United Kingdom–European Union relations

Bilateral relations

European Union–United Kingdom relations

European Union |
United Kingdom
Diplomatic mission
European Union Delegation, London| United Kingdom Mission, Brussels
Envoy
Ambassador Pedro Serrano| Ambassador Lindsay Croisdale-Appleby
This article is part of a series on

Politics of the European Union

Member states (27)

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Cyprus
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Ireland
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Candidate countries

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Georgia
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Serbia
* Ukraine

* * *

Countries with suspended accession negotiations

* Turkey

* * *

Applicant countries

* Kosovo

* * *

States not on the agenda

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Iceland
* Kazakhstan
* Norway
* Russia
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom

* * *

Microstates and the European Union

* Andorra
* Liechtenstein
* Monaco
* San Marino
* Vatican City

* * *

* Special territories
* EU 3 (EU founding states)
* Enlargement of the European Union
* Withdrawal from the European Union

* * *

Treaties and Declarations

* Schuman Declaration (1950)
* Treaty of Paris (1951)
* Europe Declaration (1951)
* Spaak Report (1956)
* Treaty of Rome (1957)
* Euratom Treaty (1957)
* Merger Treaty (1965)
* Solemn Declaration (1983)
* Single European Act (1986)
* Maastricht Treaty (1992)
* Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
* Treaty of Nice (2001)
* Berlin Declaration (2007)
* Treaty of Lisbon (2007)
* Article 7
* Article 50

* * *

Opt-outs

* * *

Treaties of accession

1972, 1979, 1985, 1994, 2003, 2005, 2011

* * *

Treaties of withdrawal

1984, 2020

* * *

Other treaties

* Schengen Agreement (1985)
* European Economic Area Agreement (1992)

* * *

Abandoned treaties and agreements

* European Constitution (2004)
* UK membership renegotiation (2015–2016)

Executive institutions

European Council

* President: Costa (PES)
* Parties
* List of meetings

* * *

European Commission

* Von der Leyen Commission
* President: Von der Leyen (EPP)
* Vice Presidents
* College of Commissioners
* Civil Service
* Secretary-General:  Juhansone

Legislative institutions

* Legislative procedure

* * *

Council of the EU

Presidency

Denmark

(July–December 2025)

* * *

Configurations

* GAC
* FAC
* ECOFIN
* Eurogroup
* AGRIFISH
* EPSCO
* COMPET
* TTE
* ENVI
* JHA
* EYC

* * *

* Voting
* Secretariat
* Secretary-General: Thérèse Blanchet
* Directorates-general
* Council preparatory bodies
* COREPER
* Council Working Parties

* * *

European Parliament
(Members)

* President: Metsola
* Largest groups
* EPP (Manfred Weber)
* S&D (Iratxe García)
* Member of the European Parliament
* 10th session (2024–2029)
* Bureau
* Vice Presidents
* Quaestor
* Conference

* * *

National parliaments

Judicial institutions

Court of Justice of the EU

* European Court of Justice
* Members
* Advocates General
* Rulings
* General Court

Auditory institutions

European Court of Auditors

* European Court of Auditors

* * *

Other auditory bodies

* Internal Audit Service of the Commission
* Committee on Budgetary Control of the Parliament
* Economic and Financial Affairs configuration of the Council
* Anti-Fraud Office
* Public Prosecutor's Office

European Central Bank

* President Lagarde
* ESCB
* EMU
* Euro banknotes
* Euro coins

Other bodies

European Investment Bank Group

* Investment Bank
* Investment Fund
* EIB Institute

* * *

European Stability Mechanism

* European Stability Mechanism

* * *

European University Institute

* European University Institute

* * *

Unified Patent Court

* Unified Patent Court

* * *

Agencies, decentralised independent bodies and joint undertakings

* Decentralised agencies of the EU
* Single market agencies
* CFSP agencies
* AFSC agencies
* ESFS European Supervisory Authorities
* SRM bodies
* Executive agencies of the EU
* Euratom agencies
* Decentralised independent bodies of the EU
* European Institute of Innovation and Technology
* European Public Prosecutor's Office
* Corporate bodies of the EU
* European Data Protection Board
* Authority for European Political Parties and European Political Foundations
* Joint undertakings
* of the EU
* of the Euratom

