The Turkish Bath

Painting by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

For other uses, see Turkish Bath (disambiguation).

The Turkish Bath

French: Le Bain turc
Artist| Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Year| 1852–59, modified in 1862
Medium| Oil on canvas glued to wood
Dimensions| 108 cm × 110 cm (42 1/2 in × 43 5/16 in)
Location| Musée du Louvre, Paris
Accession| R.F. 1934

The Turkish Bath (Le Bain turc) is an oil painting by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, initially completed between 1852 and 1859, but modified in 1862.[1] The painting depicts a group of nude women at a pool in a harem.[1] It has an erotic style that evokes both the Near East and earlier western styles associated with mythological subject matter. The painting expands on a number of motifs that Ingres had explored in earlier paintings,[1] in particular The Valpinçon Bather (1808) and La Grande odalisque (1814) and is an example of Romanticism.

The work is signed and dated 1862, when Ingres was around 82 years old.[2] He altered the original rectangular format and changed the painting to a tondo. A photograph of its original state, taken by Charles Marville, survives.[3]

## Description

[edit]

The original rectangular version of the painting The Valpinçon Bather, 1808. Louvre, Paris. Woman with Three Arms (Study for The Turkish Bath). Musée Ingres, Montauban.

The painting is known for its subtle colourisation, especially the very pale skin of the women resting in the privacy of a bathing area. The figures are given an almost abstract and "slender and sinuous" form,[citation needed] and seem at times to lack skeleton. They are arranged in a very harmonious, circular manner, a curved arrangement that heightens the eroticism of the painting. Its charge is in part achieved through the use of motifs that include the implied haze of Oriental perfume, and the inclusion of vases, running water, fruit and jewels, as well as a palette that ranges from pale white to pink, ivory, light greys and a variety of browns.[4]

The choice to convert the painting to a tondo both centralises the composition and adds a voyeuristic element to the composition as the viewer observes the naked women through the oculus. This effect is highlighted as we know Ingres never travelled beyond Europe so his romantic vision of the Bathers is totally idealised.[5]

Ingres relished the irony of producing an erotic work in his old age, painting an inscription of his age (AETATIS LXXXII, "at age 82") on the work—in 1867 he told others that he still retained "all the fire of a man of thirty years".[6][7] He did not paint this work from live models, but from croquis and several of his earlier paintings, reusing "bather" and "odalisque" figures he had drawn or painted as single figures on beds or beside a bath.

The figure from The Valpinçon Bather appears almost identically as the central element of the later composition, but now plays a mandolin. The woman in the background with her arm extended and holding a cup resembles the sitter in his portrait of Madame Moitessier (1856). The face of the woman with her arms raised above her head in the near right is similar to a croquis (1818) of the artist's wife, Delphine Ramel,[3] though her right shoulder is lowered while her right arm is raised. The other bodies are juxtaposed in various unlit areas behind them.

Ingres drew from a wide variety of painterly sources, including 19th-century academic art, Neoclassicism and late Mannerism.[citation needed] The colourisation is one of "chastising coolness", while figures merge into each other in a manner that evokes sexuality, but ultimately is intended to show Ingres's skill at defying rational perspective.[3]

## Orientalist influences

[edit]

Ingres was influenced by the contemporary fashion for Orientalism, relaunched by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt. On leaving for Italy in 1806, he copied into his notebooks a text extolling "the baths of the seraglio of Mohammed", in which can be read a description of a harem where one "goes into a room surrounded by sofas [...] and it is there that many women destined for this use attend the sultana in the bath, wiping her handsome body and rubbing the softest perfumes into her skin; it is there that she must then take a voluptuous rest".[6][8]

Jean-Léon Gérôme, Women at a Bath, (La grande piscine de Brousse, The Great Bath at Bursa) Salon of 1885. Hermitage, St. Petersburg Museum of Western and Oriental Art

