Transgender genocide

Characterization of discrimination against trans people

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Transgender genocide or trans genocide is a term used by some scholars and activists to describe an elevated level of systematic discrimination and violence against transgender people.[1][2][3]

The term is related to the common meaning as well as the legal concept of genocide, which the Genocide Convention describes as an intentional effort to completely or partially destroy a group based on its nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. Some legal scholars and transgender rights activists have argued this definition should be expanded to include transgender persons. Others have critiqued the term "transgender genocide" as inappropriate for modern Western contexts, arguing that current levels of discrimination and violence fail to reach the legal definition of genocide.[4][5]

## Background

[edit]

Further information: Violence against LGBT people

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Throughout history, many transgender persons have experienced systematic persecution, including mass incarceration, forceful changes of gender, and social death. Historians have described as genocidal selected actions against transgender people, including colonialist and Nazi activities that occurred before the term genocide was used in international law.[1][2][3] Adam Jones wrote in his 2017 book Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction that "In recent years, as gay rights have become gradually more accepted and respected, the burden of atrocity has increasingly targeted transgender women and male transvestites."[1]

### Nazi Germany

[edit]

Main article: Transgender people in Nazi Germany

German students and Nazi SA members plunder the library of the Institute for Sexology Nazi Party members at the Opernplatz book burning in Berlin

Matthew Waites examines the absence of sexuality, gender, sexual orientation or gender identity as group categories in the Genocide Convention. He argues that those targeted by the Nazis because of their non-conforming gender identities should be recognized as a genocide unique from the Holocaust.[2] According to the Museum of Jewish Heritage, the Nazi German government "brutally targeted the trans community, deporting many trans people to concentration camps and wiping out vibrant community structures."[6] This area of research is underdeveloped and the number of transgender victims is unknown.[7][8] Heather Panter, writing in the book Genocide and Victimology, noted that the number of transgender people targeted by the Nazis was likely lower than the number of gay people targeted.[9][page needed]

The Institute for Sexology published journals on trans and queer issues, hosted the D'Eon Organization, which was founded in 1930 to advocate trans rights, and pioneered early gender-affirming surgeries.[3][10] Matt Fuller and Leah Owen argued that while Nazi anti-queer ideology was "incoherent and erratic", they targeted transgender people with genocide and memoricide. They described the looting and burning of the books at the Institute for Sexology as a form of memoricide. They cited Bauer (2017) to explain a psychological element to this, stating "the mere presence of the bodies and desires of trans people was a challenge, threat, and source of anxiety to many Nazis, meaning they – or the physical archive that reflected their identity – had to be destroyed."[3]

Fuller and Owen found that the Nazis provided varied justifications for their targeting of queer people and that they often conflated trans issues with homosexuality.[3] They noted that in a document outlining the division of labor in the Reich office for the Combatting of Homosexuality and Abortion, "transvesites" were listed as a responsibility of the organization, separately from "all manifestations of homosexuality" and "combating of all enemies of positive population growth", suggesting trans identity was conceived of as a distinct issue and threat by the Nazis. They noted that as part of the 1933 mass incarceration of gay men in Fuhlsbüttel concentration camp, Hamburg city administration told the chief of police to "pay particular attention to transvestites and to deliver them to the concentration camps if necessary."[3]

They further argued that transmasculine and transfeminine individuals faced inconsistent treatment. Masculine presentations from those assigned female at birth were stigmatized: the National Socialist Women's League published a book in 1934 which warned gender ambiguity represented "signs of degeneration emanating from an alien race … inimical to reproduction and for this reason damaging to the Volk. Healthy races do not artificially blur sexual differences" and Himmler complained in 1937 about the "nauseat[ing] catastrophe that was masculinizing [‘young girls and women’] so that, over time, the difference between the sexes, the polarity, is blurred. From there, the path to homosexuality is not too far off." Fuller and Owen noted an inconsistency in individual accounts of transmasculine people. One was forcibly detransitioned, another was detained in Lichtenburg concentration and released 10 months later with a permit from the Gestapo to wear men's clothing, and another was allowed to dress as a man without a permit following a medical examination and a promise that they had never engaged in homosexual relations.[3]

In 2022, the Regional Court of Cologne ruled that denying that trans people were targeted by the Nazis qualifies as "a denial of Nazi crimes".[11]