* * *

Other independent bodies

* European Data Protection Supervisor
* European Ombudsman

* * *

Advisory bodies

* European Committee of the Regions
* European Economic and Social Committee
* Political and Security Committee
* European Union Military Committee
* EU/ESA Space Council

* * *

Inter-institutional bodies

* Publications Office of the European Union
* European External Action Service
* European Personnel Selection Office
* Anti-Fraud Office
* European Administrative School

Euratom

Euratom members

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Cyprus
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Ireland
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Associated states

*  Switzerland
*  United Kingdom

* * *

* Nuclear power in the European Union

Euratom since 1 January 2021

Economic and Monetary Union

Eurozone members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain

* * *

Eurogroup

* President
* Paschal Donohoe

* * *

Other currencies in use

* Bulgarian lev
* Czech koruna
* Danish krone
* Hungarian forint
* Polish złoty
* Romanian leu
* Swedish krona

* * *

* ERM II
* Enlargement of the eurozone

* * *

Non Euro countries relationship to Euro

* Bulgaria
* Czechia
* Denmark
* Hungary
* Poland
* Sweden
* Romania

Eurozone since 2015

Schengen Area

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

*  Iceland
*  Liechtenstein
*  Norway
*  Switzerland

* * *

Non-Schengen area EU member states

*  Cyprus
*  Ireland (Opt-out)

* * *

* ETIAS
* Prüm Convention
* Schengen Information System
* Visa Information System
* Visa policy of the Schengen Area

Schengen Area from January 2023

European Economic Area

EEA members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

*  Iceland
*  Liechtenstein
*  Norway

* * *

Topics

* EEA Joint Committee
* EEA National Identity cards
* Microstates and the European Union

European Economic Area

Elections

* Elections to the European Parliament
* European parties
* European foundations
* Political groups of the European Parliament
* Spitzenkandidat
* Constituencies
* Apportionment
* Referendums related to the EU

* * *

European elections

* 1979
* 1984
* 1989
* 1994
* 1999
* 2004
* 2009
* 2014
* 2019
* 2024 (latest election)

* * *

Elections in EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

Law

* Acquis
* Conferral
* Primacy (ECJ Case 6/64)
* Subsidiarity
* Regulation
* Directive
* Decision
* Recommendation
* Fundamental Rights

Policies and issues

* Budget
* Customs Union
* Free Trade Agreements
* European Single Market
* Area of FS&J
* Policies
* Agricultural
* Energy
* Fisheries
* Regional
* Citizenship
* Passports of the European Union
* Identity
* Pro-Europeanism
* Euroscepticism
* European banking union
* European Banking Supervision
* Single Resolution Mechanism
* Capital Markets Union
* European System of Financial Supervision
* Institutional seats of the European Union
* Integration
* Supranationalism
* European Federation
* Multi-speed Europe
* Enhanced cooperation

Foreign relations

High Representative

* Kaja Kallas

* * *

* Ext. Action Service
* Foreign Policy
* Defence Policy

* * *

Foreign relations of EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

* Argentina–European Union relations
* Armenia–European Union relations
* Australia–European Union relations
* Brazil–European Union relations
* Canada–European Union relations
* China–European Union relations
* European Union–NATO relations
* Georgia–European Union relations
* Iceland–European Union relations
* Iran–European Union relations
* Israel–European Union relations
* Japan–European Union relations
* Kazakhstan–European Union relations
* Mexico–European Union relations
* Moldova–European Union relations
* Norway–European Union relations
* Russia–European Union relations
* Switzerland–European Union relations
* Turkey–European Union relations
* Ukraine–European Union relations
* United Kingdom–European Union relations (History)
* Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
* Brexit
* United States–European Union relations

* * *

* Common Travel Area (Ireland)
* Microstates and the European Union
* European Union and the United Nations
* European Union Association Agreement
* European Neighbourhood Policy
* Eastern Partnership
* Euronest Parliamentary Assembly

* * *

* G7
* G20

Defunct bodies

* European Communities (1958–1993)

European Coal and Steel Community
European Economic Community
* European Community
* Western European Union
* Convention on the Future of Europe

European Union portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

Relations between the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) are governed, since 1 January 2021, by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA).

Relations trace back to the foundation of the European Communities, the European Union's predecessor, in 1957. The UK was a member state of the bloc after joining it in 1973 (which was confirmed in a referendum on membership in 1975) until it became the first country to voluntarily end its membership on 31 January 2020 after a second referendum on membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of voters opting to leave.

