United States Department of the Treasury

United States federal executive department

"US Treasury" redirects here. For the type of US government bonds, see United States Treasury security.

United States Department of the Treasury

Seal of the Department

Flag of the Department

Treasury Building
Agency overview
Formed| September 2, 1789; 235 years ago (1789-09-02)
Preceding agency|

* Board of Treasury

Type| Executive department
Jurisdiction| U.S. federal government
Headquarters| Treasury Building
1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C., U.S
38°53′51″N 77°2′4″W﻿ / ﻿38.89750°N 77.03444°W﻿ / 38.89750; -77.03444
Employees| 87,336 (2019)
Annual budget| $20.2 billion (2024)[1]
Agency executives|

* Scott Bessent, Secretary
* Michael Faulkender, Deputy Secretary
* Brandon Beach, Treasurer

Child agencies|

* Internal Revenue Service
* United States Mint
* Bureau of Engraving and Printing
* Several others

Website| treasury.gov

The Department of the Treasury (USDT)[2] is the national treasury and finance department of the federal government of the United States. It is one of 15 current U.S. government departments.[3]

The department oversees the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the U.S. Mint, two federal agencies responsible for printing all paper currency and minting coins. The treasury executes currency circulation in the domestic fiscal system, collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, manages U.S. government debt instruments, licenses and supervises banks and thrift institutions, and advises the legislative and executive branches on fiscal policy. The department is administered by the secretary of the treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. The treasurer of the United States has limited statutory duties, but advises the Secretary on various matters such as coinage and currency production.[4] Signatures of both officials appear on all Federal Reserve Notes.[5]

The department was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue.[6] The first secretary of the treasury was Alexander Hamilton from New York, a Founding Father. Appointed by George Washington, the nation's first president, Hamilton was sworn into office on September 11, 1789.[7] Hamilton was recommended to Washington by Robert Morris from Pennsylvania, who was also a Second Continental Congress delegate. Morris was Washington's first choice for the position, but declined the appointment.[8] Hamilton established the nation's early financial system and for several years was a major presence in Washington's administration.[9]

The department is customarily referred to as "Treasury", solely, without any preceding article – a transitional remnant from British to American English. Hamilton's portrait appears on the obverse of the ten-dollar bill, while the Treasury Building in Washington, D.C. is depicted on the reverse.[10]

## History

[edit]

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### American Revolution

[edit]

The history of the Department of the Treasury began during the American Revolution when the Continental Congress, convening in Philadelphia, deliberated the crucial question of how it would finance the American Revolutionary War in which the Thirteen Colonies ultimately sought independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, then led by King George III.

The Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, promising redemption in coin on faith in the revolutionary cause. On June 22, 1775, only a few days after the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Continental Congress issued $2 million in bills; on July 25, 28 citizens of Philadelphia were employed by Congress to sign and number the currency.

On July 29, 1775, the Second Continental Congress assigned responsibility for the administration of the revolutionary government's finances to joint Continental treasurers George Clymer and Michael Hillegas. Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental government's funds. To ensure proper and efficient handling of the growing national debt in the face of weak economic and political ties between the colonies, the Congress, on February 17, 1776, designated a committee of five to superintend the treasury, settle accounts, and report periodically to the Congress. On April 1, a Treasury Office of Accounts, consisting of an auditor general and clerks, was established to facilitate the settlement of claims and to keep the public accounts for the government of the United Colonies. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, the newborn republic as a sovereign nation was able to secure loans from abroad.[11]

Despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans, the united colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14, 1777. The Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million in paper Continental bills devalued rapidly. By May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies, giving rise to the expression "not worth a Continental".

### Late 18th century

[edit]

Since the late 18th century, the office has been customarily referred to as the singular "Treasury", without any preceding article, as a remnant of the country's transition from British to American English.[12][13] For example, the department notes its guiding purpose as "Treasury's mission" instead of "the Treasury's mission."[14]

Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nation's finances. Morris, a wealthy colonial merchant, was nicknamed "the financier" because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moment's notice. His staff included a comptroller, a treasurer, a register, and auditors, who managed the country's finances through 1784, when Morris resigned because of ill health. The treasury board, consisting of three commissioners, continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789.

