Underwater diving emergency

Situation that endangers the life or health of a diver

A diving emergency or underwater diving emergency is an emergency that involves an underwater diver. The nature of an emergency requires action to be taken to prevent or avoid death, injury, or serious damage to property or the environment. In the case of diving emergencies, the risk is generally of death or injury to the diver, while diving or in the water before or after diving.[1]

Underwater diving is an activity in which there is a constant risk of an emergency developing. This is a situation common to many human activities. The diver survives in an inherently hostile environment by competence, suitable equipment, vigilance, and attention to detail at a level appropriate to the specific situation. The emergency is the stage of an accident or incident between the causes and the effects, often while it is still possible to take effective action to rectify or mitigate the situation. Like many other classes of emergency, diving emergencies can often be prevented from developing further by appropriate action at an early stage, and by having the appropriate skills and equipment. Professional diving teams are required to have emergency plans in place during all operations, and recreational divers are also expected to do so, to the extent appropriate to the dive plan.

An alternative meaning, in the context of medicine, is a medical emergency which was initiated while diving, which may also be described as a diving medical emergency.

## Scope and definition

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A diving emergency is an emergency experienced by a diver during a dive. This includes the time from when the diver enters the water to dive, until the end of all decompression and the diver has exited the water. Surface decompression may legally be part of a dive. It includes but is not restricted to medical emergencies that are a consequence of diving incidents.[2]

* An emergency is an unexpected and often unforeseen set of circumstances or the consequences thereof that require immediate action, or an urgent requirement for assistance or relief.[3]
* The human activity of underwater diving is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context.
* Diving emergencies can be grouped as incidents that can be managed by the diver without assistance, and those which require assistance by another diver, the dive team or an outside party.[4]
* Diving emergencies can also be distinguished by the mode of diving, so a distinction can be made between scuba diving emergencies and freediving emergencies, surface-oriented surface-supplied diving emergencies and saturation diving emergencies, and open circuit and rebreather emergencies, as some emergencies are only possible when diving in a specific mode, (equipment failure or misuse is only possible for equipment actually in use) and for others the risk is strongly influenced by the mode.

## Types and causes

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See also: Scuba diving fatalities

Many circumstances can lead to a diving emergency. Many events may be considered an emergency under some conditions, but not under other conditions, where wahat would be an emergency to the unprepared diver can be an inconvenience when adequately prepared. Most of them can be mitigated before they become a full emergency,[4]

### Types

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* Life support emergencies
* Decompression emergencies
* Incapacitation
* Acute medical conditions

### Causes

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* Medical emergencies can be the consequence of an emergency with another cause, a health problem, or mismanagement of a routine situation or minor contingency.[4]
* Equipment failures that constitute an emergency are usually failures of life-support equipment, but also can be failures of other equipment that make it difficult, dangerous, or impossible to properly operate safety critical equipment, or to reach a place of safety, such as dive computer lockout or failure with decompression obligation, catastrophic dry-suit flooding, catastrophic loss of buoyancy, loss of insulation in very cold conditions, regulator freeze with free-flow, dislodging of the regulator or full-face mask, helmet comes off the head, roll-off of cylinder valve, or a burst breathing gas hose. Some of these can also be caused by diver or team error.[4]
* Diver errors. such as running out of gas, overstaying at depth and developing a decompression obligation beyond the remaining gas endurance, Losing the guideline under an overhead. Equipment failure due to improper preparation and checks. Inappropriate response to an adverse event, such as panic, can cause a routinely recoverable situation to deteriorate into an emergency.[5][6]
* Team errors. emergencies which are the consequences of a person or group involved in the dive, including contracted service providers. eg: Divers left behind at sea, or run over by the dive boat.[7][8]
* Third party influences. For example dynamic positioning runout, a diver being hit by a passing boat, or an umbilical pulled into a thruster.
* Environmental problems, situations, effects, or influences such as unforecast weather deterioration, stronger current than anticipated, unexpected low water temperature, silt-out, inadvertent entry into a confined space or overhead environment in low visibility without a guideline to open water, entrapment by nets, lines, wreckage, delta-p situations, collapse of structure, wreckage or overhead, Marine animal injuries, contamination by hazardous materials, surf and currents too strong or mismanaged. Inability to get to exit point due to wind, waves, or currents. Conditions at planned or contingency exit point too rough to exit. Divers carried away from the intended exit area or across a shipping lane by currents.[4]

## Life support emergencies

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### Out-of-gas incidents

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See also: Scuba diving § Emergencies, Scuba skills § Loss of breathing gas, and Surface-supplied diving skills § Emergency procedures

An out-of-gas emergency is a life-support emergency which occurs when the breathing gas supply is cut off by running out, supply system failure, or supply system interruption. These are the most urgent of the common diving emergencies, and the ones the diver should be equipped and skilled to manage. Many out-of-air emergencies are consequences of other problems that were not effectively managed.[9][10]

A similar emergency occurs when a scuba diver accumulates more decompression obligation than the available gas endurance for decompression. This can happen either by the diver being unable to ascend in time to avoid the problem, or by using up or losing gas supply due to circumstances or inattention. This form of out-of-gas incident develops with the knowledge of the diver, who has more time available to work on a solution if one exists. It is analogous to the problem of being unable to ascent from under an overhead obstruction, and the decompression obligation is sometimes referred to as a decompression overhead.

### Contaminated scuba gas supply

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See also: Diving air compressor

This is usually a consequence of poor filling procedures and often a problem of contaminated intake air. Bailout to another gas source is the preferred option, but it may be necessary to surface on the gas in use. Consequences depend on the specific contaminant and exposure. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, volatile hydrocarbons, and compressor lubricant are the most commonly encountered contaminants, and there may be legislation requiring compressors used in this service to be periodically tested for these contaminants.[11][12] It is possible for mixed breathing gas blended using high pressure industrial grade oxygen that is not certified for breathing grade, to contain contaminants not permitted in a breathing gas.[13]

### Contaminated surface gas supply

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See also: Surface-supplied diving skills § Contaminated surface gas supply

It is possible for the surface gas supply to be contaminated, so there will be an alternative surface supply to the gas distribution panel, which can be switched over with minimal delay, and the diver has a bailout gas supply that can be used in such an emergency. The bailout gas carried by the diver may not be sufficient for long decompression, and if this is expected a diving stage or wet bell will be used which carries a larger supply of emergency breathing gas, as well as providing a relatively secure platform for decompression stops.

