Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt

"Kushite Empire" redirects here. For the kingdom south of Egypt, see Kingdom of Kush.

Kushite rule in Egypt during the third intermediate period

Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt

754 BC–656 BC

Statues of various rulers of the late 25th Dynasty–early Napatan period. From left to right: Tantamani, Taharqa (rear), Senkamanisken, again Tantamani (rear), Aspelta, Anlamani, again Senkamanisken; Kerma Museum.[1]

Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the 25th dynasty of Egypt, c. 700 BC[2]

Capital| Napata
Memphis
Common languages| Egyptian, Meroitic
Religion

| Ancient Egyptian religion Kushite religion
Government| Monarchy
Pharaoh|

• 744–712 BC

| Piye (first)

• 664–656 BC

| Tantamani (last)
Historical era| Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

• Established

| 754 BC

• Disestablished

| 656 BC

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt

|

| Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
| Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
| Kingdom of Kush
| Late Period of ancient Egypt |

|

Assyrian conquest of Egypt |
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt |
Kingdom of Kush |

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XXV, alternatively 25th Dynasty or Dynasty 25), also known as the Nubian Dynasty, the Kushite Empire, the Black Pharaohs,[2][3] or the Napatans, after their capital Napata,[4] was the last dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt that occurred after the Kushite invasion.

The 25th dynasty was a line of pharaohs who originated in the Kingdom of Kush, located in present-day northern Sudan and Upper Egypt. Most of this dynasty's kings saw Napata as their spiritual homeland. They reigned in part or all of Ancient Egypt for nearly a century, from 744 to 656 BC.[5][6][7][8]

The 25th dynasty was highly Egyptianized, using the Egyptian language and writing system as their medium of record and exhibiting an unusual devotion to Egypt's religious, artistic, and literary traditions. Earlier scholars have ascribed the origins of the dynasty to immigrants from Egypt, particularly the Egyptian Amun priests.[9][10][11] The third intermediate-period Egyptian stimulus view is still maintained by prominent scholars, especially that excavations from el-Kurru cemetery, the key site to the origin of the Napata state, show sudden Egyptian arrivals and influence during the 3rd intermediate period, concurrent with the Egyptianization process.[12][13]

The 25th Dynasty's reunification of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and Kush created the largest Egyptian empire since the New Kingdom. They assimilated into society by reaffirming Ancient Egyptian religious traditions, temples, and artistic forms, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture.[14] It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in what is now Northern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.[15][16][17]

After Sargon II and Sennacherib defeated attempts by the Nubian kings to gain a foothold in the Near East, their successors Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal invaded Egypt and defeated the dynasty, in the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. The fall of the 25th Dynasty marks the start of the Late Period of ancient Egypt. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty was initially a puppet dynasty installed by and vassals of the Assyrians, and was the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the invasion by the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

The traditional representation of the dynasty as "Black Pharaohs" has attracted criticism from scholars, specifically because the term suggests that other dynasties did not share similar southern origins[18] (see Ancient Egyptian race controversy). They also argue that the term overlooks the genetic continuum that linked ancient Nubians and Egyptians.[19][20]

## History

[edit]

### Piye

[edit]

Main article: Piye

The twenty-fifth dynasty originated in Kush, which is presently in Northern Sudan. The city-state of Napata was the spiritual capital and it was from there that Piye (spelled Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control of Egypt.[21] Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled stele called the "Stele of Victory." The stele announces Piye as Pharaoh of all Egypt and highlights his divine kingship by naming him "Son of Re" (Ruler of Lower Egypt) and "Beloved of Amun" (Ruler of Upper Egypt).[7]: 166  Piye's success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from "Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way", and not Egypt's utter exhaustion, "as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies."[16] Piye revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, pyramid construction. An energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site of El-Kurru. He also expanded the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal[16] by adding "an immense colonnaded forecourt."[7]: 163–164

The Stele of Piye, with detail of pharaoh Piye (left, partially erased)[22][23]

Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled from Mesopotamia by the Semitic Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 720 BC he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria in Philistia and Gaza, however, Piye was defeated by Sargon II, and the rebellion failed.[24] Although Manetho does not mention the first king, Piye, mainstream Egyptologists consider him the first Pharaoh of the 25th dynasty.[15][16][17][25] Manetho also does not mention the last king, Tantamani, although inscriptions exist to attest to the existence of both Piye and Tantamani.

The Stele of Piye inscription describes Piye as very religious, compassionate, and a lover of horses.[26] Piye scolded those that abused horses, demanded horses as gifts, and had eight of his horses buried with him.[26] Studies of horse skeletons at el Kurru, textual evidence, and iconographical evidence related to the use of horses in Kushite warfare indicate that "the finest horses used in Egypt and Assyria were bred in, and exported from Nubia."[7]: 157–158  Better horses, chariots, and the development of cavalry tactics helped Piye to defeat Tefnakht and his allies.[7]: 158

### Shabaka and Shebitku Chronology Dispute

[edit]