The Brexit withdrawal agreement now plays a significant role in relations between the two polities. The United Kingdom shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland, an EU member state, via Northern Ireland, which has remained a de facto member of the European Single Market and maintained the authority of the European Court of Justice under the Northern Ireland Protocol. Relations between the UK and the EU have seen improvement since the proposal of the Windsor Framework.

## History

[edit]

### Precedents

[edit]

See also: Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities

President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen with British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak with in the 2023 AI Safety Summit in Bletchley Park, 2 November 2023

The UK failed to take part in the diplomatic discussions that led up to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), likewise later withdrawing from negotiations for the constitution of the European Economic Community (EEC).[1]

The United Kingdom's failed applications to join the European Communities (EC) in 1963 and 1967 were vetoed by the president of France, Charles de Gaulle, who said that "a number of aspects of Britain's economy, from working practices to agriculture" had "made Britain incompatible with Europe" and that Britain harboured a "deep-seated hostility" to any pan-European project.[2] Once de Gaulle had relinquished the French presidency in 1969, the UK made a third and successful application for membership.

### UK membership in the bloc (1973–2020)

[edit]

Main articles: United Kingdom membership of the European Economic Area, United Kingdom membership of the European Union, and Brexit

Following the UK accession to the EC in 1973, the former got to renegotiate membership terms, vied for budgetary rebates and requested opt-outs from the single currency and other common policies.[3] The protectionist Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in particular was often at the center of the UK conflicts with the rest of the EC, underpinning its reputation as an "awkward partner" within the bloc.[4]

Since 1977, both pro- and anti-European views have had majority support at different times, with some dramatic swings between the two camps.[5] Conservative and Labour parties alike usually pandered to the prejudices towards the EC espoused by the Britons, who rather than commit to a European idea, generally preferred to hanker for the bygone days of British world hegemony.[6] In the United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. The highest-ever rejection of membership was in 1980, the first full year of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's term of office, with 65% opposed to and 26% in favour of membership.[5] As a member of the EU, the United Kingdom never adopted the use of the euro or joined the Schengen Area, which, bringing down border controls in a number of countries, thereby allowed for free movement of citizens.[7] Likewise, the UK government adhered to a long-standing policy of enthusiasm for EU enlargement, under the premise that the addition of more members would undermine any federalising drive (deepening) of the union.[8][3]

Vis-à-vis Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory whose defence and foreign policies are handled by His Majesty's Government, the Spain's accession to the European Communities in 1986, negotiated with the UK inside the bloc from a position of strength, made the former country to renounce its power, recognised by the Treaty of Utrecht, to close its land border with Gibraltar at its discretion.[9] The then Conservative UK government acquiesced to the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (by which the European Union came into existence) as it aligned with its vision of the bloc as essentially a free market.[10]

The 1998 Good Friday Agreement pertaining the end of the ethnonationalist conflict in Northern Ireland was signed under the context of the shared membership of the UK and Ireland in the EU.[11]

UK Prime Minister Theresa May meets with President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker with in Brussels, Belgium, 21 October 2016.

Following the result of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, when 52 percent of those who voted supported 'Brexit' (a blend of "British exit"), the UK negotiated its withdrawal from the European Union. After the vote, British Prime Minister David Cameron, who supported staying in the EU, resigned. Theresa May became the prime minister after his formal resignation. Although she also supported remaining in the EU, she committed to negotiating Britain's exit.[12] The United Kingdom formally left the bloc on 31 January 2020.

### Post-Brexit relations (since 2020)

[edit]

Main article: Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union

On 30 December 2020, after eight months of negotiations, the EU and the UK signed the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement,[13] which governs bilateral relations since its provisional entry into force two days later and which was later ratified by both parties. UK government attempts to unilaterally reject the terms of the agreed Northern Ireland Protocol have exacerbated post-Brexit relations.[14]

Although the United Kingdom has maintained strong relations with some EU member states, the decision to withdraw and subsequent turbulent process of negotiating the Trade and Cooperation Agreement sparked criticism of the United Kingdom across the EU.[15] However, UK-EU collaborative discussions on the response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, which saw the UK invited to an EU Foreign Affairs Council meeting for the first time since Brexit, and the successful negotiation of the Windsor Framework for Northern Ireland between the UK and EU, has indicated a gradual improvement of relations over time.[16][17]