### Broken helmet or full-face mask faceplate

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See also: Diving helmet § Safety, and Full-face diving mask § Safety

The transparent faceplates of most helmets in current use are highly impact resistant and not easily damaged to the extent that they leak dangerously. If this does occur, the free-flow valve can be opened to increase internal pressure to reduce leak flow and purge the helmet of water. Tilting the helmet forward to lower the front will bring the faceplate down and may also reduce leakage and will help purge water from the helmet.[14]

### Hot water supply failure

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See also: Surface-supplied diving skills § Hot water supply failure

In the event of a suit heating water supply failure that cannot be resolved promptly, the diver will abort the dive. This is a serious problem for divers using helium based breathing gas as heat loss is rapid and the risk of hypothermia is high.[15]

The diver can adjust the flow rate which can help with small deficiencies in the temperature, but if the flow is shut off or the temperature deviates too much the dive must be aborted before the diver is chilled too much.[16]

### Bell emergencies

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See also: Surface-supplied diving skills § Emergency closed bell procedures

The bell will be equipped to deal with a bell umbilical failure by switching to onboard emergency gas supply, and the bell will be raised as soon as reasonably possible thereafter. There would be a through-water emergency communications system on a closed bell.[15]

In the event of a dynamic positioning runout, the divers would be recalled to the bell and it would be prepared fo lifting on immediate notice, as a severe runout could snag the bell on an obstacle and it could be lost or stuck.[15]

If the bell lifting winch or cable fails and cannot be restored to function, the bell may be recovered using the clump weight winch (guide wire winch). If this also fails, a wet transfer abandonment may be possible, in which the divers from the damaged bell are transferred to another closed bell through the water.[15]

The bellman would recover an incapacitated diver to the bell. It may be possible to pull the diver back using the umbilical, but it may be necessary for the bellman to lock out to retrieve the diver.[15]

If the bell will not seal at depth, the divers may need to replace the door seal, and check all valves on through-hull penetrations If may be necessary to return the bell to working depth to assess and work on the problem.[15] If a seal cannot be re-established at depth another bell must be sent down to rescue the divers. If the leak starts at the surface, the supervisor would attempt to maintain internal pressure while the bell would be reconnected to the trunking.[15]

A trapped bell may have to be abandoned. In saturation diving the divers would have to be transferred to another bell.[15]

## Entrapment and entanglement emergencies

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### Lost guide line

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See also: Cave diving § Lost line, and Cave diving § Lost buddy

A lost guide line under an overhead where the exit cannot be seen is a life-threatening emergency, as the diver will die if they cannot find the way out before they run out of breathing gas. The guideline is usually the only sure way of finding the exit in a cave or wreck penetration, and if not found, the probable consequence is that the diver will not get out before their breathing gas runs out, and they drown. The threat is very real, and the urgency increases with time as gas is consumed. A related emergency is a lost buddy under an overhead. This implies that the buddy has lost the guide line.[17][18] An aggravated version is when one or more divers enter an overhead knowingly or unknowingly without laying a guide line, and cannot find the way out.[4]

## Decompression emergencies

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### Omitted decompression

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See also: Decompression practice § Missed stops

Omitted decompression puts the diver at an increased risk of decompression related to the amount of decompression omitted. There are protocols for managing this type of emergency, depending on severity and whether the diver has developed symptoms. If there is a chamber on site the best approach is to recompress in the chamber, but when there is no chamber, no symptoms, and the diver can be returned to depth in a short time, an in-water procedure for missed stops can be used.

### Decompression sickness

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Main article: Decompression sickness

Severe symptomatic decompression sickness can develop during ascent for a variety of reasons, some poorly understood and therefore not entirely reliably avoided.[10]

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## Incapacitation

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### Loss of consciousness underwater

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The immediate risk for scuba divers is that the airway may be compromised, with a high risk of drowning. There may also be a high risk of asphyxiation due to hypoxia. A contingent risk is of decompression illness if the diver is surfaced to reduce the more immediate probability of drowning.[4]

* Oxygen toxicity seizure with an unsecured airway.[10][4]
* Hypoxic loss of consciousness. Hypoxia can be caused to breathing a low oxygen gas mix from the wrong cylinder for the current depth, or a rebreather malfunction. An observant and competent buddy may be able to help, but also risks compounding the emergency by missing significant decompression stops in a rescue attempt. Having a surface support team can increase the chances of a successful outcome.[4]

### Vertigo and nausea

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Overwhelming vertigo or nausea underwater can be debilitating. This can be caused by motion sickness, barotrauma of the ears, or inner ear decompression sickness. It is likely to cause vomiting, which can compromise the diver's airway and breathing apparatus. Vomiting through a mouth held demand valve is moderately hazardous, but it can usually be cleared with little effort. A full-face mask is more of a problem, but it can be rinsed and cleared quite easily. Vomiting in a demand helmet is more risky as it is not practicable to rinse to clear, and There is a risk of aspiration of vomit trapped in the helmet air passages, with possibly fatal consequences. This problem is greatest in helmets and full-face masks with internal oro-nasal masks, where it will pass into the demand valve, and that which does not exit through the exhaust ports, will be an aspiration hazard unless flushed out before the next inhalation. A different problem occurs in free-flow helmets - there is less chance of aspiration, but vomit remains in the helmet or drains through into the diving suit, which is unpleasant, but not life-threatening.

