United States military aid

Aspect of American foreign policy

Main article: United States foreign aid

The United States government first recognized the usefulness of foreign aid as a tool of diplomacy in World War II. It was believed that it would promote liberal capitalist models of development in other countries and that it would enhance national security.[1]

The United States is the largest contributor of military aid to foreign countries in the world, with its Department of Defense providing funding and/or American military hardware aid to over 150 countries annually for defense purposes.

## History

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Pre-1914-

Before the beginning of the twentieth century, the United States government had not engaged in any official, large-scale distribution of military aid to foreign allies. From its declaration of independence until the outbreak of the First World War, the US armed forces practiced direct military interventions, both in its continental expansion westward and its overseas expansion, for example during the 1898 War with the Spanish Empire. Whilst some distribution and facilitation of military aid did occur, such as provisions to Filipino insurgents in that conflict, this was small-scale, indirect and subsidiary to its own ongoing military operations; one has to look to the Great War to see the first example of large-scale American military aid to foreign allies.

World War One-

Upon outbreak of war in 1914, America declared its neutrality, and public opinion was firmly against intervention.[2] However, the prevailing feeling of both the public and government was relatively pro-Entente, particularly after the sinking of RMS Lusitania in May 1915. The Allies increasingly looked to American aid; this was primarily financial in nature before 1917 (such as loans brokered by J.P Morgan), but matériel was also sold through private companies. However, during this period there was no official military aid sent-this changed after America’s formal declaration of war in April 1917. Government-backed financial aid for Allied military spending was introduced, alongside America’s mobilisation of its own economy and armed forces to join the campaign in Europe.[3] This more assertive foreign policy was driven by President Woodrow Wilson, who held an almost providential sense of his and his nation’s role in the world. American interventionism on the global stage was seen by Wilson as essential for global (and American) prosperity and democracy; this concept would be pursued rigorously by his successors in following generations. However, this particular aid would continue only until the Armistice in 1918, after which the US, its public rather weary of and disillusioned with the war, retreated back into a more isolationist state. This would interrupt the trend of American interventionism (as shown by its levels of military aid) for a generation.

Interwar Period-

After the war, the US did not provide military aid to foreign countries as its relative isolationism on the global geopolitical stage meant it had no formal allies that would and could realistically be provided with aid of that nature. The Great Depression furthered America’s lack of both willingness and capacity for military aid provision; even as European tensions rose in the 1930s, America vehemently opposed any kind of military interventionism. Minimal non-lethal aid was provided to countries such as Spain during its civil war and to China in the wake of Japan’s invasion, but official policy (as per the four Neutrality Acts of the 1930s) before the Second World War prohibited the arming of foreign belligerent powers.[4]

World War Two-

Even with the antipathies of the American government and people to the fascist states of Germany and Italy, prevailing opinion was strongly anti-war in its early years. However, numerous factors, such as the rapid territorial expansion of the Axis powers, led to a marked shift. US foreign policy followed this trend, increasingly abandoning its long-standing policy of neutrality. This can be seen most clearly through its Lend-Lease programme, which can be seen as the first true example of US military aid as the tool of diplomacy it is today. Passed in March 1941 and ending in September 1945, the Act provided $50.1 billion ($672 billion in 2023 adjusted for inflation) worth of lethal and non-lethal military aid to the Allies, the majority going to Britain and the Soviet Union.[5] It was crucial to the wider Allied war effort, with Nikita Khrushchev later claiming Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had privately admitted that American military aid had been decisive in holding back Germany’s onslaught.[6] This massive distribution of aid provided a blueprint for US foreign policy, and it became a hallmark of American diplomacy as it assumed an interventionist role at the centre of the global stage during the ensuing Cold War.

Cold War-

Out of World War Two, the United States emerged alongside the Soviet Union as global superpowers and leaders of their respective blocs. A cornerstone of its policy of the containment and later rollback of communism, and the expansion of their own sphere of influence, America provided vast amounts of military aid to its allies throughout the conflict. First seen in Europe in the wake of the establishment of NATO in 1949, the passing of the Mutual Defense Assistance Act re-equipped and revitalised depleted European militaries.[7] Designed to counter communist influence and ensure Europe’s protection against Soviet attacks, the act and those that followed it set the precedent of US interventionism on the continent. In the so-called Third World, American military aid provision followed the foreign policy blueprint set out in the top-secret NSC-68 document of 1950.[8] In Asia, America demonstrated this most clearly with its military involvement and interventions in Korea and Vietnam, states that were strategically vital to their national interests as per the Domino Theory.[9] In the Middle East, this was shown through its strategic partnership with Israel, seen as a counterweight to Soviet influence in the region.[10] In Africa, this was seen in aid sent to Mobutu’s Zaire among various other states and non-state actors, and in Latin America, among the most infamous examples was Reagan’s backing of the Nicaraguan Contras against the ruling Sandinistas. These countries (and many others) were on the receiving end of this critical tool of American diplomacy, one that was at the heart of America’s prosecution of the frozen conflict.