On 28 June 2023, the EU and UK signed a memorandum of understanding to enhance cooperation on financial services. Chancellor Jeremy Hunt described the signing as a significant moment, highlighting the interconnections of the EU and UK financial markets. The agreement establishes a forum for regular discussions on voluntary regulatory cooperation. However, it does not indicate regulatory alignment or address specific demands from the EU.[18]

Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the United Kingdom in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.[19] BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".[19] EU citizens working in the health and social care sector have been replaced by migrants from non-EU countries such as India and Nigeria.[20][21] After Brexit, the number of EU nationals who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.[22]

On 2 October 2024, the UK and the EU agreed to strengthen their relationship following the disruptions caused by Brexit. During talks in Brussels, Keir Starmer and Ursula von der Leyen emphasized their commitment to enhancing cooperation on issues such as economic growth, energy, security, and migration. They reaffirmed their dedication to the Withdrawal Agreement and international law, despite pressure from hard-line Brexiteers regarding the European Convention on Human Rights. They planned to define areas for strengthened cooperation in the coming months and committed to regular meetings, starting with a summit early in 2025.[23] The first formal summit since Brexit took place in May 2025 in London and concluded fresh agreements on defense cooperation and easing trade flows.[24]

In March 2025, the Trades Union Congress called for a closer relationship with the EU, in order to reduce trade barriers and border checks and bring closer alignment of chemical and food standards. General secretary Paul Nowak called for a "commonsense trade deal" and a new approach which respects the referendum result.[25][26][27] In May, the TUC welcomed the government's trade reset as "an important first step" and "just the beginning" of improved links.[28][29]

## Post-Brexit polling

[edit]

Main article: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)

Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU, polling companies have continued to poll respondents on re-joining the EU.

### National polling

[edit]

Respondents are regularly polled on their voting intention in a hypothetical referendum on re-joining the EU. This is instead of re-using the leave or remain question from the 2016 referendum.

Recent polling results have demonstrated a clear lead for "re-join" over "stay[ing] out". A longer example of the following table can be found here.

Dates conducted  | Pollster  | Client  | Sample

size

| Rejoin  | Stay out  | Neither  | Lead

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

|  |
26-27 Jan 2023  | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247  | 49% | 29%  | 22%  | 20%
19-20 Jan 2023  | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247  | 47% | 31%  | 22%  | 16%
11-12 Jan 2023  | Omnisis | N/A | 1,247  | 44% | 31%  | 25%  | 13%
5-6 Jan 2023  | Omnisis | N/A | 1,285  | 49% | 30%  | 21%  | 19%

### In the European Union

[edit]

In 2021, Euronews commissioned British pollsters Redfield & Wilton Strategies to conduct a poll in France, Germany, Spain, and Italy on how respondents would feel about the UK re-joining the EU. Support out-weighed opposition across all four countries, with it being lowest in France (36%) and highest in Spain (46%).[30]

## Trade

[edit]

In 2017, exports to the European Union amounted to £274 billion out of £616 billion in total exports for the UK. The proportion of UK export to the European Union has been noted to be in decline, since exports to non-EU countries have increased at a faster rate.[31]

On the European side, according to Eurostat, exports from the EU 27 to the UK have increased from 316 euro billions in 2015 to 319 euro billions in 2019. In the same time, according to Eurostat, imports from the UK to the EU-27 have increased from 184 euro billions in 2015 to 194 euro billions in 2019.[32]

## United Kingdom's foreign relations with EU member states (EU27)

[edit]

Country  | British embassy  | Reciprocal embassy  | Notes

|
|
|

Austria | Vienna | London | British Mission to OSCE and UN Office in Vienna

Main article: Austria–United Kingdom relations

Belgium | Brussels | London | British Mission to EU and NATO in Brussels

Main article: Belgium–United Kingdom relations

Bulgaria | Sofia | London |

Main article: Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations

Croatia | Zagreb
Consulate General: Split | London |

Main article: Croatia–United Kingdom relations

Cyprus | High Commission: Nicosia | High Commission: London |

Main article: Cyprus–United Kingdom relations

Czech Republic | Prague | London
Consulate General: Manchester |

Main article: Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations

Denmark | Copenhagen | London |

Main article: Denmark–United Kingdom relations

Estonia | Tallinn | London |

Main article: Estonia–United Kingdom relations

Finland | Helsinki | London |

Main article: Finland–United Kingdom relations

France | Paris
Consulates General: Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille | London
Consulate General: Edinburgh | British Mission to OECD and UNESCO in Paris and in Council of Europe in Strasbourg