### Hypothermia

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Hypothermia developing with a long decompression obligation or long return swim to the exit point. This may be a complication of a loss of thermal protection, or an unexpected change in water temperature, or a failure to use appropriate environmental protection. Clinical hypothermia is rare in divers as the diving suit usually slows heat loss even when damaged or inadequate,[19] but there are situations where it can occur, particularly in deep mixed gas diving where the cold, dense, breathing gas can chill the diver internally without the diver being aware of the reduced core temperature.[16]

Hot water supply failure to a hot-water suit used in deep heliox diving can rapidly lead to hypothermia, as can a failure of heating water and electrical power to a diving bell with a heliox atmosphere. Emergency insulation for the divers is required to prevent dangerous hypothermia if the bell cannot be recovered, to keep the divers alive while rescue is arranged.

### Inert gas narcosis

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Main article: Nitrogen narcosis

Debilitating inert gas narcosis can occur if the diver goes too deep with a nitrogen-based breathing gas, or can occur if they switch to a nitrogen-based gas too deep, which can happen if there is an out-of-gas emergency without a better option, or the cylinder is incorrectly identified, or some other diver error.[10]

### Panic

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Main article: Panic

Underwater diving is an activity with a high exposure to inherent hazards, which can be conducted at acceptably safe levels when divers participate within the scope of their technical competence, range of experience, physical, and psychological limits.

Raised levels of physical and psychological stress can develop rapidly due to unexpected events and situations. This may lead to panic in a susceptible diver. Diver safety can depend on the diver recognising the onset of stress and panic and making an effective effort to minimise their impact on the emergent situation.[20]

Many divers have reported panic during a dive, and have survived the experience, but panic is associated strongly with a significant proportion of diving fatalities, though it is not always known if the panic was causative to the outcome.[5][6]

## Acute medical conditions

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### General medical emergencies

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Cardiovascular emergency, major trauma, envenomation etc. In many of these situations it is not practicable to treat the problem in the water, so it is urgent for the diver to surface and get appropriate first aid as soon as possible without causing more serious injury through haste.[21][22][23][24][25]

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### Severe hypercapnia

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Severe hypercapnia is more likely to be a problem in rebreather diving.[26] Scrubber failure is the most common cause at moderate to shallow depths. Excessive work of breathing (WoB), when extreme, can exceed the capacity of the diver to eliminate carbon dioxide and eventually cause a hypocapnic blackout, which is likely to be followed by asphyxia or drowning. Several mechanisms may cause high work of breathing WoB, such as high gas density, regulator malfunction, loop flood in a rebreather, or excessive exertion with hypercapnia and the cause must be identified before effective action can be taken, but bailout to open circuit and an immediate termination of the dive is generally an appropriate response where possible.[26] A buddy or standby diver with lower work of breathing may be able to carry out a rescue, depending on the cause of the high WoB.

## Buoyancy emergencies

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Buoyancy emergencies can be too much buoyancy, causing an uncontrolled ascent, or too little buoyancy, preventing the diver from ascending, or sinking them to excessive depths.

* Loss of diving weights, causing inability to maintain depth. If this happens with a significant decompression obligation, the risk of decompression sickness will be high. The CMAS Self-Rescue Diver training includes the use of a ratchet dive reel to control ascent rate in the event of unplanned positive buoyancy at depth due to loss of weights. The end of the line is fastened to a heavy object on the bottom, and deployed under tension to control depth.[27]
* Dry suit inversion and blowup with significant decompression obligation. An inverted position in a dry suit causes any excess air in the suit to flow towards the feet, which makes the inverted position stable, and makes it difficult to recover horizontal trim. This is exacerbated if the boots pop off the feet, at which point recovery becomes extremely difficult, if not impossible, If the diver is positively buoyant there may be no way to prevent an uncontrolled buoyant ascent, which will usually occur at an excessive rate, and will generally cause the diver to miss all decompression stops[28]
* Catastrophic dry suit flooding with severe loss of buoyancy.[28] This can happen when the diver is at the surface or underwater.
* Inability to establish positive buoyancy at the surface with buoyancy compensator or dry suit inflation can usually be remedied by ditching weights, but many fatal accidents have occurred where the body has been found with all the weights in place, including cases where the diver was at the surface when they first showed signs of being in difficulty.[citation needed]

## Entrapment

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Entrapment by entanglement, structural collapse, pressure differential, or water flow can prevent the diver from surfacing, and for a scuba diver, may lead to an out-of-gas emergency, or decompression obligation beyond the capacity of the available gas supply. In surface-supplied diving the gas supply is usually secure, the diver is usually in voice contact with the surface, and there is a standby diver available who can follow the diver's umbilical and provide assistance.[29]

## Contamination

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A diver may be exposed to high risk environmental contaminants, (chemical, biological, radiation etc) for various reasons. The main ones being that the contaminant was not known or suspected to be present, so precautions were not taken, or failure of protective encapsulation by the diving suit and helmet in a known contaminated environment. In this case the diver is likely to be aware of the problem, and the dive team is likely to be prepared for emergency decontamination procedures.[29]

In oilfield work, crude oil leakage may get into the bell and contaminate the bell atmosphere with volatile hydrocarbons or hydrogen sulfide. These are known hazards of the specific environment, and there should be equipment and procedures in place to detect and manage the problem.[30]

## Prevention

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See also: Dive planning, Diving safety, and Diver training

The primary goal of dive planning, diver training and diving skills and procedures is to prevent and avoid diving emergencies. A significant part of diving equipment is also used for this purpose, and designed to further this goal. In general diving emergencies are prevented by:[10]

* Reliable equipment, fit for purpose, adequately maintained, and checked for correct function before use. Equipment redundancy is used where necessary to keep risk at an acceptable level, and equipment is designed to keep the risk of accidental misuse low.[31][32]
* Divers are trained and assessed in the relevant skills, and sufficiently practiced so that they remain competent. Codes of practice, operations manuals, and checklists are used to make effective use of lessons learned from previous experience, and to avoid errors in preparation for a dive. Many of the standard diving skills and procedure are specifically intended to prevent common incidents from developing into emergencies.[2]
* Dives are planned, taking known and suspected hazards into account. Divers and dive teams are briefed on the plans, and the plans are followed. In the majority of dives this is sufficient to ensure that dives are completed without serious mishap. As divers gain experience, their ability to see the early stages of what could develop into a problem improve, and their ability to bring the situation back to a safe state is improved.[2]

## Management

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See also: emergency management

Despite the risk involved, a diver or diving team should be able to manage a reasonably foreseeable diving emergency. This is accomplished by restricting diving activities to contexts that are reasonably safe given the diver's training and experience, using suitable equipment, and by following procedures developed, tested and otherwise determined to be as effective in those circumstances. When an unforeseen emergency occurs, a diver or diving team must make the best of the situation using the skills, knowledge, intelligence and facilities they have available.

