Tuberculosis vaccines

Vaccines to prevent tuberculosis

Tuberculosis vaccines

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Tuberculosis (TB) vaccines are vaccinations intended for the prevention of tuberculosis. Immunotherapy as a defence against TB was first proposed in 1890 by Robert Koch.[1] As of 2021, the only effective tuberculosis vaccine in common use is the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, first used on humans in 1921.[2][3][4] It consists of attenuated (weakened) strains of the cattle tuberculosis bacillus. It is recommended for babies in countries where tuberculosis is common.

About three out of every 10,000 people who get the vaccine experience side effects, which are usually minor except in severely immuno-depressed individuals. While BCG immunization provides fairly effective protection for infants and young children[5] (including defence against TB meningitis and miliary TB),[6][7] its efficacy in adults is variable,[8] ranging from 0% to 80%.[6][9] Several variables have been considered as responsible for the varying outcomes.[6] Demand for TB immunotherapy advancement exists because the disease has become increasingly drug-resistant.[1]

Other tuberculosis vaccines are at various stages of development, including:

* MVA85A, a viral vector vaccine that uses an MVA virus engineered to express a tuberculosis bacillus antigen in host cells. Human and animal trials were disappointing.
* rBCG30 is a version of the BCG vaccine engineered to express a higher amount of a certain antigen. It showed promise in animal tests in 2003[10] and phase I human trials in 2008.[11]
* MTBVAC,[12] an attenuated form of Myobacterium tuberculosis. Phase II trials were completed in 2021 and 2022; phase III trials began in 2022 and will run until 2029.[13][14]
* M72/AS01E, consisting of two fused tuberculosis bacillus protein antigens together with the adjuvant AS01. It is intended to prevent tuberculosis in people with a latent infection. Promising phase II trials were completed in 2018 and phase III trials are planned.[15]
* GamTBVak, A subunit recombinant anti-tuberculosis vaccine for the prevention of pulmonary tuberculosis in adults, which is at the stage of clinical research. It contains Ag85A and ESAT-6-CFP-10 antigens in combination with an adjuvant. Developed by the N. F. Gamalei National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology. As of May 2022, phase III clinical trials are underway, data on phase I/II studies are also published in the ClinicalTrials database. A phase I clinical trial on 12 volunteers confirmed the safety and immunological efficacy of the vaccine.

New vaccines are being developed by the Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative (TBVI).

## Vaccine development

[edit]

To promote successful and lasting management of the TB epidemic, effective vaccination is required.[16] Although the World Health Organization (WHO) endorses a single dose of BCG, revaccination with BCG has been standardized in most, but not all countries.[1][8] However, improved efficacy of multiple dosages has yet to be demonstrated.[8]

Vaccine development is proceeding along several paths:[citation needed]

* Development of a new prime vaccine to replace BCG
* Development of sub-unit or booster vaccines to supplement BCG
* Pre-infection
* Booster to BCG
* Post-infection
* Therapeutic vaccine
* Development of more effective routes of administration for BCG[17][18]

Since the BCG vaccine does not offer complete protection against TB, vaccines have been designed to bolster BCG's effectiveness. The industry has now transitioned from developing new alternatives, to selecting the best options currently available to advance into clinical testing.[7] MVA85A was characterized as the "most advanced 'boost' candidate" in 2007.[2] It has since fallen short of its goals.[19][20]

### Delivery alternatives

[edit]

BCG is currently administered intradermally.[2] To improve efficacy, research approaches have been directed at modifying the delivery method of vaccinations.[citation needed] For example, BCG has much higher protection rates with intravenous injection in monkeys, though some safety questions must be answered before it can be tested on humans.[18]

Patients can receive MVA85A intradermally or as an oral aerosol.[2] This particular combination proved to be protective against mycobacterial invasion in animals, and both modes are well tolerated.[2] The design incentive behind aerosol delivery is to target the lungs rapidly, easily and painlessly[9] in contrast to intradermal immunization. In murine studies, intradermal vaccination caused localized inflammation at the site of injection whereas MVA85A did not cause unfavourable effects.[2] A correlation has been found between the mode of delivery and vaccine protection efficacy.[2] Research data suggests aerosol delivery has not only physiological and economic advantages,[9] but also the potential to supplement systemic vaccination.[2]