### Indonesia

[edit]

In the mid-1960s in South Sulawesi, an Islamic militia (Ansor) and an Islamic purification movement (led by Kahar Muzakkar) stigmatized, persecuted, and murdered many among the bissu, a transgender social group. The bissu were seen as objectionable under Islam and, in 1966, an Islamic "Operation Repent" targeted nonconforming Indonesian genders. Bissu rituals were violently suppressed, bissu heads were shorn, and bissu were ordered to conform to male gender roles or die. To demonstrate this coercive threat, a bissu leader was decapitated.[12][13][14]

### Latin America

[edit]

Femicides in Latin America directed towards trans women and travestis are known as travesticide or transfemicide (Spanish: travesticidio or transfemicidio).[15]

#### Brazil

[edit]

Jones describes Brazil's treatment of transgender people as "unquestionably gendercidal", noting that at least one trans person was reported killed every 27 hours in 2014.[1] Brazil has had the highest amount of transgender murder victims in the world since 2009, with the average lifespan of a transgender Brazilian being less than half that of a cisgender Brazilian.[16][17] Activists in Brazil have also described the targeting of transgender people, particularly Afro-Brazilian transgender women, as a genocide.[17][18][19] The neologism transgenerocídio (Portuguese: transgendercide) is a term used in Brazil to classify transgender genocide.[20][21]

### United States

[edit]

Further information: Transgender rights in the United States, 2020s anti-LGBT movement in the United States, and Violence against transgender people in the United States

Sue E. Spivey and Christine Robinson have argued that the ex-gay movement, which encourages transgender as well as other LGBT people to renounce their identities, advocates social death and therefore could meet some legal definitions of genocide.[22] Spivey and Robinson argued that "by waging a culture war using hate propaganda and misusing scientific research to gain public legitimacy, the movement seeks to deploy state powers and the medical profession to perpetrate genocidal acts on its behalf."[23]

Transgender journalists Emily St. James and Katelyn Burns have described some US laws as meeting criteria mentioned in the United Nations definition of genocide, including laws banning gender-affirming care ("causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part"), and those allowing child protective services to pursue child abuse claims against the parents of children receiving gender-affirming care and remove said children ("forcibly transferring children of the group to another group").[24][25]

Transgender healthcare bans in the US have been condemned by medical organizations. A report published by Yale School of Medicine in response to bans on gender-affirming care in Alabama and Texas argued that the bans were no more ethical than a prohibition on healthcare for any other life-threatening medical condition.[26] The president of World Professional Association of Transgender Health wrote an opinion article in the New York Times stating her view that these laws constituted an effort to "rid the world of transgender people."[27] Similar sentiments were expressed in a WPATH public communique: "Anti-transgender health care legislation is not about protections for children but about eliminating transgender persons on a micro and macro scale."[28]

The use of the term "transgender genocide" has been contested by hate crime expert Bernie Farber of the Canadian Jewish Congress as being insensitive to victims of recognized genocides, such as the Holocaust, because it does not meet the legal test, despite the "terrible crimes against the community."[29]

## Scholarship

[edit]

### International law

[edit]

Some scholars have argued that the definition of genocide should be applied to transgender persons, or expanded to cover transgender persons, because they are victims of institutional discrimination, persecution, and violence.[30][31] In a 2008 academic article in hate studies, Jeremy Kidd and Tarynn Witten argue that the abuse and violence against transgender people would qualify as genocide as defined by the Genocide Convention, if the definition was expanded to include gender identity and sexual orientation.[32] In line with the convention, they argue that transphobic discrimination and violence are not random or atomized, but rather come from the intent "to eradicate a group of people who violate a widely held and popularly reinforced norm of binary gender with a connection to heteronormative sexuality."[32] They say that this motive of "eradication/annihilation" (p. 51) is systemic, pandemic, institutionalized (e.g., through the penal system and military), and spread widely through media and film. They say that transgender people face an increased risk of abuse and violence throughout their lives and that, despite being targeted in ways that fit some criteria of the Genocide Convention, they do not have access to the same legal protections as other groups.[33]