### Phases

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Emergency management can be describes as comprising a cycle of four phases: Preparation, response, recovery and mitigation.

Preparation includes drawing up standard operating procedures, ensuring that personnel are appropriately trained and competent, identifying the specific hazards, assessing the risk, planning the specific diving project or dive, drawing up an emergency plan, having appropriate checklists, and a dive briefing. Some of these steps may be iterative where the results of one step are input for another.[4]

### Skills and procedures

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See also: Scuba emergency skills, Surface-supplied diving emergency skill, Emergency wet bell procedures, Emergency closed bell procedures, Saturation diving § Emergency procedures, and Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue

Where a hazard cannot be avoided, and the risk is significant, procedures and the relevant skills are developed to manage the problems as they occur, usually at the earliest practicable stage. Where necessary or desirable, equipment which may help manage the foreseen problems may be used, which may require additional skills to operate effectively.

Three levels of skills and procedures are in common use.

* Skills and procedures that are in routine use, which reduce the risk of a problem developing.
* Skills and procedures which are occasionally needed by most divers to manage a relatively rare incident that is foreseeable.
* Skills and procedures that should never be needed, but allow the diver to manage the situation if it does occur, because the consequences are sufficiently serious that competence in the procedures is desirable.

### Support personnel

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See also: Diving team, Buddy diving, and Solo diving

In most cases the diver has some level of support.

In occupational diving, the diving supervisor is responsible for management of the diving operation, including emergencies. The diver's attendant assists the working diver and supervisor, and the standby diver is specifically employed to be deployed to assist the working diver in an emergency. There may be other team members with specific responsibilities. The dive team is legally required to be competent. The employer or diving contractor is responsible for ensuring competence of all team members, that the equipment is fit for use and the dive plan and emergency plan are appropriate. Dive team members are required to be trained in first aid.[2][10]

Recreational divers generally only have a dive buddy who may or may not be competent or may even be a further hazard. Buddies are either self-selected, or imposed by a service provider who generally requires the divers to sign a waiver releasing the provider from almost all responsibility. However the service provider is usually required to have some level of emergency plan in place for events which are outside the scope of a buddy diver. An alternative to buddy diving is solo diving, where the diver relies on their own resources and skills in any underwater emergency, and equips themself accordingly.[33][34]

Technical divers tend to be more extensively trained, more aware of hazards and risk, and make their own arrangements accordingly. They are generally not constrained by legislation, but tend to plan by consensus and are more likely to understand the hazards, risks and consequences of a dive plan. Where appropriate they may organise with voluntary support personnel appropriate to the situation.

### Emergency plans

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In general, there should be plans to deal with reasonably foreseeable emergencies that pose a risk to health and safety wherever there is a duty of care, these may include where relevant:[32][31][35][36][37][38]

* First Aid for medical emergencies
* Search and recovery
* Casualty evacuation
* Site evacuation
* Hazmat emergencies

Some of the action generally taken to prepare for possible medical emergencies will include:[32][31][4]

* Appropriate first aid equipment available on site
* Adequate oxygen administration equipment available on site
* A plan for evacuation of a casualty to a hyperbaric chamber
* A list of contact numbers, call codes and frequencies for local emergency services.
* How to reach the nearest suitable emergency medical facility from the site.

Where a duty of care exists between an employer and employees or a service provider and clients this may include an obligation to plan to deal with reasonably foreseeable emergencies.[2][35][36]

The emergency plan, (or emergency action plan), should be specific to the dive plan where applicable, as specific actions should be detailed where possible and depend on the circumstances of the dive plan. As much detail as reasonably practicable can save time during an emergency, when it avoids the need to make detailed plans at the time. The plan should include backup facilities and support for divers remaining in the water.[4]

## Consequences

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An underwater emergency can have physical and psychological consequences.[39]

A significant proportion of divers experience relatively long term psychological consequences, such as post traumatic stress disorder after a diving accident.[39]

## See also

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* Buddy diving – Practice of mutual monitoring and assistance between two divers
* Investigation of diving accidents – Forensic investigation of underwater diving accidents
* Diver rescue – Rescue of a distressed or incapacitated diver
* Diving hazards – Agents and situations that pose a threat to the underwater diver
* Diving safety – Risk management of underwater diving activities
* Diving supervisor – Professional diving team leader responsible for safety
* Diving team – Group of people working together to enhance dive safety and achieve a task
* Emergency – Situation requiring urgent intervention
* Emergency response – Appropriate response of emergency services
* Emergency response plan – Action to be taken in specific emergencies
* Public safety diving – Underwater work done by law enforcement, rescue and search and recovery teams
* Rescue diver – Recreational scuba certification emphasising emergency response and diver rescue
* Scuba diving fatalities – Deaths occurring while scuba diving or as a consequence of scuba diving
* Stand-by diver – A member of a dive team who is ready to assist or rescue the working diver
* Underwater search and recovery – Locating and recovering underwater objects