Cartouche with the name of pharaoh Shabaka

Although the Manethonic and classical traditions maintain that it was Shabaka's invasion which brought Egypt under Kushite rule, the most recent archaeological evidence shows that Shabaka ruled Egypt after Shebitku and not before, as previously thought. The confusion may stem from Shabaka's accession via Kushite collateral succession versus Egyptian patrilinear succession.[7]: 168  The construction of the tomb of Shebitku (Ku. 18) resembles that of Piye (Ku. 17) while that of Shabaka (Ku. 15) is similar to that of Taharqa (Nu. 1) and Tantamani (Ku. 16) [39 – D. Dunham, El-Kurru, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, I, (1950) 55, 60, 64, 67; also D. Dunham, Nuri, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush, II, (1955) 6–7; J. Lull, Las tumbas reales egipcias del Tercer Periodo Intermedio (dinastías XXI-XXV). Tradición y cambios, BAR-IS 1045 (2002) 208.] .[27] Secondly, Payraudeau notes in French that "the Divine Adoratrix Shepenupet I, the last Libyan Adoratrix, was still alive during the reign of Shebitku because she is represented performing rites and is described as "living" in those parts of the Osiris-Héqadjet chapel built during his reign (wall and exterior of the gate) [45 – G. Legrain, "Le temple et les chapelles d’Osiris à Karnak. Le temple d’Osiris-Hiq-Djeto, partie éthiopienne", RecTrav 22 (1900) 128; JWIS III, 45.].[27] In the rest of the room it is Amenirdis I, (Shabaka's sister), who is represented with the Adoratrix title and provided with a coronation name. The succession Shepenupet I – Amenirdis I thus took place during the reign of Shebitku/Shabataqo. This detail in itself is sufficient to show that the reign of Shabaka cannot precede that of Shebitku/Shabataqo.[27] Finally, Gerard Broekman's GM 251 (2017) paper shows that Shebitku reigned before Shabaka since the upper edge of Shabaka's NLR #30's Year 2 Karnak quay inscription was carved over the left-hand side of the lower edge of Shebitku's NLR#33 Year 3 inscription.[28] This can only mean that Shabaka ruled after Shebitku.

### Shebitku

[edit]

Shebitku, Nubian Museum

According to the newer chronology, Shebitku conquered the entire Nile Valley, including Upper and Lower Egypt, around 712 BC. Shebitku had Bocchoris of the preceding Sais dynasty burned to death for resisting him. After conquering Lower Egypt, Shebitku transferred the capital to Memphis.[28] Dan'el Kahn suggested that Shebitku was king of Egypt by 707/706 BC.[29] This is based on evidence from an inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon II, which was found in Persia (then a colony of Assyria) and dated to 706 BC. This inscription calls Shebitku the king of Meluhha, and states that he sent back to Assyria a rebel named Iamani in handcuffs. Kahn's arguments have been widely accepted by many Egyptologists including Rolf Krauss, and Aidan Dodson[30] and other scholars at the SCIEM 2000 (Synchronisation of Civilisations of the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C.) project with the notable exception of Kenneth Kitchen and Manfred Bietak at present.

### Shabaka

[edit]

Shabaka

According to the traditional chronology, Shabaka "brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is 'reputed' to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death."[15][7]: 166–167  There is no direct evidence that Shabaqo did slay Bakenranef, and although earlier scholarship generally accepted the tradition, it has recently been treated more skeptically.[31] Initially, Shabaka maintained good relations with Assyria, as shown by his extradition of the rebel, Iamani of Ashdod, to Assyria in 712 BC.[7]: 167  Shabaka supported an uprising against the Assyrians in the Philistine city of Ashdod, however he and his allies were defeated by Sargon II.[citation needed]

Shabaka "transferred the capital to Memphis"[7]: 166  and restored the great Egyptian monuments and temples, "unlike his Libyan predecessors".[7]: 167–169  Shabaka ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places.[7]: 169  Shabaka also returned Egypt to a theocratic monarchy by becoming the first priest of Amon. In addition, Shabaka is known for creating a well-preserved example of Memphite theology by inscribing an old religious papyrus into the Shabaka Stone.

### Taharqa

[edit]

Main article: Taharqa

See also: Assyrian conquest of Egypt

Pharaoh Taharqa, wearing the double-uraeus skullcap[33]

Portrait of Taharqa, Nubian Museum[32]

Assyrian siege of an Egyptian fort, probably a scene from the war in 667 BC. Sculpted in 645 – 635 BC, under Ashurbanipal at the Palace of Nineveh. British Museum.[34]

In 690 BC,[7] Taharqa was crowned in Memphis[26] and ruled Upper and Lower Egypt as Pharaoh from Tanis in the Delta.[35][15] Taharqa's reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a particularly large Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine.[36][7] Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of Amun at Kawa.[37] He restored and constructed great works throughout the Nile Valley, including works at Jebel Barkal, Kawa (with Lebanese cedar),[7] Qasr Ibrim, and Karnak.[38][39] "Thebes was enriched on a monumental scale."[7] At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all owed to Taharqa and Mentuemhet. Taharqa and the Kushites marked a renaissance in Pharaonic art.[40] Taharqa built the largest pyramid (52 square meters at base) in the Nubian region at Nuri (near El-Kurru) with the most elaborate Kushite rock-cut tomb.[41] Taharqa was buried with "over 1070 shabtis of varying sizes and made of granite, green ankerite, and alabaster."[42]

Taharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.[7] Imperial ambitions of the Mesopotamian based Assyrian Empire made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).[43] There are various theories (Taharqa's army,[44] disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city and withdrew to Assyria.[45] Torok mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem and "retreated to Assyria."[7]: 170  Many historians claim that Sennacherib was the overlord of Khor following the siege in 701 BC. Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute after the siege.[24] However, this is contradicted by Khor's frequent utilization of an Egyptian system of weights for trade,[46] the 20 year cessation in Assyria's pattern (before 701 and after Sennacherib's death) of repeatedly invading Khor,[47] Khor paying tribute to Amun of Karnak in the first half of Taharqa's reign,[7] and Taharqa flouting Assyria's ban on Lebanese cedar exports to Egypt, while Taharqa was building his temple to Amun at Kawa.[48] Sennacherib was murdered by his own sons in revenge for the destruction of the rebellious Mesopotamian city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included.[citation needed]

In 679 BC, Sennacherib's successor, King Esarhaddon, campaigned into Khor and took a town loyal to Egypt. After destroying Sidon and forcing Tyre into tribute in 677-676 BC, Esarhaddon invaded Egypt in 674 BC. Taharqa and his army defeated the Assyrians outright in 674 BC, according to Babylonian records.[49] Taharqa's Egypt still held sway in Khor during this period as evidenced by Esarhaddon's 671 BC annal mentioning that Tyre's King Ba'lu had "put his trust upon his friend Taharqa", Ashkelon's alliance with Egypt, and Esarhaddon's inscription asking "if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon."[50] However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, imposed tribute, and then withdrew.[35] In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis, as well as the Delta, and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre.[35] Esarhaddon again led his army to Egypt and on his death, the command passed to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established."[35] Taharqa retreated to Nubia, where he died in 664 BC.

Taharqa remains an important historical figure in Sudan and elsewhere, as is evidenced by Will Smith's recent project to depict Taharqa in a major motion picture.[51] As of 2017, the status of this project is unknown.

A study of the sphinx that was created to represent Taharqa indicates that he was a Kushite pharaoh from Nubia.[52]

### Tantamani

[edit]

Main article: Tantamani

Statue of Kushite ruler and last pharaoh of the 25th Dynasty of Egypt, Tantamani; Louvre Museum reconstruction.

Taharqa's successor, Tantamani sailed north from Napata, through Elephantine, and with a large army to Thebes, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."[7]: 185  From Thebes, Tantamani began his reconquest[7]: 185  and regained control of Egypt, as far north as Memphis.[35] Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.[7]: 185  After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."[7]: 185  Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.[citation needed]

Portrait of Tantamani from his tomb in El-Kurru

Necho's son Psamtik I fled Egypt to Assyria and returned in 664 BC with Ashurbanipal and a large army comprising Carian mercenaries.[citation needed] Upon the Assyrians arrival in Egypt, Tantamani fled to Thebes, where he was pursued by the Assyrians.[7]: 186–187  Then, Tantamani escaped to Nubia and the Assyrian army sacked Thebes "and devastated the area" in 663 BC[35] Psamtik I was placed on the throne of Lower Egypt as a vassal of Ashurbanipal.[citation needed] Psamtik quickly unified Lower Egypt and expelled the Assyrian army, becoming the first ruler of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty.[7]: 186  In 656 BC, Psamtik sent a large fleet southwards to Thebes, peacefully taking control of the still rebellious Upper Egypt thereby unifying all of Egypt.

Tantamani and the Nubians never again posed a threat to either Assyria or Egypt. Upon his death, Tantamani was buried in the royal cemetery of El-Kurru, upstream from the Kushite capital of Napata. He was succeeded by a son of Taharqa, king Atlanersa.[24] In total, the Twenty-fifth Dynasty ruled Egypt for less than one hundred years.[5][53] The successors of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty settled back in their Nubian homeland, where they continued their kingdom at Napata (656–590 BC), and continued to make empty claims to Egyptian kingship during the next 60 years, while the effective control of Egypt was in the hands of Psamtik I and his successors.[54] The Kushite next ruled further south at Meroë (590 BC – 4th century AD).[24]

## Armies of the 25th dynasty

[edit]

The Nubian/Egyptian soldiers of the 25th dynasty are represented in a few Assyrian reliefs related to the Assyrian conquest of Egypt, such as the Siege of an Egyptian fort in 667 BC. Nubian soldiers defending their city are represented, as well as prisoners under Assyrian escort, many wearing the typical one-feathered headgear of Taharqa's soldiers.[55][56]

* Armoured Kushite soldiers of Taharqa defending their city from the Assyrian assault

* Nubian prisoners escorted by Assyrian guards out of the Egyptian city[55]

* Nubian prisoners. They wear the typical one-feathered headgear of Taharqa's soldiers.[55]

## Revenge of Psamtik II

[edit]

Psamtik II, the third ruler of the following dynasty, the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, deliberately destroyed monuments belonging to the 25th Dynasty of Kushite kings in Egypt, erasing their names and their emblems of royalty from statues and reliefs in Egypt. He then sent an army to Nubia in 592 BCE to erase all traces of their rule, during the reign of the Kushite King Aspelta. This expedition and its destructions are recorded on several victory stelae, especially the Victory Stela of Kalabsha. The Egyptian army "may have gone on to sack Napata, although there is no good evidence to indicate that they actually did so."[35]: 65  This led to the transfer of the Kushite capital farther south at Meroë.[57][58]

## Art and architecture

[edit]

Main articles: Art of Ancient Egypt and Nubian pyramids

The royal pyramids of Nuri Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye

Although the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty controlled Ancient Egypt for only 91 years (747–656 BC), it holds an important place in Egyptian history due to the restoration of traditional Egyptian values, culture, art, and architecture.