The Rome Statute, a 1998 treaty that established the International Criminal Court and codified investigations into genocide, outlines a definition of gender-based persecution. This definition, however, only "refers to the two sexes, male and female."[34] Valerie Oosterveld attributed this definition to conservative political pressure from states like Azerbaijan, the Holy See, and some nongovernmental organizations in the lead-up to the treaty's adoption.[35] While this definition has not yet been litigated at the ICC, it is likely that it would be used to exclude transgender people from international legal protections.[34]

In a 2014 article, Brian Kritz assessed the ability of the International Criminal Court to protect and promote transgender rights, arguing that existing law should be explicitly extended to transgender people.[36] He noted that the lack of existing protections for transgender people under international law was in-and-of-itself "a violation of the basic human rights of the global transgender and intersex populations."[37]

Scholars have made similar arguments regarding the legal definition of crimes against humanity.[38][39]

In the past, international courts have interpreted genocidal sexual violence to be a problem of cisgender women alone, often classifying the same systematic sexual violence against all members, who are not cisgender women, as crimes against humanity, as was done by the United Nations International Fact-Finding Mission for Myanmar. Eichert argues that this interpretation "discounts the suffering of victims and needlessly weakens attempts to identify, prevent, and punish the crime of genocide" and pleads for the field to adopt a broader understanding of genocidal sexual violence, which is not limited to cisgender women alone.[40]

### Genocide studies

[edit]

Genocide studies research that focuses exclusively on transgender people is rare, with Lily Nellans noting that "the unique and specific experiences of queer people during genocide remain absent from this type of research, limiting our understanding of genocidal processes".[41]: 51 Henry Theriault has argued that discrimination against transgender people is "largely tolerated" despite the fact that identical laws targeting other marginalized people would spark severe public outcry.[42]

Alexander Laban Hinton, an anthropologist focused on genocide, has criticized what he characterizes as "the prioritization of certain protected groups and not others" in established legal definitions of genocide, specifically noting transgender people as a group that could never be targeted by genocide in the status quo.[43] Haley Marie Brown describes violence against transgender women as a "life force atrocity" that is justified using genocidal logic, describing how such violence is often coupled with attempts to eliminate any evidence of a person's transness through complete destruction of their bodies.[44]

Leah Owen, a lecturer at Swansea University, has argued that anti-transgender ideologies rely on "discourses of 'toxification'", drawing on a paper by Rhiannon Neilsen[45] that proposed "toxification" as a more precise alternative to the traditional fourth stage of genocide, dehumanization. Owen compares Nielsen's concept of toxification, in which groups of people are compared to pathogens or threats and their removal from society is necessitated, to statements from Popes Benedict XVI and Francis, Janice Raymond, Abigail Shrier, and Helen Joyce,[46]: 486–488 arguing that regardless of agreement on other issues, anti-transgender activists consistently seek to reduce or eliminate transgender people's public presence. Nevertheless, she refrains from claiming that the modern anti-gender movement is inciting genocide yet, arguing that it lacks a securitizing urge to mobilize against transgender people.[46]

### Biomedical and genetic ethics

[edit]

Rachel Anne Williams, in a 2019 book, suggested that biomedical research on trans identity may increase the practice of trans genocide.[47][better source needed] Such concerns were reflected in the findings of two 2022 articles in genetics journals about perspectives on trans-associated genetic research (TAGR).[48][failed verification] Many of those surveyed by Rajkovic et alia believe that genetic research could end up with a kind of "eugenics" that would, in effect, "eliminate" transgender people, while some respondents feared that, in more transphobic areas, trans-associated research would lead to "medical genocide".[49]

Sterilization that is forced upon transgender people, in order to obtain legal recognition, is characterized by political theorist Anna Carastathis as a violation of reproductive rights, eugenic, and genocidal.[50] On the extent of this practice among European counties, she cites a 2013 report by the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.[51] Recognizing that transgender persons are not covered by legal definitions of genocide, she argues "that trans people are systematically written out of legal existence" both through the compulsory sterilization and their exclusion from the Genocide Convention.[50] In contradistinction to Carastathis, political scientist Jemima Repo[a] argues that compulsory sterilization does give transgender people a political existence, but at the expense of a capacity to extend kinship (i.e., family) into the future. As a result, Repo says that reproduction, at least in Finland, becomes a mode of transgender resistance in the face of sterilization demands.[53]

### Other fields

[edit]

Transgender genocide has been examined by scholars of queer studies, hate studies, and other fields.[32][2]

## Activism

[edit]