## References

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2. ^ a b c d e "Diving Regulations 2009". Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 – Regulations and Notices – Government Notice R41. Pretoria: Government Printer. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016 - via Southern African Legal Information Institute.
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9. ^ Busuttili, Mike; Holbrook, Mike; Ridley, Gordon; Todd, Mike, eds. (1985). "Open water training". Sport diving – The British Sub-Aqua Club Diving Manual. London: Stanley Paul & Co Ltd. pp. 120–135\. ISBN 0-09-163831-3.120-135&rft.pub=Stanley+Paul+&+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-09-163831-3&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Underwater+diving+emergency" class="Z3988">
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11. ^ Southwood, Peter (2007). High Pressure Breathing Air Compressor Operator: Training Manual. Pretoria, South Africa: CMAS Instructors South Africa.
12. ^ Millar IL; Mouldey PG (2008). "Compressed breathing air – the potential for evil from within". Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine. 38 (2). South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society: 145–51\. PMID 22692708.145-51&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:pmid/22692708&rft.au=Millar+IL&rft.au=Mouldey+PG&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Underwater+diving+emergency" class="Z3988">
13. ^ Harlow, Vance (2002). Oxygen Hacker's Companion. Airspeed Press. ISBN 0-9678873-2-1.
14. ^ "International Diver Training Certification: Diver Training Standards, Revision 4" (PDF). Diver Training Standards. Malestroit, Brittany: International Diving Schools Association. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
15. ^ a b c d e f g h Staff (August 2016). Guidance for diving supervisors IMCA D 022 (Revision 1 ed.). London, UK: International Marine Contractors Association.
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17. ^ "Line drills". www.cavediveflorida.com. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
18. ^ Exley, Sheck (1977). Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival. National Speleological Society Cave Diving Section. ISBN 99946-633-7-2.
19. ^ Pollock, Neal (20–22 April 2023). Thermal Management. Rebreather Forum 4. gue.tv. Valletta, Malta. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
20. ^ Kovacs, Christopher R. (2023). "Scuba diving and the stress response: considerations and recommendations for professional and recreational divers". International Maritime Health. 74 (3): 186–191\. doi:10.5603/imh.91707. PMID 37781945.186-191&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info:doi/10.5603/imh.91707&rft_id=info:pmid/37781945&rft.aulast=Kovacs&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rft_id=https://journals.viamedica.pl/international_maritime_health/article/view/91707/73847&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Underwater+diving+emergency" class="Z3988">
21. ^ Lynch, T.P.; Alford, R.A.; Shine, R. (2021). "Mistaken identity may explain why male sea snakes (Aipysurus laevis, Elapidae, Hydrophiinae) "attack" scuba divers". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 15267. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1115267L. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-94728-x. PMC 8376876. PMID 34413322.
22. ^ Todd, J.; Edsell, M. (30 September 2019). "A diver's guide to subaquatic envenomation in the Mediterranean". Diving Hyperb Med. 49 (3): 225–228\. doi:10.28920/dhm49.3.225-228. PMC 6881212. PMID 31523798.225-228&rft.date=2019-09-30&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6881212#id-name=PMC&rft_id=info:pmid/31523798&rft_id=info:doi/10.28920/dhm49.3.225-228&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Edsell,+M.&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6881212&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Underwater+diving+emergency" class="Z3988">
23. ^ Denoble, Petar; Nochetto, Matias (eds.). "1: Envenomations". Hazardous Marine Life.
24. ^ Denoble, Petar; Nochetto, Matias, eds. (15 November 2014). "2: Traumatic Injuries and Complications". Hazardous Marine Life. Divers Alert Network. ISBN 978-1-941027-31-8.
25. ^ Denoble, Petar; Chimiak, James, eds. (15 November 2014). The Heart & Diving. DAN. ISBN 978-1-941027-30-1.
26. ^ a b Mitchell, S.J.; Cronje, F.; Meintjies, W.A.J.; Britz, H.C. (2007). "Fatal respiratory failure during a technical rebreather dive at extreme pressure". Aviat Space Environ Med. 78 (2): 81–86\. PMID 17310877.81-86&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:pmid/17310877&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=S.J.&rft.au=Cronje,+F.&rft.au=Meintjies,+W.A.J.&rft.au=Britz,+H.C.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Underwater+diving+emergency" class="Z3988">
27. ^ Staff (4 March 2014). "CMAS Self-Rescue Diver". Standard Number: 2.B.31 / BOD no 181 ( 04-18-2013 ). CMAS. Archived from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
28. ^ a b Barsky, Steven; Long, Dick; Stinton, Bob (1999). Dry Suit Diving (3rd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Hammerhead Press. ISBN 978-0-9674305-0-8.
29. ^ a b Barsky, Steven (2007). Diving in High-Risk Environments (4th ed.). Ventura, California: Hammerhead Press. ISBN 978-0-9674305-7-7.
30. ^ "Bell contamination". IMCA SF 10/07. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
31. ^ a b c Diving Advisory Board. Code Of Practice for Scientific Diving (PDF). Pretoria: The South African Department of Labour. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
32. ^ a b c Diving Advisory Board. Code Of Practice Inshore Diving (PDF). Pretoria: The South African Department of Labour. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
33. ^ Coleman, Phyllis G. (10 September 2008). "Scuba diving buddies: rights, obligations, and liabilities". University of San Francisco Maritime Law Journal. 20 (1). Nova Southeastern University Shepard Broad Law Center: 75. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
34. ^ "Buddy Diving: Legal Liabilities". Scuba Diving. Bonnier Corporation. 19 October 2006. Archived from the original on 29 December 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
35. ^ a b "Emergency Action Plans: When things go wrong". dan.org. Divers Alert Network. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
36. ^ a b "Emergency Plans". www.hsa.ie. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
37. ^ "How to Create an Effective Emergency Action Plan (EAP)". DAN Southern Africa. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
38. ^ Burman, Francois. "Emergency Planning: When Things Go Wrong". www.daneurope.org. Archived from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
39. ^ a b Górnicki, Andrzej (31 December 2023). "Psychological Consequences of a Diving Accident". www.thehumandiver.com. Retrieved 23 May 2024.