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt revived the lost Egyptian tradition of building pyramids for their deceased rulers. Nubian kings built their own pyramids 1000 years after Egyptian burial methods had changed.[59] Nubian pyramids were built for the first time at El Kurru in 751 BC, for the Piye, the first ruler of the 25th Dynasty, and more were built at Nuri.[60] The Nubian-style pyramids emulated a form of Egyptian private elite family pyramid that was common during the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC).[61] There are twice as many Nubian pyramids still standing today as there are Egyptian.[59]

* The pyramid of Piye, founder of the 25th Dynasty, at El-Kurru, Sudan

* The famous column of Taharqa with open papyrus capital, in Karnak, Thebes (one remaining of ten)[62]

* The Shrine of Taharqa from Kawa, Ashmolean Museum

* Taharqa making offerings to the lion-headed Appademak. Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal.

## Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty

[edit]

Main article: List of pharaohs

The pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty ruled for approximately 91 years in Egypt, from 747 BC to 656 BC.

Dynasty XXV Kings of Egypt  Pharaoh  | Image | Prenomen (Throne name) | Horus-name | Reign | Pyramid | Consort(s)  | Comments

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Piye |  | Usimare | Kanakhtkhaemnepet | c. 747–714 BC | Kurru 17 |

* Tabiry (Kurru 53)
* Abar (Nuri 53?)
* Khensa (Kurru 4)
* Peksater (Kurru 54)
* Nefrukekashta (Kurru 52)

| Kashta is sometimes considered the first pharaoh of the dynasty, as opposed to Piye.
Shebitku |  | Djedkare | Djedkhau | 714–705 BC | Kurru 18 | Arty (Kurru 6) |
Shabaka |  | Neferkare | Sebaqtawy | 705–690 BC | Kurru 15 |

* Qalhata (Kurru 5)
* Mesbat
* Tabekenamun?

Taharqa |  | Khunefertumre | Qakhau | 690–664 BC | Nuri 1 |

* Takahatenamun (Nuri 21?)
* Atakhebasken (Nuri 36)
* Naparaye (Kurru 3)
* Tabekenamun?

Tantamani |  | Bakare | Wahmerut | 664–656 BC | Kurru 16 |

* Piankharty
* [..]salka
* Malaqaye? (Nuri 59)

| Lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC when Psamtik I captured Thebes in that year.

The period starting with Kashta and ending with Malonaqen is sometimes called the Napatan Period. The later Kings from the twenty-fifth dynasty ruled over Napata, Meroe, and Egypt. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Napata during this period, while Meroe was a provincial city. The kings and queens were buried in El-Kurru and Nuri.[63]

Alara, the first known Nubian king and predecessor of Kashta was not a 25th dynasty king since he did not control any region of Egypt during his reign. While Piye is viewed as the founder of the 25th dynasty, some publications may include Kashta who already controlled some parts of Upper Egypt. A stela of his was found at Elephantine and Kashta likely exercised some influence at Thebes (although he did not control it) since he held enough sway to have his daughter Amenirdis I adopted as the next Divine Adoratrice of Amun there.

## Timeline of the 25th Dynasty

[edit]

## See also

[edit]

Periods and dynasties of ancient Egypt

All years are BC

Predynastic

|  Protodynastic|  0|  c. 3300–3150

|
|

Early Dynastic

|  First Dynasty|  I|  c. 3150–2890

|
|

Second Dynasty|  II|  2890–2686

Old Kingdom

|  Third Dynasty|  III|  2686–2613

|
|

Fourth Dynasty|  IV|  2613–2498
Fifth Dynasty|  V|  2498–2345
Sixth Dynasty|  VI|  2345–2181

First Intermediate

|  Seventh Dynasty|  VII|  spurious

|
|

Eighth Dynasty|  VIII|  2181–2160
Ninth Dynasty|  IX|  2160–2130
Tenth Dynasty|  X|  2130–2040
Early Eleventh Dynasty|  XI|  2134–2061

Middle Kingdom

|  Late Eleventh Dynasty|  XI|  2061–1991

|
|

Twelfth Dynasty|  XII|  1991–1803
Thirteenth Dynasty|  XIII|  1803–1649

Second Intermediate

|  Fourteenth Dynasty|  XIV|  1705–1690

|
|

Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos)|  XV|  1674–1535
Sixteenth Dynasty|  XVI|  1660–1600
Abydos Dynasty| |  1650–1600
Seventeenth Dynasty|  XVII|  1580–1549

New Kingdom

|  Eighteenth Dynasty|  XVIII|  1549–1292

|
|

Nineteenth Dynasty|  XIX|  1292–1189
Twentieth Dynasty|  XX|  1189–1077

Third Intermediate

|  Twenty-first Dynasty|  XXI|  1069–945

|
|

Twenty-second Dynasty|  XXII|  945–720
Twenty-third Dynasty|  XXIII|  837–728
Twenty-fourth Dynasty|  XXIV|  732–720
Twenty-fifth Dynasty (Nubian)|  XXV|  732–653