### Obstacles in development

[edit]

Treatment and prevention of TB has been delayed compared to the resources and research efforts put into other diseases. Large pharmaceutical companies do not see profitable investment because of TB's association with the developing world.[6]

Progression of vaccine designs relies heavily on outcomes in animal models. Appropriate animal models are scarce because it is difficult to imitate TB in non-human species.[5][6] It is also challenging finding a species to test on a large scale.[5] Most animal testing for TB vaccines has been conducted on murine, bovine and non-primate species.[5] A 2013 study deemed zebrafish a potentially suitable model organism for preclinical vaccine development.[5]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Prabowo, Satria A.; Gröschel, Matthias I.; Schmidt, Ed D. L.; Skrahina, Alena; Mihaescu, Traian; Hastürk, Serap; Mitrofanov, Rotislav; Pimkina, Edita; Visontai, Ildikó; de Jong, Bouke; Stanford, John L.; Cardona, Père-Joan; Kaufmann, Stefan H. E.; van der Werf, Tjip S. (2013-04-01). "Targeting multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) by therapeutic vaccines". Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 202 (2): 95–104\. doi:10.1007/s00430-012-0278-6. ISSN 1432-1831.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h White, A. D.; Sibley, L.; Dennis, M. J.; Gooch, K.; Betts, G.; Edwards, N.; Reyes-Sandoval, A.; Carroll, M. W.; Williams, A.; Marsh, P. D.; McShane, H.; Sharpe, S. A. (May 2013). "Evaluation of the Safety and Immunogenicity of a Candidate Tuberculosis Vaccine, MVA85A, Delivered by Aerosol to the Lungs of Macaques". Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 20 (5): 663–672\. doi:10.1128/CVI.00690-12. PMC 3647747. PMID 23446219.
3. ^ McShane H (October 2011). "Tuberculosis vaccines: beyond bacille Calmette-Guerin". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 366 (1579): 2782–89\. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0097. PMC 3146779. PMID 21893541.
4. ^ "Vaccines | Basic TB Facts". CDC. 16 June 2021. Archived from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
5. ^ a b c d e Oksanen, Kaisa E.; Halfpenny, Nicholas J. A.; Sherwood, Eleanor; Harjula, Sanna-Kaisa E.; Hammarén, Milka M.; Ahava, Maarit J.; Pajula, Elina T.; Lahtinen, Marika J.; Parikka, Mataleena; Rämet, Mika (2013-10-25). "An adult zebrafish model for preclinical tuberculosis vaccine development". Vaccine. 31 (45): 5202–5209\. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.08.093. ISSN 0264-410X. PMID 24055305.
6. ^ a b c d e Hussey, Gregory; Hawkridge, Tony; Hanekom, Willem (2007-06-01). "Childhood tuberculosis: old and new vaccines". Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 8 (2): 148–154\. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2007.04.009. ISSN 1526-0542. PMID 17574159.
7. ^ a b Verma, Indu; and Grover, Ajay (2009-11-01). "Antituberculous vaccine development: a perspective for the endemic world". Expert Review of Vaccines. 8 (11): 1547–1553\. doi:10.1586/erv.09.111. ISSN 1476-0584. PMID 19863247.
8. ^ a b c "Randomised controlled trial of single BCG, repeated BCG, or combined BCG and killed Mycobacterium leprae vaccine for prevention of leprosy and tuberculosis in Malawi. Karonga Prevention Trial Group". Lancet. 348 (9019): 17–24\. 1996-07-06. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)02166-6. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 8691924.
9. ^ a b c Tyne, Anneliese S.; Chan, John Gar Yan; Shanahan, Erin R.; Atmosukarto, Ines; Chan, Hak-Kim; Britton, Warwick J.; West, Nicholas P. (2013-09-13). "TLR2-targeted secreted proteins from Mycobacterium tuberculosis are protective as powdered pulmonary vaccines". Vaccine. 31 (40): 4322–4329\. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.07.022. hdl:1885/66093. ISSN 0264-410X. PMID 23880366.