* v
* t
* e

Underwater diving

* Diving activities
* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface oriented diving
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

* Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment
* Human factors in diving equipment design
* List of diving equipment manufacturers

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Hydreliox
* Hydrox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Avelo diving system
* Buoyancy compensator
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Variable buoyancy pressure vessel
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression chamber
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Diving shot
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Jonline

Diving suit|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* JIM suit
* Newtsuit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Orinasal mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Shallow water helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Full-face mask
* Half mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving watch
* Helium release valve
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Swimfin
* Monofin
* PowerSwim
* Towboard
* Wet sub

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Dive light
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Underwater acoustic communication
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Emergency locator beacon
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Snoopy loop
* Navigation equipment
* Distance line
* Diving compass
* Dive reel
* Line marker
* Surface marker buoy
* Silt screw

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Scuba cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Diving regulator
* Mechanism of diving regulators
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Full-face diving mask

| Open-circuit
scuba|

* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Scuba configuration
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder

|

Diving rebreathers|

* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Mark IV Amphibian
* Porpoise
* Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Salvus
* Siva

Surface-supplied
diving equipment|

* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Gas panel
* Hookah
* Scuba replacement
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cis-Lunar
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
* DESCO
* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Faber
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
* Oscar Gugen
* Heinke
* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Access equipment|

* Boarding stirrup
* Diver lift
* Diving bell
* Diving ladder
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Diving stage
* Downline
* Jackstay
* Launch and recovery system
* Messenger line
* Moon pool

|

Breathing gas
handling|

* Air filtration
* Activated carbon
* Hopcalite
* Molecular sieve
* Silica gel
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* Water separator
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane gas separation
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* Oxygen compatibility

Decompression
equipment|

* Air-lock
* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat rubber raiding craft
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)

| Underwater
habitat|

* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

|

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* COTSBot
* CURV
* Deep Drone
* Épaulard
* Global Explorer ROV
* Goldfish-class ROUV
* Kaikō ROV
* Kaşif ROUV
* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
* Mini Rover ROV
* OpenROV
* ROV KIEL 6000
* ROV PHOCA
* Scorpio ROV
* Sea Dragon-class ROV
* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* ENOS Rescue-System
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving spread
* Air spread
* Saturation spread
* Hot water system
* Sonar
* Underwater acoustic positioning system
* Underwater acoustic communication

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight bi-fins (CWTB)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Simone Arrigoni
* Peppo Biscarini
* Michael Board
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Kate Middleton
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Liv Philip
* Annelie Pompe
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Fatma Uruk
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diver
* Commercial offshore diver
* Hazmat diver
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving superintendent
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diver
* Police diver
* Public safety diver
* Scientific diver
* Underwater archaeologist

| Military
diving|

* Army engineer diver
* Canadian Armed Forces Divers
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Minentaucher
* Royal Navy ships diver
* United States military divers
* U.S. Navy diver
* U.S.Navy master diver

| Military
diving
units|

* 7th Marine Brigade
* Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)
* Commando Hubert
* Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)
* Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei
* Decima Flottiglia MAS
* Frogman Corps (Denmark)
* Fuerzas Especiales
* Fukuryu
* GRUMEC
* Grup Gerak Khas
* Jagdkommando
* JW Formoza
* JW GROM
* JW Komandosów
* Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine
* KOPASKA
* MARCOS
* Marine Commandos
* Marinejegerkommandoen
* Marine Raider Regiment
* Minedykkerkommandoen
* Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit
* Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)
* Naval Service Diving Section
* Naval Special Operations Command
* Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)
* Royal Engineers
* Russian commando frogmen
* Sappers Divers Group
* Shayetet 13
* Special Air Service
* Special Air Service Regiment
* Special Actions Detachment
* Special Boat Service
* Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)
* Special Forces Command (Turkey)
* Special Forces Group (Belgium)
* Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)
* Special Service Group (Navy)
* Special Warfare Diving and Salvage
* Tactical Divers Group
* US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
* US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions
* US Navy SEALs
* Underwater Construction Teams
* Underwater Demolition Command
* Underwater Demolition Team
* Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)
* UNGERIN

|

Underwater
work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive leader
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hazmat diving
* Hyperbaric welding
* Marine construction
* Offshore construction
* Underwater construction
* Media diving
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Potable water diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Ships husbandry
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Archaeology of shipwrecks
* Underwater cutting and welding
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater inspection
* Nondestructive testing
* Underwater logging
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater searches
* Underwater videography
* Underwater survey

| Salvage diving|

* SS Egypt
* Kronan
* La Belle
* SS Laurentic
* RMS Lusitania
* Mars
* Mary Rose
* USS Monitor
* HMS Royal George
* Vasa

|

Diving
contractors|

* COMEX
* Helix Energy Solutions Group
* International Marine Contractors Association

Tools and
equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* Baited remote underwater video
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Pigging
* Hot stab
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle
* QBS-06

|

Recreational diving

* Recreational dive sites
* Index of recreational dive sites
* List of wreck diving sites
* Outline of recreational dive sites

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Underwater photography
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Dive center
* Diving in East Timor
* Diving in the Maldives
* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites
* Underwater diving on Guam

Diving events
and festivals|

* Diversnight
* Underwater Bike Race

Diving safety

* Human factors in diving equipment design
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life-support system
* Safety-critical system
* Scuba diving fatalities
* Underwater diving emergency
* Water safety
* Water surface searches

| Diving
hazards|

* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Environmental
* Current
* Delta-P
* Entanglement hazard
* Overhead
* Silt out
* Wave action
* Equipment
* Freeflow
* Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment
* Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus
* Single point of failure
* Physiological
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Oxygen toxicity
* Seasickness
* Uncontrolled decompression
* Diver behaviour and competence
* Lack of competence
* Overconfidence effect
* Panic
* Task loading
* Trait anxiety
* Willful violation

| Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hyperthermia
* Non-freezing cold injury

|

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* buddy check
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Rule of thirds
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Rebreather diving
* Scuba gas management
* Solo diving
* Wall diving