Late Period

|  Twenty-sixth Dynasty|  XXVI|  672–525

|
|

Twenty-seventh Dynasty
(1st Persian Period)

|  XXVII|  525–404
Twenty-eighth Dynasty|  XXVIII|  404–398
Twenty-ninth Dynasty|  XXIX|  398–380
Thirtieth Dynasty|  XXX|  380–343

Thirty-first Dynasty
(2nd Persian Period)

|  XXXI|  343–332

Hellenistic Egypt

|  Thirty-second Dynasty|  XXXII|  332–305

|
|

Thirty-third Dynasty|  XXXIII|  305–30

Roman Egypt

Thirty-fourth Dynasty
(Roman Pharaohs)

|  XXXIV|  30 BC – 313 AD

|
|

Byzantine Egypt

Thirty-fifth Dynasty
(speculated)

|  XXXV|  379 AD – 641 AD

|
|

See also: List of pharaohs by period and dynasty
Periodization of ancient Egypt

* v
* t
* e

* Aethiopia is an ancient Greek geographical term which referred to the regions of Sudan and areas south of the Sahara desert.
* History of Ancient Egypt
* List of monarchs of Kush
* Twelfth dynasty of Egypt
* Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt family tree

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache".
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4. ^ Oliver, Roland (5 March 2018). The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century. Routledge. p. 66\. ISBN 978-0-429-97650-6. "The Napatans, somewhere around 900 BC conquered both Lower and Upper Nubia, including the all-important gold mines, and by 750 were strong enough to conquer Egypt itself, where their kings ruled for nearly a century as the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty"
5. ^ a b "Nubia | Definition, History, Map, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
6. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (7 January 2015). An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 393\. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2.
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Török, László (1998). The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 132–133, 153–184\. ISBN 90-04-10448-8.
8. ^ "King Piye and the Kushite control of Egypt". Smarthistory. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
9. ^ Heinrich, Brugsch (1902). A history of Egypt under the Pharaohs. John Murray London. p. 387.
10. ^ Breasted, J.H. (1924). A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 538–539.
11. ^ Drioton, E. (1962). Drioton, E; Vandier, J – Les Peuples de l'Orient Méditerranéen II L' Egypte. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. pp. 524, 537–538.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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13. ^ Wenig, Steffen (1999). The origin of the Napatan state: El Kurru and the evidence for the royal ancestors. In Studien zum antiken Sudan: Akten der 7. Internationalen Tagung für meroitische Forschungen vom 14. bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin. Harrassowitz; Bilingual edition. pp. 3–117.
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16. ^ a b c d Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11\. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.
17. ^ a b Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3.
18. ^ Logan, Jim (21 September 2020). "The African Egypt". The Current / UC Santa Barbara. "Smith, who has been excavating the ancient site of Tombos in modern Sudan (Nubia) since 2000, has focused his research on questions of identity, especially ethnicity, and intercultural interaction between ancient Egypt and Nubia. In the 8th century BCE, he noted, Kushite rulers were crowned as Kings of Egypt, ruling a combined Nubian and Egyptian kingdom as pharaohs of Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Those Kushite kings are commonly referred to as the 'Black Pharaohs' in both scholarly and popular publications. That terminology, Smith said, is often presented as a celebration of black African civilization. But it also reflects a longstanding bias that holds the Egyptian pharaohs and their people weren't African — that is, not Black. It's a trope that feeds into a long history of racism that traces back to the some[sic] of the founding figures of Egyptology and their role in the creation of "scientific" racism in the U.S. [...] 'It has always struck me as odd that Egyptologists have been reluctant to admit that the ancient (and modern) Egyptians were rather dark-skinned Africans, especially the farther south one goes," Smith continued."
19. ^ "One of the other problems with the "Black Pharaohs" moniker is that it implies that none of the other Predynastic, Protodynastic, or dynastic Egyptian rulers could be called "black" - in the sense of the Kushites - which, while not particularly interesting, is not true. Even Sir Flinders Petrie, father of the Asiatic "Dynastic Race" theory of dynastic Egypt's foundation, stated that various other dynasties were of "Sudany" origin or had connections there, based on phenotype; which implies [incorrectly] that particular traits could not have been Egyptian i.e. been a part of its ancestral biological variation".Keita, S. O. Y. (September 2022). "Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest". Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections.
20. ^ Crawford, Keith W. (2021). "Critique of the "Black Pharaohs" Theme: Racist Perspectives of Egyptian and Kushite/Nubian Interactions in Popular Media". African Archaeological Review. 38 (4): 695–712\. doi:10.1007/s10437-021-09453-7. ISSN 0263-0338. S2CID 238718279.
21. ^ Herodotus (2003). The Histories. Penguin Books. pp. 106–107, 133–134. ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2.
22. ^ Leahy, Anthony (1992). "Royal Iconography and Dynastic Change, 750-525 BC: The Blue and Cap Crowns". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 78: 227, and Plate XXVI. doi:10.2307/3822074. ISSN 0307-5133. JSTOR 3822074.
23. ^ Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. University of California Press. pp. 66–75\. ISBN 978-0-520-04020-5.
24. ^ a b c d Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq (Third ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-012523-X.
25. ^ Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. p. 67\. ISBN 0-520-06697-9.