Trans and other queer activists have used the term "transgender genocide" to oppose discrimination and violence against transgender people, especially when seen as a global phenomenon.[54] In 2013, it was reported that, "...a coalition of NGOs from South America and Europe started the 'Stop Trans Genocide' campaign."[55][56][57] For example, the term was used by a Latin American trans activist who sought asylum in Germany.[58] In 2018, Planned Parenthood of New York City president Laura McQuade said in a speech that a Trump administration proposal to change federal recognition of transgender persons would lead to genocide.[59]

## See also

[edit]

* Transgender portal
* Genocide portal

* List of people killed for being transgender
* AIDS–Holocaust metaphor
* Black genocide
* Gender and violence

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Jemima Repo has a Political Science PhD from the University of Helsinki.[52]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 637–639. ISBN 9781138780439.
2. ^ a b c d Waites 2018, p. 55.
3. ^ a b c d e f g Fuller, Matt; Owen, Leah (October 2, 2022). "Nazi Gender Ideology, Memoricide, and the Attack on the Berlin Institute for Sexual Research". Peace Review. 34 (4): 529–540. doi:10.1080/10402659.2022.2131383. ISSN 1040-2659. S2CID 252791832.
4. ^ Grant, Sarah (January 9, 2015). "The 'quiet genocide' against the transgender community". CBC Radio. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
5. ^ Gorcenski, Emily (March 8, 2023). "The Mythologies of Genocide". Archived from the original on March 24, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
6. ^ "Transgender Experiences in Weimar and Nazi Germany". Museum of Jewish Heritage — A Living Memorial to the Holocaust. Archived from the original on June 28, 2023. Retrieved June 19, 2023.
7. ^ Carlo, Andrea (April 7, 2022). "How LGBTQ Victims Were Erased From Holocaust History". Time. Archived from the original on June 8, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
8. ^ Bradlow, Josh (January 27, 2020). "Remembering the Holocaust". Stonewall UK. Archived from the original on December 22, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
9. ^ Panter, Heather (2020). "LGBT+ Genocide: Understand hetero-nationalism and the politics of psychological silence". In Eski, Yarin (ed.). Genocide and Victimology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-31171-8.
10. ^ Sutton, Katie (2012). ""We Too Deserve a Place in the Sun": The Politics of Transvestite Identity in Weimar Germany". German Studies Review. 35 (2): 348. doi:10.1353/gsr.2012.a478043. JSTOR 23269669 - via JSTOR.
11. ^ "Vollbrecht-Tweet darf als Leugnung von NS-Verbrechen bezeichnet werden" [Vollbrecht tweet can be described as a denial of Nazi crimes]. Der Spiegel (in German). November 11, 2022. Archived from the original on June 16, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
12. ^ Davies, Sharyn Graham (2010). Gender Diversity in Indonesia: Sexuality, Islam and Queer Selves. Routledge. ISBN 9781135169831.
13. ^ Boellstorff, Tom (2005). The Gay Archipelago: Sexuality and Nation in Indonesia. Princeton University Press. p. 39\. ISBN 9780691123349.
14. ^ Sutton, R. Anderson (2002). Calling Back the Spirit: Music, Dance, and Cultural Politics in Lowland South Sulawesi. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 9780195354652.
15. ^

* "Informe especial: travesticidios y transfemicidios (2016–2021)" [Special report: transvesticides and transfemicides (2016–2021)]. Oficina de la Mujer (in Spanish). December 29, 2022. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023.
* Stewart, Chuck (November 9, 2020). Gender and Identity around the World [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-6795-8.
* Gago, Veronica (November 17, 2020). Feminist International: How to Change Everything. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78873-969-6.
* Tinsley, Omise'eke Natasha (November 6, 2018). Beyoncé in Formation: Remixing Black Feminism. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773-1839-3.