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout–tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness

| Diving team|

* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver medical technician
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Gas man
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver

|

Equipment
safety|

* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulator
* Breathing performance of regulators

Occupational
safety and
health|

* Association of Diving Contractors International
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency response plan
* Diving safety officer
* Diving superintendent
* Diving supervisor
* Operations manual
* Standard operating procedure

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramp
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Air embolism
* Aerosinusitis
* Barodontalgia
* Dental barotrauma
* Middle ear barotrauma
* Pulmonary barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dysbarism

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* Inner ear decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Effects of drugs on fitness to dive
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Peter B. Bennett
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Alf O. Brubakk
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* Kenneth William Donald
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Henry Valence Hempleman
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* Neal W. Pollock
* John Rawlins
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Diving regulations
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents
* Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage

History of underwater diving

* History of decompression research and development
* History of dive computers
* History of Diving Museum
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Lyons Maritime Museum
* Man in the Sea Museum
* Timeline of atmospheric diving suits
* Timeline of diving technology
* Pearling in Western Australia
* US Navy decompression models and tables

| Archeological
sites|

* SS Commodore
* USS Monitor
* Queen Anne's Revenge
* Whydah Gally

|

Underwater art
and artists|

* The Diver
* Jason deCaires Taylor

Engineers
and inventors|

* Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont
* William Beebe
* Georges Beuchat
* Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
* Joseph-Martin Cabirol
* John R. Clarke
* Jacques Cousteau
* Charles Anthony Deane
* John Deane
* Louis de Corlieu
* Auguste Denayrouze
* Ted Eldred
* Henry Fleuss
* Émile Gagnan
* Karl Heinrich Klingert
* Peter Kreeft
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Yves Le Prieur
* John Lethbridge
* Ernest William Moir
* Joseph Salim Peress
* Auguste Piccard
* Joe Savoie
* Willard Franklyn Searle
* Gordon Smith
* Augustus Siebe
* Pierre-Marie Touboulic
* Jacques Triger

Historical
equipment|

* Aqua-Lung
* RV Calypso
* SP-350 Denise
* Magnesium torch
* Nikonos
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Sub Marine Explorer
* Vintage scuba

| Diver
propulsion
vehicles|

* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* Necker Nymph
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Welfreighter
* Wet Nellie

|

Military and
covert operations|

* Raid on Alexandria (1941)
* Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior

Scientific projects|

* 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
* Mission 31

Awards and events|

* Hans Hass Award
* International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame
* London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures
* NOGI Awards
* Women Divers Hall of Fame

Incidents|

| Dive boat incidents|

* Sinking of MV Conception

|

Diver rescues|

* Alpazat cave rescue
* Tham Luang cave rescue

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving fatalities|

* Stephen Keenan
* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Offshore
diving incidents|

* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Stena Seaspread diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident

Professional
diving fatalities|

* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Francis P. Hammerberg
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Per Skipnes
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* 1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident
* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Fernando Garfella Palmer
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* death
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Yuri Lipski
* Kirsty MacColl
* Linnea Mills
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival
* Underwater Handbook
* Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
* Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving
* The new science of skin and scuba diving
* Professional Diver's Handbook
* Basic Scuba

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)
* DIN 7876
* IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving
* ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers
* The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure

Research|

* List of Divers Alert Network publications

Dive guides|

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Refresher training
* Skill assessment
* Diver training standard
* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* ISO training standards
* Teaching method
* Muscle memory
* Overlearning
* Stress exposure training

| Skills|

* Combat sidestroke
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches

|

Recreational
scuba
certification
levels|

| Core diving skills|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Supervised diver

|

Leadership skills|

* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Master Instructor

Specialist skills|

* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver

Diver training
certification
and registration
organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Recreational diver course referral
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International
* Norwegian diver school

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational
scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Life Saving Federation (ILS)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
* Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical diver
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
* Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Military diver
training centres|

* Defence Diving School
* Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center
* Underwater Escape Training Unit

Military diver
training courses|

* United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Australia
* Turkey
* Underwater rugby
* Colombia
* United States
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving
* Underwater cycling
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography

Sports governing
organisations
and federations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* AIDA Hellas
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Competitions|

* 14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship
* Underwater Hockey World Championships
* Underwater Orienteering World Championships
* Underwater Rugby World Championships

Underwater divers

| Pioneers
of diving|

* Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro
* Aquanaut
* Mary Bonnin
* Amelia Behrens-Furniss
* James F. Cahill
* Jacques Cousteau
* Billy Deans
* Dottie Frazier
* Trevor Hampton
* Hans Hass
* Hannes Keller
* Dick Rutkowski
* Teseo Tesei
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater
scientists
archaeologists and
environmentalists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Jeffrey Bozanic
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* Fernando Garfella Palmer
* David Gibbins
* Graham Jessop
* Swietenia Puspa Lestari
* Pilar Luna
* Robert F. Marx
* Anna Marguerite McCann
* Innes McCartney
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova
* John Peter Oleson
* Mendel L. Peterson
* Richard Pyle
* Andreas Rechnitzer
* William R. Royal
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* Stephanie Schwabe
* Myriam Seco
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton
* Cristina Zenato

Scuba record
holders|

* Pascal Bernabé
* Jim Bowden
* Mark Ellyatt
* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes
* Claudia Serpieri
* Krzysztof Starnawski

Underwater
filmmakers
and presenters|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Jean-Michel Cousteau
* Richie Kohler
* Paul Rose
* Andy Torbet
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight
* James Cameron

Underwater
photographers|

* Doug Allan
* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* Candice Farmer
* John Christopher Fine
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Pete Oxford
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron Taylor
* Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater
explorers|

* Caves
* Graham Balcombe
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jochen Hasenmayer
* Jill Heinerth
* Jarrod Jablonski
* William Hogarth Main
* Tom Mount
* Jack Sheppard
* Bill Stone
* Reefs
* Arthur C. Clarke
* Wrecks
* Leigh Bishop
* John Chatterton
* Clive Cussler
* Bill Nagle
* Valerie van Heest
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Aquanauts|