26. ^ a b c Haynes, Joyce (1992). Harvey, Fredrica (ed.). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Museum of Fine Arts. pp. 25–30\. ISBN 0-87846-362-3.
27. ^ a b c Payraudeau, F. (2014). "Retour sur la succession Shabaqo-Shabataqo" (PDF). Nehet. 1: 115–127.
28. ^ a b Broekman, Gerard P. F. (2017). "Genealogical considerations regarding the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt". Göttinger Miszellen. 251: 13–20\. ISSN 0344-385X.
29. ^ Kahn, Dan'el (2001). "The Inscription of Sargon II at Tang-i Var and the Chronology of Dynasty 25". Orientalia. 70 (1): 1–18\. JSTOR 43076732.
30. ^ Sidebotham, Steven E. (2002). "Newly Discovered Sites in the Eastern Desert". Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 82: 181–192 [p. 182 n. 24]. doi:10.1177/030751339608200118. JSTOR 3822121. S2CID 192102954.
31. ^ Wenig, Steffen (1999). Studien Zum Antiken Sudan: Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 203\. ISBN 978-3-447-04139-3.
32. ^ Smith, William Stevenson; Simpson, William Kelly (1 January 1998). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Yale University Press. p. 235\. ISBN 978-0-300-07747-6.
33. ^ Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). Daily Life of the Nubians. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 207\. ISBN 978-0-313-32501-4.
34. ^ "Wall panel; relief British Museum". The British Museum.
35. ^ a b c d e f g Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 64–65\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
36. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 158\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
37. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 169\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
38. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 16–34, 62–64, 175, 183. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
39. ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219–221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7.
40. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 178\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
41. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. pp. 103, 107–108\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
42. ^ Welsby, Derek A. (1996). The Kingdom of Kush. London, UK: British Museum Press. p. 87\. ISBN 0-7141-0986-X.
43. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 141–144\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
44. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 127, 129–130, 139–152\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
45. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 119. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
46. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155–156\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
47. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 152–153\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
48. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 155. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
49. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 158–161\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
50. ^ Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. x, 159–161\. ISBN 1-56947-275-0.
51. ^ Fleming, Michael (7 September 2008). "Will Smith puts on 'Pharaoh' hat". Variety. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
52. ^ Nöthling, F. J. (1989). Pre-Colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts. Southern Book Publishers. p. 43\. ISBN 978-1-86812-242-4. Retrieved 2 April 2018. "He moved his capital to Thebes and became king of Kush and Misr (Egypt) forming the 25th dynasty. Kushite power stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the present Ethiopian boundary. Some Egyptians welcomed the Kushite presence and saw them as civilised people and not as barbarians. Their culture was a mixture of indigenous Egyptian and Sudanese elements and physically their appearance included Egyptian, Berber-Libyan and other Mediterranean elements as well as the Negroid blood coming from the region of the fifth and sixth cataracts"
53. ^ "Kushite Kingdom | The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago". oi.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
54. ^ "The next six decades, they and their successors would continue to make fictive claims to Egyptian kingship" Kendall, Timothy. Jebel Barkal Guide (PDF). p. 6.
55. ^ a b c "Wall panel; relief British Museum". The British Museum.
56. ^ Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). Daily Life of the Nubians. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 206\. ISBN 978-0-313-32501-4.
57. ^ Leahy, Anthony (1992). "Royal Iconography and Dynastic Change, 750-525 BC: The Blue and Cap Crowns". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 78: 238. doi:10.2307/3822074. ISSN 0307-5133. JSTOR 3822074.
58. ^ Elshazly, Hesham. Kerma and the royal cache. pp. 26–77.
59. ^ a b Takacs, Sarolta Anna; Cline, Eric H. (17 July 2015). The Ancient World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45839-5.
60. ^ Mitchell, Joseph; Mitchell, Helen Buss (27 March 2009). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in World History, Volume 1: The Ancient World to the Pre-Modern Era, Expanded. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-812758-8.
61. ^ Kolb, Michael J. (6 November 2019). Making Sense of Monuments: Narratives of Time, Movement, and Scale. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-76492-9.
62. ^ Smith, William Stevenson; Simpson, William Kelly (1 January 1998). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Yale University Press. p. 234\. ISBN 978-0-300-07747-6.
63. ^ Dunham, Dows (1946). "Notes on the History of Kush 850 BC – A.D. 350". American Journal of Archaeology. 50 (3): 378–388\. doi:10.2307/499459. JSTOR 499459. S2CID 193086188.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Reisner, G. A. (1919). "Discovery of the Tombs of the Egyptian XXVth Dynasty". Sudan Notes and Records. 2 (4): 237–254\. JSTOR 41715805.
* Morkot, R. G. (2000). The Black Pharaohs, Egypt's Nubian Rulers. London: Rubicon Press.