16. ^ Bowater, Donna; Moraes, Priscilla (April 22, 2015). "Brazil: Targeting trans people with impunity". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on April 16, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
17. ^ a b Pinheiro, Ester (January 23, 2022). "Brazil continues to be the country with the largest number of trans people killed". Brasil de Fato. Translated by Rocha, Ana Paula. Archived from the original on August 18, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
18. ^ Swift, Jaimee A. (February 23, 2021). "Gender and Racial Violence Against Afro-Brazilian LGBTQ+ Women". Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Politics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1700. ISBN 978-0-19-022863-7.
19. ^ Araujo, Felipe Neis (February 28, 2022). "Harm Reduction and Liberation for Black Trans Drug Users in Brazil". Filter. Archived from the original on April 23, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
20. ^ "O crime de feminicídio e o combate à violência contra as mulheres: a ineficácia das medidas protetivas" [The crime of femicide and the fight against violence against women: the ineffectiveness of protective measures]. Boletim Jurídico (in Brazilian Portuguese). June 7, 2021. Archived from the original on May 5, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
21. ^ "Feminicídio" [Femicide]. Todo Estudo (in Brazilian Portuguese). May 25, 2021. Archived from the original on May 7, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
22. ^ Spivey & Robinson 2010, pp. 68–70.
23. ^ Spivey & Robinson 2010, p. 83.
24. ^ St. James, Emily (March 24, 2022). "The time to panic about anti-trans legislation is now". Vox. Archived from the original on August 22, 2024.
25. ^ Burns, Katelyn (March 4, 2022). "Greg Abbott's death wish for trans kids is on full display". MSNBC. Archived from the original on August 15, 2024.
26. ^ Boulware, Susan; Kamody, Rebecca; Kuper, Laura. "Biased Science: The Texas and Alabama Measures Criminalizing Medical Treatment for Transgender Children and Adolescents Rely on Inaccurate and Misleading Scientific Claims" (PDF). Yale School of Medicine. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 16, 2024. Retrieved July 17, 2023.
27. ^ Bowers, Marci (April 2023). "What Decades of Providing Trans Health Care Have Taught Me". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 17, 2023. Retrieved July 17, 2023.
28. ^ "Statement of Opposition to Legislation Banning Access to Gender-Affirming Health Care in the US" (PDF). World Professional Association of Transgender Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 12, 2023. Retrieved July 17, 2023.
29. ^ Grant, Sarah (January 9, 2015). "The 'quiet genocide' against the transgender community". CBC Radio. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022. ""terrible crimes against the community" (17:25)"
30. ^ Purnomo, Anandy Satrio (2020). "The Urgency to Include Gender as Protected Group Under the Crime of Genocide". Padjadjaran Journal of International Law. 4 (1): 79–93. doi:10.23920/pjil.v4i1.344. S2CID 235049254.
31. ^ Kritz 2014; Kidd & Witten 2008, pp. 51–54; Eichert 2021; Waites 2018, p. 55
32. ^ a b c Kidd & Witten 2008, pp. 51–54.
33. ^ Kidd & Witten 2008, p. 24.
34. ^ a b Chertoff, Emily (2017). "Prosecuting Gender-Based Persecution: The Islamic State at the ICC". The Yale Law Journal. 126 (4): 1053. JSTOR 4486334 - via JSTOR.
35. ^ Oosterveld, Valarie (2006). "Gender, Persecution, and the International Criminal Court: Refugee Law's Relevance to the Crime against Humanity of Gender-Based Persecution". Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law. 17 (49): 57–58. Archived from the original on March 11, 2024.
36. ^ Kritz 2014.
37. ^ Kritz 2014, p. 38.
38. ^ Moore, Charles Barrera (2017). "Embracing Ambiguity and Adopting Propriety: Using Comparative Law to Explore Avenues for Protecting the LGBT Population under Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court" (PDF). Minnesota Law Review. 101 (157): 1287.
39. ^ Hagopian, Andrew Summer (2016). "Persecution and Protection of Sexual and Gender Minorities under Article 7(1)(h) of the Rome Statute". SOAS Law Journal. 3 (55).
40. ^ Eichert 2021.
41. ^ Nellans, Lily (December 21, 2020). "A Queer(er) Genocide Studies". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (3): 48–68. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.3.1786. S2CID 234544443. Archived from the original on March 1, 2024.
42. ^ Theriault, Henry C. (2012). "Against the Grain: Critical Reflections on the State and Future of Genocide Scholarship". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 7 (1): 137. doi:10.3138/gsp.7.1.123. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023.
43. ^ Hinton, Alexander L. (December 20, 2019). "The First Lesson in Prevention". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 13 (3): 137. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.13.3.1677. S2CID 213684697. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023.
44. ^ Brown, Haley Marie (2022). "The forgotten murders: Gendercide in the twenty-first century and the destruction of the transgender body". In Cox, John; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.). Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide. New York: Routledge. pp. 184–195. ISBN 9780367818982.
45. ^ Neilsen, Rhiannon (May 1, 2015). "'Toxification' as a more precise early warning sign for genocide than dehumanization? An emerging research agenda". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 9 (1): 83–95. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.9.1.1277. ISSN 1911-0359. Archived from the original on April 18, 2024.
46. ^ a b Owen, Leah (October 2, 2022). ""Parasitically Occupying Bodies": Exploring Toxifying Securitization in Anti-Trans and Genocidal Ideologies". Peace Review. 34 (4): 481–494. doi:10.1080/10402659.2022.2129000. ISSN 1040-2659.
47. ^ Williams, Rachel Anne (2019). Transgressive: A Trans Woman on Gender, Feminism, and Politics. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 40\. ISBN 978-1785926471. "I worry that the "born this way" narrative is dangerous fodder for conservatives and bigots hellbent on trans genocide. If we find a biological cause of trans identity, would some parents screen and terminate their babies if they thought they'd turn out trans?"
48. ^ Hammack-Aviran, Catherine; Eilmus, Ayden; Diehl, Carolyn; Gottlieb, Keanan Gabriel; Gonzales, Gilbert; Davis, Lea K.; Clayton, Ellen Wright (2022). "LGBTQ+ Perspectives on Conducting Genomic Research on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity". Behavior Genetics. 52 (4–5): 246–267. doi:10.1007/s10519-022-10105-y. PMC 9132750. PMID 35614288.
49. ^ Rajkovic, Antoine; Cirino, Allison L.; Berro, Tala; Koeller, Diane R.; Zayhowski, Kimberly (2022). "Transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) individuals' perspectives on research seeking genetic variants associated with TGD identities: A qualitative study". Journal of Community Genetics. 13 (1): 31–48. doi:10.1007/s12687-021-00554-z. PMC 8799808. PMID 34637070.
50. ^ a b Carastathis, Anna (2015). "Compulsory sterilisation of transgender people as gendered violence". In Kantsa, Venetia; Zanini, Giulia; Papadopoulou, Lina (eds.). (In)Fertile Citizens: Anthropological and Legal Challenges of Assisted Reproduction Technologies (PDF). University of the Aegean. pp. 79–92. ISBN 978-618-82208-5-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2024.
51. ^ Méndez, Juan E. (February 1, 2013). Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Juan E. Méndez (PDF) (Report). A/HRC/22/53. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
52. ^ "Dr Jemima Repo". Newcastle University. Archived from the original on February 23, 2024.
53. ^ Repo, Jemima. (2019). "Governing juridical sex: Gender recognition and the biopolitics of trans sterilization in Finland". Politics & Gender. 15 (1): 83–106. doi:10.1017/S1743923X1800034X.
54. ^