Main article: France–United Kingdom relations

Germany | Berlin
Consulates General: Düsseldorf, Munich | London
Consulate General: Edinburgh |

Main article: Germany–United Kingdom relations

Greece | Athens
Consulates General: Heraklion, Thessaloniki | London |

Main article: Greece–United Kingdom relations

Hungary | Budapest | London
Consulate General: Manchester |

Main article: Hungary–United Kingdom relations

Ireland | Dublin | London
Consulates General: Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester | 499 km of common border

Main article: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

Italy | Rome
Consulates General: Milan, Naples | London
Consulate General: Edinburgh |

Main article: Italy–United Kingdom relations

Latvia | Riga | London.  |
Lithuania | Vilnius | London |

Main article: Lithuania–United Kingdom relations

Luxembourg | Luxembourg | London |
Malta | High Commission: Valletta | High Commission: London |

Main article: Malta–United Kingdom relations

Netherlands | The Hague
Consulate General: Amsterdam | London | British Mission to OPCW in The Hague

Main article: Netherlands–United Kingdom relations

Poland | Warsaw | London
Consulates General: Belfast, Edinburgh, Manchester |

Main article: Poland–United Kingdom relations

Portugal | Lisbon
Consulate General: Portimão | London
Consulate General: Manchester |

Main article: Portugal–United Kingdom relations

Romania | Bucharest | London
Consulate General: Edinburgh, Manchester |

Main article: Romania–United Kingdom relations

Slovakia | Bratislava | London |

Main article: Slovakia–United Kingdom relations

Slovenia | Ljubljana | London |

Main article: Slovenia–United Kingdom relations

Spain | Madrid
Consulates General: Barcelona, Alicante, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Málaga, Palma, Santa Cruz | London
Consulates General: Edinburgh, Manchester |

Main article: Spain–United Kingdom relations

Sweden | Stockholm | London |

Main article: Sweden–United Kingdom relations

## Summits

[edit]

### EU–UK Summits

[edit]

Holding regular EU-UK summits was proposed at the 4th European Political Community Summit, at Blenheim Palace in July 2024.

European Union–United Kingdom Summits

Date  | Country  | City  | Location  | Host Leader  | Ref
19 May 2025  |  United Kingdom | London | Lancaster House | Prime Minister Keir Starmer | [33]

### 2025 Summit

[edit]

On 19 May 2025, Prime Minister Keir Starmer, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, and European Council President Antonio Costa met at Lancaster House in Central London.[34] Starmer announced a new EU–UK deal, including: a defence and security pact, a fisheries agreement, an agrifood agreement, carbon border taxes, and border security.[35]

The EU and the UK agreed to a new Defence and Security pact which will allow UK arms manufacturers to bid for work under the EU’s new £150 billion security action for Europe (Safe) defence fund.[36] Additionally, it pushes for deeper co-operation and information exchanges on space, cyber security and the tackling the Russian shadow fleet.[35]

The EU and the UK agreed to roll over the existing fishing deal for another 12 years, until 2038, providing access to UK waters for EU fishers.[37]

Both sides agreed to merge the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) to the UK CBAM—net-zero emissions trading schemes.[38] The decision exempts European and British sides from upcoming carbon taxes on each other.[39]

The deal allows British passport holders to enter eGates, greatly reducing their border security waiting times.[40] European eGates were previously reserved for people from the EU or European Economic Area, however the UK is no longer a member of either.[41] The agreement has been extended to cover the Crown Dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey; thus Guernsey passports and Jersey passports can enter eGates.[42] Pet passports are also covered resulting in UK travellers no longer needing health certificates from vets in both the UK and EU to travel with their owners to each other's territories.[43]

The agreement enables the UK to rejoin the Erasmus+ student and youth experience scheme, subject to further negotiations. [44]

The agreement will ease border checks on food, helping trade and possibly lowering prices. A special deal will protect British steel exports, saving £25 million a year. Overall, the deal could add nearly £9 billion to the UK economy by 2040.[45]