## External links

[edit]

* Media related to 25th dynasty of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons
* (in French) Voyage au pays des pharaons noirs Travel in Sudan : pictures and notes on the Nubian history

* v
* t
* e

Pharaohs

Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period  (<3150–2040 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Protodynastic
(pre-3150 BC)|

| Lower|

* Hedju Hor
* Ny-Hor
* Ni-Neith
* Hat-Hor
* Pu
* Hsekiu
* Khayu
* Tiu
* Thesh
* Neheb
* Wazner
* Mekh
* Double Falcon
* Wash

|

Upper|

* A
* Finger Snail
* Fish
* Elephant
* Stork
* Bull
* Scorpion I
* Crocodile
* Iry-Hor
* Ka
* Scorpion II
* Narmer / Menes

Early Dynastic
(3150–2686 BC)|

| I|

* Narmer / Menes
* Hor-Aha
* Djer
* Djet
* Den
* Anedjib
* Semerkhet
* Qa'a
* Sneferka
* Horus Bird

|

II|

* Hotepsekhemwy
* Nebra
* Nynetjer
* Ba
* Nubnefer
* Horus Sa
* Weneg-Nebty
* Wadjenes
* Senedj
* Seth-Peribsen
* Sekhemib-Perenmaat
* Neferkara I
* Neferkasokar
* Hudjefa I
* Khasekhemwy

Old Kingdom
(2686–2181 BC)|

| III|

* Djoser
* Sekhemkhet
* Sanakht
* Nebka
* Khaba
* Sedjes
* Qahedjet
* Huni

|

IV|

* Snefru
* Khufu
* Djedefre
* Khafre
* Bikheris
* Menkaure
* Shepseskaf
* Thamphthis

* Userkaf
* Sahure
* Neferirkare Kakai
* Neferefre
* Shepseskare
* Nyuserre Ini
* Menkauhor Kaiu
* Djedkare Isesi
* Unas

VI|

* Teti
* Userkare
* Pepi I
* Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
* Pepi II
* Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
* Netjerkare Siptah
* Neferka
* Nefer

1st Intermediate
(2181–2040 BC)|

| VII/VIII|

* Menkare
* Neferkare II
* Neferkare III Neby
* Djedkare Shemai
* Neferkare IV Khendu
* Merenhor
* Neferkamin
* Nikare
* Neferkare V Tereru
* Neferkahor
* Neferkare VI Pepiseneb
* Neferkamin Anu
* Qakare Iby
* Neferkaure
* Neferkauhor
* Neferirkare
* Wadjkare
* Khuiqer
* Khui
* Iytjenu

|

IX|

* Meryibre Khety
* Neferkare VII
* Nebkaure Khety
* Setut
* Imhotep

* Meryhathor
* Neferkare VIII
* Wahkare Khety
* Merykare

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period  (2040–1550 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Middle Kingdom
(2040–1802 BC)|

| XI|

* Mentuhotep I
* Intef I
* Intef II
* Intef III
* Mentuhotep II
* Mentuhotep III
* Mentuhotep IV

|

Nubia|

* Segerseni
* Qakare Ini
* Iyibkhentre

XII|

* Amenemhat I
* Senusret I
* Amenemhat II
* Senusret II
* Senusret III
* Amenemhat III
* Amenemhat IV
* Sobekneferu♀
* Seankhibtawy Seankhibra

2nd Intermediate
(1802–1550 BC)|

| XIII|

* Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep
* Sonbef
* Nerikare
* Sekhemkare Amenemhat V
* Ameny Qemau
* Hotepibre
* Iufni
* Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI
* Semenkare Nebnuni
* Sehetepibre
* Sewadjkare
* Nedjemibre
* Khaankhre Sobekhotep
* Renseneb
* Hor
* Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
* Djedkheperew
* Sebkay
* Sedjefakare
* Wegaf
* Khendjer
* Imyremeshaw
* Sehetepkare Intef
* Seth Meribre
* Sobekhotep III
* Neferhotep I
* Sihathor
* Sobekhotep IV
* Merhotepre Sobekhotep
* Khahotepre Sobekhotep
* Wahibre Ibiau
* Merneferre Ay
* Merhotepre Ini
* Sankhenre Sewadjtu
* Mersekhemre Ined
* Sewadjkare Hori
* Merkawre Sobekhotep
* Mershepsesre Ini II
* Sewahenre Senebmiu
* Merkheperre
* Merkare
* Sewadjare Mentuhotep
* Seheqenre Sankhptahi

|

XIV|

* Yakbim Sekhaenre
* Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
* Qareh Khawoserre
* 'Ammu Ahotepre
* Maaibre Sheshi
* Nehesy
* Khakherewre
* Nebefawre
* Sehebre
* Merdjefare
* Sewadjkare III
* Nebdjefare
* Nebsenre
* Sekheperenre
* Bebnum
* 'Apepi
* Nuya
* Wazad
* Sheneh
* Shenshek
* Khamure
* Yakareb
* Yaqub-Har

XV|

* Sharek
* Semqen
* 'Aper-'Anati
* Salitis
* Sakir-Har
* Khyan
* Yanassi
* Apepi
* Khamudi

XVI|

* Djehuti
* Sobekhotep VIII
* Neferhotep III
* Mentuhotepi
* Nebiryraw I
* Nebiriau II
* Semenre
* Bebiankh
* Sekhemre Shedwast
* Dedumose I
* Dedumose II
* Montuemsaf
* Merankhre Mentuhotep
* Senusret IV
* Pepi III

Abydos|

* Senebkay
* Wepwawetemsaf
* Pantjeny
* Snaaib

XVII|

* Rahotep
* Nebmaatre
* Sobekemsaf I
* Sobekemsaf II
* Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
* Nubkheperre Intef
* Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef
* Senakhtenre Ahmose
* Seqenenre Tao
* Kamose