* Jauk, Daniela (2016). "Transgender Movements in International Perspective". In Wong, W. C. A.; Wickramasinghe, M.; hoogland, r.; Naples, N. A. (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781118663219.
* Gray, Ian (March 27, 2019). Stop Trans Genocide – CeDoSTALC Report 2018 – Belize (Report). Archived from the original on July 10, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
* Torchia, Franco (March 1, 2019). "Cuerpos que no importan: el silenciado genocidio travesti-trans" [Bodies that do not matter: the silenced transvestite-trans genocide]. Infobae (in Spanish). Archived from the original on March 25, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
* Nadel, Kevin L., ed. (2017). "Stop Trans Genocide". The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender (9781483384283 ed.). SAGE Publishing. p. 1697.
* "Montana tries again with another transgender genocide Law". QueerMed. May 1, 2021. Archived from the original on May 17, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2022.

55. ^ Morgan, Joe (November 15, 2013). "238 trans people, at least, murdered worldwide this past year". Gaystar News. Archived from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
56. ^ Hammers, Michele L.; Lozano, Nina M.; Rich, Craig O. (2020). "One Step Forward…: Gender, communication and the fragility of gender(ed) political progress". In Goins, Marnel Niles; McAlister, Joan Faber; Alexander, Bryant Keith (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Gender and Communication. Routledge. p. 264.
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59. ^ Maskar, Noah (October 24, 2018). "NYC Advocates Slam Trump's Push For Transgender 'Genocide'". Patch. Archived from the original on September 17, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2022.