## See also

[edit]

* United Kingdom portal
* European Union portal
* Politics portal
* Society portal

* Cyprus dispute
* European Union–NATO relations
* Foreign relations of the European Union
* Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
* Gibraltar–Spain border
* Ireland–NATO relations
* Malta–NATO relations
* Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present)
* Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020)
* Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
* Potential enlargement of the European Union
* Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border
* United Kingdom membership of the European Union

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Carolan, Bruce (2008). "The Birth of the European Union: US and UK Roles in the Creation of a Unified European Community". The Journal of Comparative and International Law. 16 (1): 62.
2. ^ "Bulgaria Blocks North Macedonia's EU Accession Negotiations - Novinite.com - Sofia News Agency". novinite.com.
3. ^ a b Duff, Andrew (2020). "Setting the bounds of the European Union" (PDF). European Policy Centre.
4. ^ Seidel, Katja (2020). "Britain, the common agricultural policy and the challenges of membership in the European Community: a political balancing act". Contemporary British History. 34 (2): 1. doi:10.1080/13619462.2019.1650739. S2CID 202278086.
5. ^ a b Mortimore, Roger. "Polling history: 40 years of British views on 'in or out' of Europe". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
6. ^ George, Stephen (2000). "Britain: Anatomy of a Eurosceptic state". Journal of European Integration. 22 (1): 28. doi:10.1080/07036330008429077. S2CID 143485501.
7. ^ Nugent, Ciara (11 April 2019). "It's Complicated: From the Roman Empire to Brexit, Britain Has Always Struggled to Define Its Relationship With Europe". Time. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
8. ^ Whitman, Richard G. (2007). "The United Kingdom and Turkish accession: the enlargement instinct prevails". In Tocci, Nathalie (ed.). Conditionality, Impact and Prejudice in EU-Turkey Relations (PDF). p. 120.
9. ^ Molina, Ignacio (7 May 2018). "Gibraltar, a possible solution: diffused sovereignty and shared functions". Elcano Institute.
10. ^ George 2000, p. 29.
11. ^ Tonra, Ben (2021). "Emotion norms: Ireland, Brexit, backstops and protocols". Global Affairs. 7 (2): 157–171\. doi:10.1080/23340460.2021.1931399. S2CID 239053429.
12. ^ "United Kingdom - The "Brexit" referendum". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
13. ^ Barr, Noah A. (2022). "The EU-UK Investment Regime After Brexit: In Search of an Equilibrium?". Global Trade and Customs Journal. 17 (4): 146. doi:10.54648/GTCJ2022020. S2CID 248611272.
14. ^ Tidey, Alice (10 May 2022). "Sinn Fein's historic win in Northern Ireland may not change anything for the Brexit negotiations". euronews.com.
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21. ^ "'Europeans are almost not coming to the UK any more'". Al Jazeera. 9 June 2023.
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## Further reading

[edit]

* Arnorsson, Agust, and Gylfi Zoega. "On the causes of Brexit." European Journal of Political Economy 55 (2018): 301-323. online

* Bogdanor, Vernon, Britain and Europe in a Troubled World (Yale University Press, 2020)

* Bruno, Randolph L., et al. Foreign direct investment and the relationship between the United Kingdom and the European Union (Springer International Publishing, 2017). excerpt
* Bulmer, Simon. The member states of the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2020).

* Davis, Richard. Britain, France and the Battle for the Leadership of Europe, 1957–2007 (Routledge: 2024) online review of this book from HiDIPLO
* Gowland, David. Britain and the European Union (2nd ed. Routledge, 2022)
* Hannay, David. Britain in Europe: A Losing Cause (Biddles Books, 2021)

* O'Rourke, Kevin. A short history of Brexit: From Brentry to backstop (Penguin UK, 2019).
* Ryder, Andrew. Britain and Europe at a Crossroads: The Politics of Anxiety and Transformation (Bristol University Press, 2022).

* Wallace, Helen. "Heading for the Exit: the United Kingdom’s troubled relationship with the European Union." Journal of Contemporary European Research 12.4 (2016). online

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| Negotiating|

| Screened|

* Albania
* status
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* status
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* status
* relations
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* status
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* status
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* status
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|

Pre-negotiations|

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Suspended negotiations|

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Potential candidates|

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| Eastern Partnership|

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|

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Free trade agreements|

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Other geographically
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