### Founding

[edit]

Original seal, dating from before 1968

The First United States Congress convened in New York City on March 4, 1789, marking the beginning of government under the U.S. Constitution. On September 2, 1789, Congress created a permanent institution for the management of government finances:

> Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be a Department of Treasury, in which shall be the following officers, namely: a Secretary of the Treasury, to be deemed head of the department; a Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Register, and an Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, which assistant shall be appointed by the said Secretary.[6][15]

Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first secretary of the treasury on September 11, 1789. Hamilton had served as George Washington's aide-de-camp during the American Revolutionary War and was influential in the ratification of the Constitution. Hamilton's financial and managerial acumen made him a logical choice for addressing the problem of the new nation's heavy war debt. His first official act as secretary was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the nation's financial health.

To the surprise of many legislators, he insisted upon federal assumption and dollar-for-dollar repayment of the country's $75 million debt in order to revitalize the public credit: "[T]he debt of the United States was the price of liberty. The faith of America has been repeatedly pledged for it, and with solemnities that give peculiar force to the obligation."[16] Hamilton foresaw the development of industry and trade in the United States, suggesting that government revenues be based upon customs duties.[16] His sound financial policies also inspired investment in the Bank of the United States, which acted as the government's fiscal agent.[citation needed]

The Department of Treasury believes their seal was created by Francis Hopkinson, the treasurer of loans. He submitted bills to Congress in 1780 that authorized the design of department seals, including a seal for the Board of Treasury. While it is not certain that Hopkinson designed the seal, it closely resembles others he created.[17]

### 19th and 20th centuries

[edit]

In 1861, Sophia Holmes became the first Black woman to be employed by the Treasury Department and by the Federal government of the United States when Senator Henry Wilson, James G. Blaine and others advocated for her hiring as a janitor under Secretary of the Treasury Francis Spinner. She was paid fifteen dollars per month. In 1862, she prevented a major theft from the department of more than $200,000 when she came across a box filled with U.S. currency, including a number of thousand-dollar bills, and reported it to Secretary Spinner.

U.S. President Abraham Lincoln subsequently honored her with a commendation for her actions, and the federal government rewarded her with an appointment for life as a messenger with its Department of Issues.[18][19][20] Another early woman hired by the Department was Jennie Douglas in 1862.[21] Douglas, who was also recruited by Spinner, is sometimes attributed to having been the first woman to have held an appointed position in the Federal government.[22]

### 21st century

[edit]

#### Departmental reorganization

[edit]

Further information: Homeland Security Act

The Treasury Building at 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW in Washington, D.C.

The U.S. Congress transferred several agencies that had previously been under the aegis of the Treasury Department to other departments as a consequence of the September 11 attacks. Effective January 24, 2003, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), which had been a bureau of the department since 1972, was extensively reorganized under the provisions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The law enforcement functions of ATF, including the regulation of legitimate traffic in firearms and explosives, were transferred to the Department of Justice as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE).[23] The regulatory and tax collection functions of ATF related to legitimate traffic in alcohol and tobacco remained with the treasury at its new Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).[24]

Effective March 1, 2003, the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the U.S. Customs Service, and the U.S. Secret Service were transferred to the newly created Department of Homeland Security ("DHS").[25]

#### 2020 data breach

[edit]

Main article: 2020 United States Treasury and Department of Commerce data breach

In 2020, the Treasury suffered a data breach following a cyberattack likely conducted by a nation state adversary, possibly Russia.[26][27] This was in fact the first detected case of the much wider 2020 United States federal government data breach, which involved at least eight federal departments.[28]

## Responsibilities

[edit]

A Treasury Department official surrounded by packages of newly minted currency, counting and wrapping dollar bills in Washington, D.C. in 1907 The organizational structure of the U.S. Department of the Treasury The Office of Foreign Assets Control, the Treasury Library, and the main branch of the Treasury Department Federal Credit Union in the Freedman's Bank Building in Washington, D.C.

### Basic functions

[edit]

The basic functions of the Department of the Treasury include:[29]

* Producing all currency and coinage of the U.S.;
* Collecting taxes, duties and money paid to and due to the U.S.;
* Paying all bills of the U.S.;
* Managing the federal finances;
* Managing government accounts (including the Treasury General Account) and the United States public debt;
* Supervising national banks and thrift institutions;
* Advising on domestic and international financial, monetary, economic, trade and tax policy (fiscal policy being the sum of these);
* Enforcing federal finance and tax laws;
* Investigating and prosecuting tax evaders;
* Publishing statistical reports.