### Works cited

[edit]

* Eichert, David (2021). "Expanding the Gender of Genocidal Sexual Violence: Towards the Inclusion of Men, Transgender Women, and People Outside the Binary". UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs. 25 (2). Archived from the original on December 28, 2023.
* Kidd, Jeremy D.; Witten, Tarynn M. (2008). "Transgender and transsexual identities: the next strange fruit – hate crimes, violence and genocide against the global trans-communities". Journal of Hate Studies. 6 (3): 31–62. hdl:20.500.12389/21379.
* Kritz, Brian (2014). "The global transgender population and the International Criminal Court" (PDF). Yale Human Rights and Development Law Journal. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2024.
* Spivey, Sue E.; Robinson, Christine M. (April 2010). "Genocidal Intentions: Social Death and the Ex-Gay Movement". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 5 (1): 68–88. doi:10.3138/gsp.5.1.68. Archived from the original on August 16, 2024.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Brown, Haley Marie (2021). "The forgotten murders: Gendercide in the twenty-first century and the destruction of the transgender body". Denial: The Final Stage of Genocide?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-43734-8.
* Panter, Heather (2020). "LGBT+ Genocide: Understanding hetero-nationalism and the politics of psychological silence". Genocide and Victimology. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-85844-4.
* von Joeden-Forgey, Elisa (2022). "Gender and genocide". In Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (eds.). Genocide: Key Themes. Oxford University Press. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-0-19-286526-7.
* Waites, Matthew (2018). "Genocide and Global Queer Politics". Journal of Genocide Research. 20 (1): 44–67. doi:10.1080/14623528.2017.1358920. S2CID 148737818.

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Genocide

Genocides
(list by death toll)|

Before 1490

* Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE)
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* Eburones
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* Ancestral Puebloans (800s)
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* Cathars (1209–1229)
* Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311)
* Assyria (1393–1394)
* Guanches (1402–1496)

1490 to 1913

* Taíno (1492–1514)
* Ainu (1500s–)
* Indigenous peoples in Brazil (1500–)
* Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872)
* Huguenots (1572)
* Kalinago (1626)
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1913 to 1945

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* Sook Ching (1942)
* Nanshitou Massacre (1942–1945)
* Volhynia (1943–1945)
* Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948)
* Crimean Tatars (1944–1948)

1946 to 1999

* Hyderabadi Muslims (1948)
* Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989)
* Guatemalan (1962–1996)
* Arabs in Zanzibar (1964)
* 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966)
* Biafra (1966–1970)
* Feyli Kurds (1970–2003)
* Bangladesh (1971)
* Burundi
* 1972
* 1993
* East Timor (1974–1999)
* Cambodian (1975–1979)
* Chittagong Hill Tracts (1977–1997)
* Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982)
* Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009)
* Gukurahundi (1983–1987)
* Kuwaiti Bedoon (1985–)
* Anfal (1986–1989)
* Isaaq (1987–1989)
* National Population Program (1987–2002)
* Amhara (1990–)
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* Bosnian (1992–1995)
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21st century

* Effacer le tableau (2002–2003)
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* Southern Kaduna (2011–2023)
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* Shias under ISIS (2014–)
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* Rohingya (2017–)
* Gaza Strip (2023–)

Terms|

* Democide
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* Domicide

Methods|

* Cultural genocide
* Rape
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* Extermination camp
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* Incitement
* Settler colonialism

Denial|

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* Rwandan
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* Indigenous

Issues|

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* Politics of recognition
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Legal proceedings|

Holocaust trials (1943–2022)

* Krasnodar trial (1943)
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* Chełmno trials (1945–2001)
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* Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)
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* Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949)
* Erich von Manstein (1949)
* Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958)
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* Eichmann trial (1961)
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* Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989)
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* Fedorenko trial (1986)
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20th century

* Budak trial (1945)
* International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948)
* Belgrade Process (1946)
* Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007)
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
* Slobodan Milošević (2002–2006)
* Radovan Karadžić (2008–2016)
* Ratko Mladić (2011–2017)
* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015)
* Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022)
* Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015)

21st century

* International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–)
* International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–)
* Rohingya genocide case (2019–)
* Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–)
* Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–)
* South Africa v. Israel (2023–)
* Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024)
* Nicaragua v. Germany (2024)

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