In 1825, he copied a passage from Letters from the Orient by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who had accompanied her British diplomat husband to the Ottoman Empire in 1716. Her letters had been re-published eight times in France alone between 1763 and 1857,[citation needed] adding to the Orientalist craze. The passage Ingres copied was entitled "Description of the women's bath at Adrianople" and reads: "I believe there were two hundred women there in all. Beautiful naked women in various poses... some conversing, others at their work, others drinking coffee or tasting a sorbet, and many stretched out nonchalantly, whilst their slaves (generally ravishing girls of 17 or 18 years) plaited their hair in fantastical shapes."[6][9] Literary critic Ruth Yeazell opines that the environment of The Turkish Bath bears little resemblance to the public bathing described by Lady Montagu.[10]

In contrast to Eugène Delacroix, who visited an Algerian harem, Ingres never travelled to Africa or the Middle East, and the courtesans shown are more Caucasian and European than Middle Eastern or African in appearance.[11] For Ingres the oriental theme was above all a pretext for portraying the female nude in a passive and sexual context. Exotic elements are few and far between in the image: musical instruments, a censer and a few ornaments.

## Provenance

[edit]

The painter's first buyer was a relation of Napoleon III, but he handed it back some days later, his wife having found it "unsuitable" ("peu convenable").[6] It was purchased in 1865 by Khalil Bey, a former Turkish diplomat who added it to his collection of erotic paintings.[12]

Edgar Degas demanded that The Turkish Bath be shown at the Exposition Universelle (1855), in the wake of which came contrasting reactions: Paul Claudel, for example, compared it to a "cake full of maggots".[6] At the start of the 20th century, patrons wished to offer The Turkish Bath to the Louvre, but the museum's council refused it twice.[13] After the national collections of Munich offered to buy it, the Louvre finally accepted it in 1911,[13] thanks to a gift by the Société des amis du Louvre, to whom the patron Maurice Fenaille made a three-year interest-free loan of 150,000 Francs for the purpose.[citation needed]

## Legacy

[edit]

The Turkish Bath has inspired many modern artists. It can be seen in Félix Vallotton's 1907 painting Le Bain turc, in Pablo Picasso's Les demoiselles d'Avignon or in Tamara de Lempicka's Femmes au bain (1922).[14] Its influence became even more noticeable from the 1960s onwards through numerous appropriations. Among the most explicit references to Ingres's Turkish Bath are Martial Raysse's Made in Japan, a Turkish and Implausible Painting (1965), Robert Rauschenberg's Revolver I (1967), Harry Nadler's Le Bain turc (1968) and, in the pop style, Robert Ballagh's The Turkish Bath after Ingres (1970).[14]

It precisely is because so many artists have referred to it that Ingres's Turkish Bath caught the attention of the painter Herman Braun-Vega, who considers Ingres a pivotal figure between classical and modern painting.[15] Le bain turc à New York is a series of 15 variations on Ingres's Turkish Bath created in 1972 by Braun-Vega for exhibition at the Lerner-Heller Gallery in New York.[16] Braun-Vega moves Ingres's painting into modern contexts, depicting Ingres's bathers in scenes of everyday life in New York, on the streets, on the beach, or surrounding them with contemporary elements such as milk cartons and newspapers, creating a dialogue between past and present that is part of his exploration of the legacy of the great classics of painting in modern art.[17] The notion of heritage is also central to the painting Caramba! in which Braun-Vega claims to be the heir of Velazquez, Goya, Rembrandt, Ingres, Cézanne, Matisse and Picasso, Ingres being represented by the Turkish Bath.[18] When Braun-Vega does not use Ingres's tondo to express his artistic filiation, he can use it, for example, to express social criticism. Thus, in Le Bain à Barranco (Ingres), classical figures of The Turkish Bath are confronted with indigenous Peruvians, highlighting cultural and economic disparities.[19] Other Braun-Vega paintings also refer to The Turkish bath, including La papaye au bain (Picasso, Ingres, El Greco),[20] Le Bain à Cantolao ou 8,7 = rideau (Ingres),[20] Etat critique (Ingres, Picasso),[21] L'artiste et ses modeles (Ingres),[22] Matisse maîtrise couleurs et lumières avec ses ciseaux.[23]