With respect to the estimation of revenues for the executive branch, Treasury serves a purpose parallel to that of the Office of Management and Budget for the estimation of spending for the executive branch, the Joint Committee on Taxation for the estimation of revenues for Congress, and the Congressional Budget Office for the estimation of spending for Congress.

From 1830 until 1901, responsibility for overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures under the auspices of the Treasury Department.[30] After 1901, that responsibility was assigned to the agency that subsequently became known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

## Organization

[edit]

The Department of the Treasury is organized into two major components: the departmental offices and the operating bureaus. The departmental offices are primarily responsible for the formulation of policy and management of the department as a whole, while the operating bureaus carry out the specific operations assigned to the department.

### Structure

[edit]

Seal on United States Department of the Treasury on the Building

* Secretary of the Treasury[31]
* Deputy Secretary of the Treasury
* Treasurer of the United States
* Bureau of Engraving and Printing
* Bureau of Engraving and Printing Police
* United States Mint
* United States Mint Police
* Under Secretary for Domestic Finance[32]
* Assistant Secretary for Financial Institutions
* Office of Financial Institutions
* Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets
* Office of Financial Markets
* Fiscal Assistant Secretary
* Office of Fiscal Service
* Bureau of the Fiscal Service
* Under Secretary for International Affairs[33]
* Assistant Secretary for International Markets and Development
* Assistant Secretary for International Finance
* Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Investment Security[34]
* Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence (Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence)[35]
* Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing
* Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes
* Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
* Office of Intelligence and Analysis
* Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
* Office of Foreign Assets Control
* Treasury Executive Office for Asset Forfeiture
* Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Management
* Office of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization
* Chief Information Officer
* Assistant Secretary for Economic Policy
* Assistant Secretary for Legislative Affairs
* Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs
* Assistant Secretary for Tax Policy
* Commissioner of Internal Revenue
* Internal Revenue Service
* Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
* Office of Financial Research
* Office of the General Counsel
* Office of the Inspector General
* Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA)
* Chief Risk Officer

### Bureaus

[edit]

Bureau | Description

|

Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) | The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) is responsible for enforcing and administering laws covering the production, use, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco products. TTB also collects excise taxes for firearms and ammunition.
Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP) | The Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP) designs and manufactures U.S. currency, securities, and other official certificates and awards.
Bureau of the Fiscal Service | The Bureau of the Fiscal Service was formed from the consolidation of the Financial Management Service and the Bureau of the Public Debt. Its mission is to promote the financial integrity and operational efficiency of the U.S. government through exceptional accounting, financing, collections, payments, and shared services.
Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund | The Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund was created to expand the availability of credit, investment capital, and financial services in distressed urban and rural communities.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) | The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) supports law enforcement investigative efforts and fosters interagency and global cooperation against domestic and international financial crimes. It also provides U.S. policymakers with strategic analyses of domestic and worldwide trends and patterns.
Inspector General | The Inspector General conducts independent audits, investigations and reviews to help the Treasury Department accomplish its mission; improve its programs and operations; promote economy, efficiency and effectiveness; and prevent and detect fraud and abuse.
Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) | The Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) provides leadership and coordination and recommends policy for activities designed to promote economy, efficiency, and effectiveness in the administration of the internal revenue laws. TIGTA also recommends policies to prevent and detect fraud and abuse in the programs and operations of the IRS and related entities.
Internal Revenue Service | The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the largest of Treasury's bureaus. It is responsible for determining, assessing, and collecting internal revenue in the United States.
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) | The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) charters, regulates, and supervises national banks to ensure a safe, sound, and competitive banking system that supports the citizens, communities, and economy of the United States.
U.S. Mint | The U.S. Mint designs and manufactures domestic, bullion and foreign coins as well as commemorative medals and other numismatic items. The Mint also distributes U.S. coins to the Federal Reserve banks as well as maintains physical custody and protection of the nation's silver and gold assets.

