF2), 17, 18, 22)
* Palifermin
* Repifermin
* Selpercatinib
* Sprifermin
* Trafermin

* Antibodies: Aprutumab
* Aprutumab ixadotin

* Kinase inhibitors: Infigratinib

FGFR3|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 4, 8, 9, 18, 23)
* Selpercatinib
* Sprifermin
* Trafermin

* Antibodies: Burosumab (against FGF23)

FGFR4|

* Agonists: Ersofermin
* FGF (1, 2 (bFGF), 4, 6, 8, 9, 19)
* Trafermin

Unsorted|

* Agonists: FGF15/19

HGF (c-Met)|

* Agonists: Fosgonimeton
* Hepatocyte growth factor

* Potentiators: Dihexa (PNB-0408)

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AM7
* AMG-458
* Amuvatinib
* BMS-777607
* Cabozantinib
* Capmatinib
* Crizotinib
* Foretinib
* Golvatinib
* INCB28060
* JNJ-38877605
* K252a
* MK-2461
* PF-04217903
* PF-2341066
* PHA-665752
* SU-11274
* Tivantinib
* Volitinib

* Antibodies: Emibetuzumab
* Ficlatuzumab
* Flanvotumab
* Onartuzumab
* Rilotumumab
* Telisotuzumab
* Telisotuzumab vedotin

IGF|

| IGF-1|

* Agonists: des(1-3)IGF-1
* Insulin-like growth factor-1 (somatomedin C)
* IGF-1 LR3
* Insulin-like growth factor-2 (somatomedin A)
* Insulin
* Mecasermin
* Mecasermin rinfabate

* Kinase inhibitors: BMS-754807
* Linsitinib
* NVP-ADW742
* NVP-AEW541
* OSl-906

* Antibodies: AVE-1642
* Cixutumumab
* Dalotuzumab
* Figitumumab
* Ganitumab
* Robatumumab
* R1507
* Teprotumumab
* Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)

|

IGF-2|

* Agonists: Insulin-like growth factor-2 (somatomedin A)

* Antibodies: Dusigitumab
* Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)

Others|

* Binding proteins: IGFBP (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

* Cleavage products/derivatives with unknown target: Glypromate (GPE, (1-3)IGF-1)
* Trofinetide

LNGF (p75NTR)|

* Agonists: BDNF
* BNN-20
* BNN-27
* Cenegermin
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* NGF
* NT-3
* NT-4

* Antagonists: ALE-0540
* Dexamethasone
* EVT-901 (SAR-127963)
* Testosterone

* Antibodies: Against NGF: ABT-110 (PG110)
* ASP-6294
* Fasinumab
* Frunevetmab
* Fulranumab
* MEDI-578
* Ranevetmab
* Tanezumab

* Aptamers: Against NGF: RBM-004

* Decoy receptors: LEVI-04 (p75NTR-Fc)

PDGF|

* Agonists: Becaplermin
* Platelet-derived growth factor (A, B, C, D)

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Avapritinib
* Axitinib
* Crenolanib
* Imatinib
* Lenvatinib
* Masitinib
* Motesanib
* Nintedanib
* Pazopanib
* Radotinib
* Quizartinib
* Ripretinib
* Sunitinib
* Sorafenib
* Toceranib

* Antibodies: Olaratumab
* Ramucirumab
* Tovetumab

RET (GFL)|

| GFRα1|

* Agonists: Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)
* Liatermin

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

|

GFRα2|

* Agonists: Neurturin (NRTN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

GFRα3|

* Agonists: Artemin (ARTN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

GFRα4|

* Agonists: Persephin (PSPN)

* Kinase inhibitors: Vandetanib

Unsorted|

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib

SCF (c-Kit)|

* Agonists: Ancestim
* Stem cell factor

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Axitinib
* Dasatinib
* Imatinib
* Masitinib
* Nilotinib
* Pazopanib
* Quizartinib
* Sorafenib
* Sunitinib
* Toceranib

TGFβ|

* See here instead.