In 1973, Welsh-born American feminist artist Sylvia Sleigh painted a riposte to the male gaze of Ingres with a painting of the same name. But her The Turkish Bath is gender-reversed, depicting male nudes – some in similar positions to those of the women in the Ingres original.[24]

## See also

[edit]

* List of paintings by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
* Orientalism
* Hammam
* Seraglio
* Haremlik
* 100 Great Paintings, 1980 BBC series

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "The Turkish Bath". Louvre. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
2. ^ Rosenblum, Robert (1999). "Ingres's Portraits and their Muses". In Tinterow, Gary; Conisbee, Philip (eds.). Portraits by Ingres: Image of an Epoch. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 126.
3. ^ a b c Rosenblum, Robert (2024). "Ingres's Portraits and their Muses". In Tinterow, Gary; Conisbee, Philip (eds.). Portraits by Ingres: Image of an Epoch. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 128.
4. ^ Magi, Giovanna (1998). The Grand Louvre and the Musée D'Orsay. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 50.
5. ^ Loughery, John (2002). "The Romantic Impulse". The Hudson Review. 54 (4): 645–652\. doi:10.2307/3853323. ISSN 0018-702X. JSTOR 3853323.
6. ^ a b c d e Hagen, Rose-Marie; Hagen, Rainer (2000). Les dessous des chefs-d'oeuvre. Köln: Taschen. pp. 410–415.
7. ^ Pach, Walter (1973). Ingres. New York: Hacker Art Books. p. 158.
8. ^ Catalogue de l'exposition du Louvre: Le Bain turc d'Ingres. Paris. 1971. pp. 4–5.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
9. ^ Montagu, Lady Mary (1981). L'islam au péril des femmes, une Anglaise en Turquie au XVIIe siècle. Paris. p. 133.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
10. ^ Yeazell, Ruth Bernard (Spring 1994). "Public Baths and Private Harems: Lady Mary Worley Montagu and the Origins of Ingres's Bain Turc". Yale Journal of Criticism. 7 (1): 116.
11. ^ Ali, Isra (2015). "The Harem Fantasy in Nineteenth-Century Orientalist Paintings". Dialectical Anthropology. 39 (1): 33–46.
12. ^ Haskill, Francis (1982). "A Turk and His Pictures in Nineteenth-Century Paris". Oxford Art Review. 5 (1): 40–47\. doi:10.1093/oxartj/5.1.40.
13. ^ a b Hagen, Rose-Marie; Hagen, Rainer (2003). What Great Paintings Say. Vol. 1\. Köln: Taschen GmbH. p. 415.
14. ^ a b Cuzin, Jean-Pierre; Salmon, Dimitri (2006). INGRES, regards croisés (in French). Paris: Mengès/Réunion des Musées Nationaux. pp. 148, 151, 170, 187, 193, 199, 208. ISBN 978-2-844-59129-6.
15. ^ Case, William D. (November 1972). "Herman Braun". Arts Magazine: 76. "Braun has concluded that Ingres is, in a sense, the principal figure behind contemporary art, a pivotal figure who marks the break with the old, established language of art and heralds the period of invention that has continued to our own day. Le Bain Turc first attracted his attention precisely because so many other artists has made reference to it"
16. ^ "Braun en el "Baño Turco"". El Comercio (in Spanish). Lima.
17. ^ "Herman Braun". Art News: 73. December 1972. "At Lerner-Heller, painter Herman Braun showed a series of works exploring the art historical idea that "modern art is a direct and lineal descendant of all so-called classic art that preceded it." Braun explored this concept with a group of paintings, painted constructions and sketches all based, to varying degrees, on Ingres' famous Turkish Bath. In Braun's 15 incarnations of the latter the viewer saw Ingres' voluptuous female bathers at the beach, on the streets of New York [...], and in some Surreally updated versions of their natural Turkish bath habitat, complete with pop/style cartons of milk and yesterday's newspaper."
18. ^ Chalumeau, Jean-Luc (2004). La Nouvelle Figuration (in French). Paris: Cercle d’Art. p. 169\. ISBN 978-2702206980. "Caramba!, tableau de groupe, réunion de famille. Dans le fond à droite, expliqua-t-il, à côté de la porte, un pan de mur recouvert d'un papier peint de Matisse, sur lequel on peut voir accroché Le Bain Turc d'Ingres."
19. ^ Chalumeau, Jean-Luc (2008). Coca-Cola dans l'art [Coca-Cola in art] (in French). Paris: éd. Du Chêne. pp. 180–185\. ISBN 978-2-842-77916-0. "Ingres et Coca-Cola représentent tous deux, pour Braun-Vega, des « colonisations culturelles » : il laisse entendre quelle est celle, à tout prendre, qui aurait ses préférences. Mais les choses sont ainsi (es así) et il n'y a pas à y revenir. En tant qu'artiste, il « métisse » les deux colonisations culturelles pour en donner une version synthétique personnelle : une nouvelle culture en somme."
20. ^ a b Salmon, Dimitri; Cuzin, Jean-Pierre; Viguier-Dutheil, Florence; et al. (Musée Ingres, Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Ville de Montauban, with the exceptional collaboration of the musée du Louvre) (2008). Ingres et les modernes (in French). Montauban: Somogy. pp. 215, 264–265\. ISBN 978-2-7572-0242-5.
21. ^ Braun-Vega, Herman (2000). "Etat critique (Ingres, Picasso)". braunvega.com (Acrylic on canvas, 162 x 130 cm). Retrieved 2025-04-18.
22. ^ Capdevila, Lauro (November–December 2012). "Entretien avec le critique Lauro Capdevila". Espaces Latinos (273): 18.
23. ^ Noorbergen, Christian (2018). Herman Braun-Vega : Fenêtres d'art, d'âme et de vie (exhibition catalog). Paris: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Peru – Representation of Peru to UNESCO. p. 78.
24. ^ Sleigh, Sylvia (2012). "Turkish bath: the human figure and artistic process". University of Chicago, via YouTube. Retrieved 23 April 2025.