* Andrew Abercromby
* Joseph M. Acaba
* Clayton Anderson
* Richard R. Arnold
* Serena Auñón-Chancellor
* Michael Barratt (astronaut)
* Robert A. Barth
* Robert L. Behnken
* Randolph Bresnik
* Timothy J. Broderick
* Justin Brown
* Berry L. Cannon
* Scott Carpenter
* Gregory Chamitoff
* Steve Chappell
* Catherine Coleman
* Robin Cook
* Craig B. Cooper
* Fabien Cousteau
* Philippe Cousteau
* Timothy Creamer
* Jonathan Dory
* Pedro Duque
* Sylvia Earle
* Jeanette Epps
* Sheck Exley
* Albert Falco
* Andrew J. Feustel
* Michael Fincke
* Satoshi Furukawa
* Ronald J. Garan Jr.
* Michael L. Gernhardt
* Christopher E. Gerty
* David Gruber
* Chris Hadfield
* Jeremy Hansen
* José M. Hernández
* John Herrington
* Paul Hill
* Akihiko Hoshide
* Mark Hulsbeck
* Emma Hwang
* Norishige Kanai
* Les Kaufman
* Scott Kelly
* Karen Kohanowich
* Timothy Kopra
* Dominic Landucci
* Jon Lindbergh
* Kjell N. Lindgren
* Michael López-Alegría
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Sandra Magnus
* Thomas Marshburn
* Matthias Maurer
* K. Megan McArthur
* Craig McKinley
* Jessica Meir
* Simone Melchior
* Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger
* Andreas Mogensen
* Karen Nyberg
* John D. Olivas
* Takuya Onishi
* Luca Parmitano
* Nicholas Patrick
* Tim Peake
* Thomas Pesquet
* Marc Reagan
* Garrett Reisman
* Kathleen Rubins
* Dick Rutkowski
* Tara Ruttley
* David Saint-Jacques
* Josef Schmid
* Robert Sheats
* Dewey Smith
* Steve Squyres
* Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper
* Robert Sténuit
* Hervé Stevenin
* Nicole Stott
* James Talacek
* Daniel M. Tani
* Robert Thirsk
* Bill Todd
* Mark T. Vande Hei
* Koichi Wakata
* Rex J. Walheim
* Shannon Walker
* John Morgan Wells
* Joachim Wendler
* Douglas H. Wheelock
* Peggy Whitson
* Dafydd Williams
* Jeffrey Williams
* Sunita Williams
* Reid Wiseman
* Kimiya Yui

Writers and journalists|

* Michael C. Barnette
* Victor Berge
* Philippe Diolé
* Gary Gentile
* Bret Gilliam
* Bob Halstead
* Hillary Hauser
* Trevor Jackson
* Steve Lewis
* John Mattera

Rescuers|

* Craig Challen
* Richard Harris
* Rick Stanton
* John Volanthen

Frogmen|

* Lionel Crabb
* Ian Edward Fraser
* Sydney Knowles
* James Joseph Magennis

Commercial salvors|

* Keith Jessop

Science of underwater diving

* List of researchers in underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Metre sea water
* Neutral buoyancy
* Underwater acoustics
* Modulated ultrasound
* Underwater vision
* Underwater computer vision

|

Diving
physiology|

* Blood shift
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Thermal balance of the underwater diver
* Underwater vision
* Work of breathing

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Oxygen window
* Physiology of decompression

|

Diving
environments|

* Underwater exploration
* Deep-sea exploration

| Classification|

* List of diving environments by type
* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open-water diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Torricellian chamber
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment
* Underwater diving environment

|

Impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Other

* Bathysphere
* Defense against swimmer incursions
* Diver detection sonar
* Offshore survey
* Rugged compact camera
* Underwater domain awareness
* Underwater vehicle

| Deep-submergence
vehicle|

* Aluminaut
* DSV Alvin
* American submarine NR-1
* Bathyscaphe
* Archimède
* FNRS-2
* FNRS-3
* Harmony class bathyscaphe
* Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe
* Trieste II
* Deepsea Challenger
* Ictineu 3
* JAGO
* Jiaolong
* Konsul-class submersible
* Limiting Factor
* Russian submarine Losharik
* Mir
* Nautile
* Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle
* DSV Sea Cliff
* DSV Shinkai
* DSV Shinkai 2000
* DSV Shinkai 6500
* DSV Turtle
* DSV-5 Nemo

|

Submarine rescue|

* International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office
* Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)
* McCann Rescue Chamber
* Submarine rescue ship

| Deep-submergence
rescue vehicle|

* LR5
* LR7
* MSM-1
* Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle
* DSRV-1 Mystic
* DSRV-2 Avalon
* NATO Submarine Rescue System
* Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle
* Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28
* Russian submarine AS-34
* ASRV Remora
* SRV-300
* Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System
* Type 7103 DSRV
* URF (Swedish Navy)

|

Submarine escape|

* Escape trunk
* Submarine escape training facility
* Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)

| Escape set|

* Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus
* Momsen lung
* Steinke hood
* Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment

|

Special
interest
groups|

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia
* CMAS Europe
* Coral Reef Alliance
* Divers Alert Network
* Green Fins
* Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association
* Karst Underwater Research
* Nautical Archaeology Program
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* PADI AWARE
* Reef Check
* Reef Life Survey
* Rubicon Foundation
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society
* Society for Underwater Historical Research
* Society for Underwater Technology
* Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command

Neutral buoyancy
facilities for
Astronaut training|

* Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory
* Neutral buoyancy pool
* Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid
* Neutral Buoyancy Simulator
* Space Systems Laboratory
* Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center

Other|

* Nautilus Productions
* Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device
* Scuba diving therapy
* Seabed mining

* Category
* Commons
* Glossary
* Indexes: Dive sites
* Divers
* Diving
* Outline
* Portal

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