Trk|

| TrkA|

* Agonists: Amitriptyline
* BNN-20
* BNN-27
* Cenegermin
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* Gambogic amide
* NGF
* Tavilermide

* Antagonists: ALE-0540
* Dexamethasone
* FX007
* Testosterone

* Negative allosteric modulators: VM-902A

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* Milciclib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486
* Rebastinib
* SNA-120 (pegylated K252a))

* Antibodies: Against TrkA: GBR-900; Against NGF: ABT-110 (PG110)
* ASP-6294
* Fasinumab
* Frunevetmab
* Fulranumab
* MEDI-578
* Ranevetmab
* Tanezumab

* Aptamers: Against NGF: RBM-004

* Decoy receptors: ReN-1820 (TrkAd5)

|

TrkB|

* Agonists: 3,7-DHF
* 3,7,8,2'-THF
* 4'-DMA-7,8-DHF
* 7,3'-DHF
* 7,8-DHF
* 7,8,2'-THF
* 7,8,3'-THF
* Amitriptyline
* BDNF
* BNN-20
* Deoxygedunin
* Deprenyl
* Diosmetin
* DMAQ-B1
* HIOC
* LM22A-4
* N-Acetylserotonin
* NT-3
* NT-4
* Norwogonin (5,7,8-THF)
* R7
* R13
* TDP6

* Antagonists: ANA-12
* Cyclotraxin B
* Gossypetin (3,5,7,8,3',4'-HHF)

* Ligands: DHEA

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486

TrkC|

* Agonists: BNN-20
* DHEA
* NT-3

* Kinase inhibitors: Altiratinib
* AZD-6918
* CE-245677
* CH-7057288
* DS-6051
* Entrectinib
* GZ-389988
* K252a
* Larotrectinib
* Lestaurtinib
* ONO-4474
* ONO-5390556
* PLX-7486

VEGF|

* Agonists: Placental growth factor (PGF)
* Ripretinib
* Telbermin
* VEGF (A, B, C, D (FIGF))

* Allosteric modulators: Cyclotraxin B

* Kinase inhibitors: Agerafenib
* Altiratinib
* Axitinib
* Cabozantinib
* Cediranib
* Fruquintinib
* Lapatinib
* Lenvatinib
* Motesanib
* Nintedanib
* Pazopanib
* Pegaptanib
* Rebastinib
* Regorafenib
* Semaxanib
* Sorafenib
* Sunitinib
* Toceranib
* Tivozanib
* Vandetanib
* WHI-P 154

* Antibodies: Alacizumab pegol
* Bevacizumab
* Icrucumab
* Ramucirumab
* Ranibizumab

* Decoy receptors: Aflibercept

Others|

* Additional growth factors: Adrenomedullin
* Colony-stimulating factors (see here instead)
* Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF)
* Ephrins (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, B1, B2, B3)
* Erythropoietin (see here instead)
* Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI; PGI, PHI, AMF)
* Glia maturation factor (GMF)
* Hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF)
* Interleukins/T-cell growth factors (see here instead)
* Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)
* Macrophage-stimulating protein (MSP; HLP, HGFLP)
* Midkine (NEGF2)
* Migration-stimulating factor (MSF; PRG4)
* Oncomodulin
* Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP)
* Pleiotrophin
* Renalase
* Thrombopoietin (see here instead)
* Wnt signaling proteins

* Additional growth factor receptor modulators: Cerebrolysin (neurotrophin mixture)

Portal:

* Medicine

*[US]: United States
*[AU]: Australia
*[BR]: Brazil
*[CA]: Canada
*[DE]: Germany
*[NZ]: New Zealand
*[UK]: United Kingdom
*[UN]: United Nations
*[EU]: European Union
*[SHBG]: Sex hormone-binding globulin
*[CID]: Compound ID
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[DHT]: dihydrotestosterone
*[IM]: intramuscular injection
*[SC]: subcutaneous injection
*[TD]: Transdermal
*[5αR]: 5α-reductase
*[DHEA]: dehydroepiandrosterone
*[mol. weight]: molecular weight
*[T]: testosterone
*[INN]: International Nonproprietary Name
*[USAN]: United States Adopted Name
*[USP]: United States Pharmacopeia
*[BAN]: British Approved Name
*[DCIT]: Denominazione Comune Italiana
*[DCF]: Dénomination Commune Française
*[AAS]: anabolic–androgenic steroid
*[AR]: Androgen receptor
*[LH]: luteinizing hormone
*[hCG]: human chorionic gonadotropin
*[SARMs]: Selective androgen receptor modulator
*[ER]: Estrogen receptor
*[SERMs]: Selective estrogen receptor modulators
*[GPER]: G protein-coupled estrogen receptor
*[GABA]: γ-Aminobutyric acid