## External links

[edit]

* The Turkish Bath, Musée du Louvre
* Un rêve oriental (in French) by Michel Makarius, Musée critique de la Sorbonne
* Bathing, Musée historique environnement urbain

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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

List of paintings

History
paintings|

* The Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the tent of Achilles (1801)
* Oedipus and the Sphinx (1808)
* Jupiter and Thetis (1811)
* Romulus' Victory Over Acron (1812)
* Virgil reading The Aeneid before Augustus, Livia and Octavia (1812)
* The Dream of Ossian (1813)
* Raphael and La Fornarina (1813)
* Paolo and Francesca (1814–1819)
* Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing Henry IV's Sword (1814)
* Pope Pius VII in the Sistine Chapel (1814)
* Aretino and Charles V's Ambassador (1815)
* Henry IV Receiving the Spanish Ambassador (1817)
* The Death of Leonardo da Vinci (1818)
* Roger Freeing Angelica (1819)
* The Dauphin's Entry Into Paris (1821)
* The Vow of Louis XIII (1824)
* The Apotheosis of Homer (1827)
* The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorian (1834)
* The Illness of Antiochus (1840)
* The Odyssey (1850)
* Joan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII (1854)

Nudes|

* The Half-Length Bather (1807)
* The Valpinçon Bather (1808)
* La Dormeuse de Naples (1809)
* Grande Odalisque (1814)
* The Source (c 1820)
* Odalisque with Slave (1842)
* Venus Anadyomene (1848)
* The Turkish Bath (1863)

Portraits|

* Bonaparte, First Consul (1804)
* Portrait of Philibert Rivière (1805)
* Portrait of Marie-Françoise Rivière (1805–06)
* Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière (1806)
* Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne (1806)
* La Belle Zélie (1806)
* Portrait of Madame Duvaucey (1807)
* Portrait of Charles Marcotte (1810)
* Portrait of Paul Lemoyne (1811)
* Portrait of Madame de Senonnes (1814)
* Portrait of Caroline Murat, Queen of Naples (1814)
* Portrait of Madame Jacques-Louis Leblanc (1823)
* Portrait of Madame Marcotte de Sainte-Marie (1826)
* Portrait of Amédée de Pastoret (1826)
* Portrait of Monsieur Bertin (1832)
* Portrait of Louis-Mathieu Molé (1834)
* Luigi Cherubini and the Muse of Lyric Poetry (1842)
* Portrait of Comtesse d'Haussonville (1845)
* Portrait of Baronne de Rothschild (1848)
* Portrait of Madame Moitessier (1844–1856)
* The Princesse de Broglie (1851–1853)
* Portrait of Madame Ingres (1859)