### Budget and staffing

[edit]

The Treasury Department has authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2024 of $16.5 billion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:[36]

Program  | Funding (in millions)

|

Management and Finance
Department Administration  | $273
Office of the Inspector General  | $49
Inspector General for Tax Administration  | $174
Special Inspector General for TARP (Troubled Asset Relief Program)  | $9
Community Development Financial Institutions Fund  | $324
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network  | $190
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau  | $149
Bureau of the Fiscal Services  | $373
Other  | $339
Tax Administration
Internal Revenue Service  | $12,319
International Programs
International Programs  | $2,364
Other
Other  | $293
TOTAL | $16,517

## Freedom of Information Act processing performance

[edit]

In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of the 15 federal agencies that receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the treasury failed to earn a satisfactory overall grade.[37]

## See also

[edit]

* United States portal

* Federal Reserve System
* MicroLoan Program
* Title 12 of the Code of Federal Regulations
* Title 17 of the Code of Federal Regulations
* Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations
* Title 31 of the Code of Federal Regulations
* Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework
* Treasury Information System Architecture Framework
* United States Coast Guard History and Heritage Sites

## Notes and references

[edit]

1. ^ "H.R.2882 - Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024". March 23, 2024. Archived from the original on October 8, 2024. Retrieved February 5, 2025.
2. ^ Donald A. Torres (1985). Handbook of Federal Police and Investigative Agencies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 275\. ISBN 0313245789.
3. ^ "An Act to Establish the Treasury Department". September 2, 1789. Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved October 11, 2018.
4. ^ "The Treasurer". U.S. Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on April 4, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
5. ^ Crutsinger, Martin (November 15, 2017). "New money: Mnuchin and Carranza signatures now on the dollar bill". USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
6. ^ a b "Image 1 of An act to establish the Treasury department .... [Dated] 1789, July 2. New-York. Printed by Thomas Greenleaf.]". The Library of Congress. January 1, 1970. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
7. ^ "Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury". founders.archives.gov. Archived from the original on March 4, 2017. Retrieved March 4, 2017.
8. ^ Adams, Jonathan. "Department of the Treasury". George Washington Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
9. ^ Scanlan, Laura Wolff (2006). "Alexander Hamilton: the man who modernized money". Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities. 27 (1). Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
10. ^ "$10". U.S. Currency Education Program. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018.
11. ^ Hammond, Bray (1957). Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
12. ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1851). Reports of the secretary of the Treasury of the United States: prepared in obedience to the act of May 10, 1800. Printed by Blair & Rives. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
13. ^ Dewey, Davis Rich (1922). Financial History of the United States. Longmans, Green and Company. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved November 22, 2020.
14. ^ "Role of the Treasury". United States Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on April 29, 2020. Retrieved April 27, 2020. "Treasury's mission highlights its role as the steward of U.S. economic and financial systems, and as an influential participant in the world economy."
15. ^ "Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65" (PDF). Archived from the original on October 19, 2017.
16. ^ a b Syrett, Harold C., ed. (1962). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231089050. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2018. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
17. ^ Friedberg, Albert L. (2017). Paper money of the US 21st Edition. Clifton, New Jersey: Coin & Currency Institute. pp. 6–7\. ISBN 9780871840219.
18. ^ Logan, Mrs. John A. Thirty Years in Washington or Life and Scenes in Our National Capital. Hartford, Connecticut: A. D. Worthington & Co., 1901.
19. ^ Bailey, M. The Chautauquan: Organ of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. Meadville, Pennsylvania: The T. L. Flood publishing House, 1892.
20. ^ The United States Treasury Register Containing a List of Persons Employed in the Treasury Department, p. 36. Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1874.
21. ^ Ziparo, Jessica. This Grand Experiment: When Women Entered the Federal Workforce in Civil War–Era Washington, D.C. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.
22. ^ "Historic Markers Tell Mohawk Valley Story". Herkimer Evening Telegram. August 15, 1981. p. 4. Retrieved January 8, 2025 - via NewspaperArchive.
23. ^ "Move to Justice Dept. Brings ATF New Focus". Washington Post. January 23, 2003. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
24. ^ "History". TTBGov. November 18, 2015. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2023.
25. ^ "Who Joined DHS". Department of Homeland Security. July 27, 2012. Archived from the original on March 11, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.
26. ^ Nakashima, Ellen (December 13, 2020). "Russian government spies are behind a broad hacking campaign that has breached U.S. agencies and a top cyber firm". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
27. ^ Bing, Christopher (December 14, 2020). "Suspected Russian hackers spied on U.S. Treasury emails – sources". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved December 14, 2020.
28. ^ Office, U. S. Government Accountability (March 21, 2024). "SolarWinds Cyberattack Demands Significant Federal and Private-Sector Response (infographic) | U.S. GAO". www.gao.gov. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
29. ^ US Treasury website Organization Archived October 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
30. ^ Records of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Archived October 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, National Archives website, (Record Group 167), 1830–1987.
31. ^ Treasury Order 101-05 Archived March 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. January 10, 2011. Updated April 26, 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.
32. ^ DF Org Chart Archived January 16, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, "The Office of Domestic Finance". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. October 2011. Accessed November 11, 2012.
33. ^ International Affairs Archived June 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, "About International Affairs". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. February 14, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.
34. ^ "Officials | U.S. Department of the Treasury". home.treasury.gov. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved April 20, 2021.
35. ^ Terrorism and Financial Intelligence Archived September 5, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, "About Terrorism and Financial Intelligence". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. July 2, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.
36. ^ 2025 Department of Treasury Budget, pg 1, United States Department of the Treasury, Accessed July 28, 2024
37. ^ Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015 Archived August 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, March 2015, 80 pages, Center for Effective Government, retrieved March 21, 2016