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period  (1550–664 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs  (male
* female♀)
* uncertain

|

New Kingdom
(1550–1070 BC)|

| XVIII|

* Ahmose I
* Amenhotep I
* Thutmose I
* Thutmose II
* Hatshepsut♀
* Thutmose III
* Amenhotep II
* Thutmose IV
* Amenhotep III
* Akhenaten
* Smenkhkare
* Neferneferuaten♀
* Tutankhamun
* Ay
* Horemheb

|

XIX|

* Ramesses I
* Seti I
* Ramesses II
* Merneptah
* Amenmesses
* Seti II
* Siptah
* Tausret♀

XX|

* Setnakhte
* Ramesses III
* Ramesses IV
* Ramesses V
* Ramesses VI
* Ramesses VII
* Ramesses VIII
* Ramesses IX
* Ramesses X
* Ramesses XI
* Ramesses XII

3rd Intermediate
(1069–664 BC)|

| XXI|

* Smendes
* Amenemnisu
* Psusennes I
* Amenemope
* Osorkon the Elder
* Siamun
* Psusennes II

|

High Priests of Amun|

* Herihor
* Pinedjem I

XXII|

* Shoshenq I
* Osorkon I
* Heqakheperre Shoshenq IIa
* Tutkheperre Shoshenq IIb
* Maatkheperre Shoshenq IIc
* Takelot I
* Osorkon II
* Shoshenq III
* Shoshenq IV
* Pami I
* Shoshenq V

Lines of XXII/XXIII|

* Harsiese
* Takelot II
* Pedubast I
* Iuput I
* Shoshenq VI
* Osorkon III
* Takelot III
* Rudamun
* Shoshenq VII
* Menkheperre Ini
* Iuput II of Leontopolis
* Peftjauawybast of Herakleopolis
* Nimlot I of Hermopolis
* Djehutyemhat of Hermopolis
* Nimlot II of Hermopolis
* Padinemti of Hermopolis

XXIII|

* Pedubast II
* Osorkon IV
* Pami II
* Gemenefkhonsbak
* Pedubast III

XXIV|

* Tefnakht
* Bakenranef

XXV|

* Piye
* Shebitku
* Shabaka
* Taharqa
* Tanutamun

Late to Roman Period (664 BC–313 AD)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Late
(664–332 BC)|

| XXVI|

* Ammeris
* Tefnakht II
* Nekauba
* Necho I
* Psamtik I
* Necho II
* Psamtik II
* Wahibre
* Ahmose II
* Psamtik III

|

XXVII|

* Cambyses II
* Petubastis III
* Darius I
* Psammetichus IV
* Xerxes
* Artaxerxes I
* Darius II

XXVIII|

* Amyrtaeus

XXIX|

* Nepherites I
* Hakor
* Psammuthes
* Nepherites II
* Muthis

XXX|

* Nectanebo I
* Teos
* Nectanebo II

XXXI|

* Artaxerxes III
* Khabash
* Arses
* Darius III

Hellenistic
(332–30 BC)|

| Argead|

* Alexander the Great
* Philip III Arrhidaeus
* Alexander IV

|

Ptolemaic|

* Ptolemy I Soter
* Ptolemy II Philadelphus
* Ptolemy III Euergetes
* Ptolemy IV Philopator
* Ptolemy V Epiphanes
* Ptolemy VI Philometor
* Cleopatra II♀
* Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
* Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
* Cleopatra III♀
* Ptolemy IX Soter
* Ptolemy X Alexander I
* Berenice III♀
* Ptolemy XI Alexander II
* Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
* Cleopatra V♀
* Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀
* Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀
* Cleopatra VII Philopator♀
* Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
* Arsinoe IV♀
* Ptolemy XIV Philopator
* Ptolemy XV Caesarion

Roman
(30 BC–313 AD)|

| XXXIV|

* Augustus
* Tiberius
* Caligula
* Claudius
* Nero
* Galba
* Otho
* Vitellius
* Vespasian
* Titus
* Domitian
* Nerva
* Trajan
* Hadrian
* Antoninus Pius
* Lucius Verus
* Marcus Aurelius
* Commodus
* Pertinax
* Pescennius Niger
* Septimius Severus
* Geta
* Caracalla
* Macrinus
* Diadumenian
* Elagabalus
* Severus Alexander
* Maximinus Thrax
* Gordian I
* Gordian II
* Pupienus
* Balbinus
* Gordian III
* Philip
* Decius
* Trebonianus Gallus
* Aemilianus
* Valerian
* Macrianus Minor
* Quietus
* Lucius Mussius Aemilianus
* Gallienus
* Claudius Gothicus
* Quintillus
* Aurelian
* Tacitus
* Probus
* Carus
* Carinus
* Numerian
* Diocletian
* Maximian
* Galerius
* Maximinus Daza

|

Dynastic genealogies

* 1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th
* 11th
* 12th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st to 23rd
* 24th
* 25th
* 26th
* 27th
* 30th
* 31st
* Argead
* Ptolemaic

List of pharaohs

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt–Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Meshkiangasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indo-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mesh-he
Melem-ana
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi
Enna-Dagan | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-Tarana
Napi-Ilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kikku-Siwe-Temti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugal-Anne-Mundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugal-zage-si
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025–1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil An-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty of Egypt
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty of Egypt

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire (1450–1180 BCE)
Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II

Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states
Carchemish
Tabal | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Eight Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judaea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, William W.; Simpson, William Kelly (1971). The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49\. ISBN 978-0-15-502755-8.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy, eds. (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per the Sumerian King List.
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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