Self-portraits|

* Self-Portrait Aged 24 (1806)
* Self-Portrait at Seventy-Eight (1858)
* Antwerp Self-Portrait (1864–1865)

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* Musée Ingres Bourdelle

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* Anonymous: Diana the Huntress; Gabrielle d'Estrées et une de ses sœurs
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* Champaigne Ex-Voto de 1662; Louis XIII Crowned by Victory
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* Delacroix: The Barque of Dante; The Bride of Abydos; The Death of Sardanapalus; Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople; Liberty Leading the People; Lion Devouring a Rabbit; Mademoiselle Rose; The Massacre at Chios; The Murder of the Bishop of Liège; Orphan Girl at the Cemetery; Portrait of Frédéric Chopin; The Picador; Women of Algiers; A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother
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* Guérin: Andromache and Pyrrhus; Portrait of a Young Girl; The Return of Marcus Sextus
* Huet: The Flood of Saint-Cloud; Normandy Thatched Cottage, Old Trouville
* Ingres: The Apotheosis of Homer; Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing Henry IV's Sword; Grande Odalisque; Joan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII; Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière; Oedipus and the Sphinx; Portrait of Madame Marcotte de Sainte-Marie; Portrait of Monsieur Bertin; Roger Freeing Angelica; The Turkish Bath; The Valpinçon Bather
* La Tour: The Adoration of the Shepherds; The Card Sharp with the Ace of Diamonds; Joseph the Carpenter; Magdalene with the Smoking Flame; Saint Sebastian Tended by Saint Irene
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* Watteau: The Embarkation for Cythera; The Faux Pas; L'Indifférent; Jupiter and Antiope; Pierrot; The Two Cousins

|

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* Fra Angelico: Coronation of the Virgin
* Antonello da Messina: Christ at the Column
* Arcimboldo: The Four Seasons
* Bellini: Christ Blessing; Madonna and Child with Saint Peter and Saint Sebastian; Portrait of a Young Man
* Botticelli: Three Scenes from the Life of Esther; Venus and the Three Graces Presenting Gifts to a Young Woman; A Young Man Being Introduced to the Seven Liberal Arts
* Caravaggio: Death of the Virgin; The Fortune Teller; Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page
* Carpaccio: The Sermon of St. Stephen
* Carracci: Fishing; Hunting
* Cimabue: Maestà
* Correggio: Allegory of Vice; Allegory of Virtue; Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine; Venus and Cupid with a Satyr
* Costa: Allegory of Isabella d'Este's Coronation; Reign of Comus
* Ghirlandaio: An Old Man and his Grandson; Visitation
* Giordano: Adoration of the Shepherds; Marriage of the Virgin
* Giotto: Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata
* Guardi: The Doge on the Bucintoro near the Riva di Sant'Elena
* Leonardo: Bacchus; La belle ferronnière; Mona Lisa; Saint John the Baptist; The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne; Virgin of the Rocks
* Lippi: Barbadori Altarpiece; The Healing of Justinian the Canon; Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata
* Lotto: Christ Carrying the Cross; Holy Family with the Family of St John the Baptist; Saint Jerome in Penitence
* Mantegna: Crucifixion; Judgement of Solomon; Madonna della Vittoria; Parnassus; Saint Sebastian; Triumph of the Virtues
* Martini: The Carrying of the Cross
* Moretto: Saints Bonaventure and Anthony of Padua; Saints Bernardino of Siena and Louis of Toulouse
* Palmezzano: Dead Christ
* Panini: Ancient Rome
* Parmigianino: Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine
* Perugino: Apollo and Daphnis; The Battle Between Love and Chastity; Madonna and Child with St John the Baptist and St Catherine of Alexandria; Madonna and Child with St Rose and St Catherine (with Ingegno); St Sebastian; Young Saint with a Sword
* Piero della Francesca: Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta
* Pisanello: Portrait of a Princess
* Pittoni: The Continence of Scipio; Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter
* Raphael: Angel Holding a Phylactery; La belle jardinière; Holy Family of Francis I; Madonna with the Blue Diadem (with Penni); Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione; Saint George; Saint Michael; Saint Michael Vanquishing Satan; Self-Portrait with a Friend; Small Holy Family
* Reni: The Abduction of Helen; Annunciation
* Romano: Portrait of Doña Isabel de Requesens y Enríquez de Cardona-Anglesola (with Raphael)
* Salviati: The Incredulity of Saint Thomas
* Savoldo: Portrait of a Clad Warrior
* Signorelli: Adoration of the Magi; Birth of John the Baptist
* Tintoretto: Self Portrait
* Titian: Allegory of Marriage; The Crowning with Thorns; The Entombment of Christ; Madonna of the Rabbit; Man with a Glove; Pardo Venus; Pastoral Concert (also attributed to Giorgione); Pilgrims at Emmaus; Saint Jerome in Penitence; Virgin and Child with Saints Stephen, Jerome and Maurice; Woman with a Mirror
* Tura: Pietà with Saints
* Uccello: The Battle of San Romano
* Veronese: The Wedding at Cana