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Department of the Treasury.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Treasury".

* Official website
* Department of the Treasury on USAspending.gov
* Department of the Treasury in the Federal Register
* Map of Major Foreign Holders Of Treasury Securities 2009 Archived August 1, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
* Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of Finances – These annual reports also contain the reports of the many departments of the Treasury, including the Bureau of the Mint, Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Bureau of Customs, Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Secret Service, and the Internal Revenue Service.
* United States Department of the Treasury at the Wayback Machine (archived December 26, 1996)
* Act to establish the Treasury Department. 1st Congress, 1st Session, Ch. 12, 1 Stat. 65

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United States Department of the Treasury

* Headquarters: Treasury Building and Freedman's Bank Building

* Scott Bessent, Secretary of the Treasury
* Dan Katz, Acting Deputy Secretary of the Treasury

Deputy Secretary
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* Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau
* Community Development Financial Institutions Fund
* Internal Revenue Service
* Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration
* Office of Inspector General
* Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
* Office of Tax Policy

Under Secretary
of the Treasury
for International Affairs|

* Office of East Asia
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Under Secretary of
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Domestic Finance|

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Under Secretary of
the Treasury for Terrorism
and Financial Intelligence|

* Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence
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Treasurer of the United States|

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Patriot Act

Titles I · II · III · IV · V · VI · VII · VIII · IX · X · History

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* Orrin Hatch
* Jon Kyl
* Dianne Feinstein
* Viet D. Dinh
* Joe Biden
* Michael Chertoff
* Barack Obama
* Eric Holder
* Chuck Schumer
* Lamar Smith
* Bob Graham
* Jay Rockefeller
* Arlen Specter
* Mike Oxley
* Dick Armey
* Paul Sarbanes
* Trent Lott
* Tom Daschle
* Russ Feingold
* Ellen Huvelle
* Ron Paul
* Lisa Murkowski
* Ron Wyden
* Dennis Kucinich
* Larry Craig
* John E. Sununu
* Richard Durbin
* Bernie Sanders
* Jerry Nadler
* John Conyers Jr.
* Butch Otter

Government
organizations|

* Federal Bureau of Investigation
* Department of Justice
* Select Committee on Intelligence
* Department of the Treasury
* FinCEN
* Department of State
* National Institute of Standards and Technology
* Customs Service
* Immigration and Customs Enforcement

Non-government
organizations|

* American Civil Liberties Union
* American Library Association
* Center for Democracy and Technology
* Center for Public Integrity
* Electronic Frontier Foundation
* Electronic Privacy Information Center
* Humanitarian Law Project

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* 2
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Australia
* Portugal
* Norway
* Korea
* Israel

Academics|

* CiNii

Artists|

* ULAN

People|

* Trove

Other|

* IdRef
* SNAC
* Yale LUX

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