10. ^ Horwitz, Marcus A.; Harth, Günter (2003). "A New Vaccine against Tuberculosis Affords Greater Survival after Challenge than the Current Vaccine in the Guinea Pig Model of Pulmonary Tuberculosis". Infection and Immunity. 71 (4): 1672–1679\. doi:10.1128/IAI.71.4.1672-1679.2003. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 152073. PMID 12654780.
11. ^ Hoft, Daniel F.; Blazevic, Azra; Abate, Getahun; Hanekom, Willem A.; Kaplan, Gilla; Soler, Jorge H.; Weichold, Frank; Geiter, Larry; Sadoff, Jerald C.; Horwitz, Marcus A. (2008-11-15). "A new recombinant bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine safely induces significantly enhanced tuberculosis-specific immunity in human volunteers". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 198 (10): 1491–1501\. doi:10.1086/592450. ISSN 0022-1899. PMC 2670060. PMID 18808333.
12. ^ Arbuesab, Ainhoa; Aguilo, Juan I.; Gonzalo-Asensio, Jesus; Marinova, Dessislava; Uranga, Santiago; Puentes, Eugenia; Fernandez, Conchita; Parra, Alberto; Cardona, Pere Joan; Vilaplana, Cristina; Ausin, Vicente; Williams, Ann; Clark, Simon; Malaga, Wladimir; Guilhoth, Christophe; Gicquel, Brigitte; Martin, Carlos (1 October 2013). "Construction, characterization and preclinical evaluation of MTBVAC, the first live-attenuated M. tuberculosis-based vaccine to enter clinical trials". Vaccine. 31 (42): 4867–4873\. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.07.051. PMID 23965219. S2CID 6225547.
13. ^ Martín, Carlos; Marinova, Dessislava; Aguiló, Nacho; Gonzalo-Asensio, Jesús (2021-12-08). "MTBVAC, a live TB vaccine poised to initiate efficacy trials 100 years after BCG". Vaccine. 100 Years of the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Vaccine. 39 (50): 7277–7285\. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.06.049. ISSN 0264-410X. PMID 34238608. S2CID 235777018.
14. ^ "NCT04975178". www.clinicaltrials.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
15. ^ Tozer, Lilly (2023-06-28). "Promising tuberculosis vaccine gets US$550-million shot in the arm". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-02171-x. PMID 37380847. S2CID 259285120.
16. ^ Tameris, Michele D.; Hatherill, Mark; Landry, Bernard S.; Scriba, Thomas J.; Snowden, Margaret Ann; Lockhart, Stephen; Shea, Jacqueline E.; McClain, J. Bruce; Hussey, Gregory D.; Hanekom, Willem A.; Mahomed, Hassan; McShane, Helen (2013-03-23). "Safety and efficacy of MVA85A, a new tuberculosis vaccine, in infants previously vaccinated with BCG: a randomised, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial". The Lancet. 381 (9871): 1021–1028\. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60177-4. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 5424647. PMID 23391465.
17. ^ "Novel inhaled TB vaccine | University of Oxford". 15 January 2024. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
18. ^ a b "The trick that could inject new life into an old tuberculosis vaccine". Nature. 577 (7789): 145. January 2020. Bibcode:2020Natur.577..145.. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00003-w. PMID 31911698. S2CID 210044794.
19. ^ Kashangura, Rufaro; Jullien, Sophie; Garner, Paul; Johnson, Samuel (2019-04-30). Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group (ed.). "MVA85A vaccine to enhance BCG for preventing tuberculosis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (4). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012915.pub2. PMC 6488980. PMID 31038197.
20. ^ Walsh, Fergus (4 February 2013). "Tuberculosis vaccine hopes dashed". BBC News. Retrieved 4 February 2013.

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