Northern|

* Bosch: Ship of Fools
* Bruegel: The Beggars
* Christus: Lamentation (Pietà)
* David: Cervara Altarpiece; Triptych of the Sedano family
* Dürer: Portrait of the Artist Holding a Thistle
* van Dyck: Charles I at the Hunt; Crucifixion with the Virgin Mary, St John and St Mary Magdalene; Madonna and Child with Two Donors
* van Eyck: Madonna of Chancellor Rolin
* Friedrich: The Tree of Crows; Seaside by Moonlight
* Hals: Catharina Both-van der Eem; The Gypsy Girl; The Lute Player
* Holbein: Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam; Portrait of Nicolaus Kratzer
* de Hooch: Card Players in a Rich Interior
* Jordaens: The Four Evangelists
* Matsys: The Money Changer and His Wife
* Memling: Diptych of an elderly couple
* Metsu: The Vegetable Market in Amsterdam
* van Ostade: The Fish Market
* Rembrandt: The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family; Bathsheba at Her Bath; Landscape with a Castle; Pendant portraits of Marten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit; Philosopher in Meditation; Saint Matthew and the Angel; Self-Portrait; Slaughtered Ox
* Rubens: Helena Fourment with a Carriage; Helena Fourment with Children; Hercules and Omphale; Ixion, King of the Lapiths, Deceived by Juno, Who He Wished to Seduce; Marie de' Medici cycle; The Village Fête; The Virgin and Child Surrounded by the Holy Innocents
* Ruisdael: Dune Landscape near Haarlem; The Ray of Light; Storm Off a Sea Coast
* Scheffer: Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil
* Vermeer: The Astronomer; The Lacemaker
* van der Weyden: Annunciation Triptych; Braque Triptych
* Wtewael: Perseus Freeing Andromeda

Spanish|

* El Greco: Christ on the Cross Adored by Two Donors; Portrait of Antonio de Covarrubias; Saint Louis
* Goya: Portrait of Ferdinand Guillemardet; Portrait of the Marquise de la Solana; Still Life of a Lamb's Head and Flanks
* Murillo: The Birth of the Virgin; The Young Beggar
* Ribera: The Clubfoot
* Zurbarán: Displaying the Body of Saint Bonaventure; Saint Apollonia

English|

* Bonington: Francis I, Charles V and the Duchess of Étampes
* Lewis: Street Scene near the El Ghouri Mosque in Cairo

American|

* Leutze: Christopher Columbus Before the Council of Salamanca

* Category

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* France
* BnF data

Other|

* Joconde
* Bildindex

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