Post-Cold War-

Post-1991, American military aid is still provided to numerous countries, reflective of a less ideologically-driven global geopolitical stage. For example, alongside the wider Coalition intervention, the Afghan National Security Forces were provided arms, training and logistical support by the United States in the war against the Taliban before its defeat in 2021.[11] As of March 12, in the ongoing War in Ukraine around $66.5B worth of US military aid has been sent to Ukraine, and since October 7th 2023, Israel has been sent an estimated $18B in aid for its war against Hamas and its allies.[12] [13] These are just some examples of the weight America continues to attach to military aid as a tool for the furtherance of its geopolitical and strategic interests.

## Military funding programs

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There are three main programs where military funding is allocated:

1. Foreign Military Financing (FMF) provides grants for the acquisition of U.S. defense equipment, services, and training. These grants enable friends and allies to improve their defense capabilities.[14][2][15][16] FMF is allowed under the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), which as amended [22 U.S.C. 2751, et. seq.], authorizes the President to finance procurement of defense articles and services for foreign countries and international organizations.[3] The goals of FMF are:[17][4][18]

* Promoting national security by contributing to regional and global stability
* Strengthening military support for democratically elected governments and containing transnational threats, including terrorism and trafficking in narcotics, weapons, and persons
* Fostering closer military relationships between the U.S. and recipient nations
2. Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) provide voluntary support for international peacekeeping activities. These funds support non-U.N. operations and training in response to a nation’s crisis.[5] The goals of PKO are:

* Promoting increased involvement of regional organizations in conflict resolution
* Helping leverage support for multinational efforts in the event of a nation's crisis
3. The International Military Education and Training program (IMET) offers military training on a grant basis to foreign military officials.[19] The goals of IMET are:

* Encouraging effective defense relationships
* Promoting interoperability with U.S. and coalition forces
* Exposing foreign civilian and military officials to democratic values, military professionalism, and international norms of human rights

Some examples of this would include the United States' efforts in Colombia and South Korea. Military aid has been successful in stopping insurgency, providing stability, and ending conflicts within the region. In South Korea, US military aid has been beneficial for the maintenance of national security, economic and social development, and civilization as a whole.[6]

In many other cases, military aid has laid the groundwork for other forms of aid. This aid includes building schools to promote education, providing clean drinking water, and further stabilizing food production. Without military aid, this development would have been impossible.[citation needed]

## Criticisms

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Particular targets of criticism include

* Funds appropriated to the State Department and Defense Department represent the vast majority of unclassified military aid and assistance.[7]
* The United States gives the same amount of money to its top five aid recipients as they give to the rest of the world.[8]
* Generally, increasing levels of US military aid significantly reduces cooperative foreign policy behavior with the United States.[11]

## Table

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The following table shows which countries does the United States provide military aid or assistance, per USAID.[12]

Countries by U.S. Military Aid  Country/Region | 2022 | 2023

|
|

Afghanistan | No  | No
Albania | Yes  | Yes
Algeria | Yes  | Yes
Angola | Yes  | Yes
Antigua and Barbuda | Yes  | Yes
Argentina | Yes  | Yes
Armenia | Yes  | Yes
Azerbaijan | Yes  | Yes
Bahamas | Yes  | Yes
Bahrain | Yes  | Yes
Bangladesh | Yes  | Yes
Barbados | Yes  | Yes
Belarus | No  | No
Belize | Yes  | Yes
Benin | Yes  | Yes
Bhutan | No  | Yes
Bolivia | No  | No
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Yes  | Yes
Botswana | Yes  | Yes
Brazil | Yes  | Yes
Bulgaria | Yes  | Yes
Burkina Faso | No  | No
Burundi | No  | No
Cambodia | No  | No
Cameroon | Unknown or unclear  | Yes
Cape Verde | Yes  | Yes
Central African Republic | No  | Yes
Chad | Yes  | Unknown or unclear
Chile | Yes  | Yes
China | No  | No
Colombia | Yes  | Yes
Comoros | Yes  | Yes
Congo | Yes  | Yes
Costa Rica | Yes  | Yes
Croatia | Yes  | Yes
Cuba | No  | No
Cyprus | Yes  | Yes
Czech Republic | Yes  | Yes
Democratic Republic of the Congo | Yes  | Yes
Djibouti | Yes  | Yes
Dominica | Yes  | Yes
Dominican Republic | Yes  | Yes
East Timor | Yes  | Yes
Ecuador | Yes  | Yes
Egypt | Yes  | Yes
El Salvador | Yes  | Yes
Equatorial Guinea | Yes  | Yes
Eritrea | No  | No
Estonia | Yes  | Yes
Eswatini | Yes  | Yes
Ethiopia | Yes  | No
Fiji | Yes  | Yes
Gabon | Yes  | Yes
Gambia | Yes  | Yes
Georgia | Yes  | Yes
Germany | Yes  | Yes
Ghana | Yes  | Yes
Greece | Yes  | Yes
Grenada | Yes  | Yes
Guatemala | Yes  | Yes
Guinea | No  | No
Guinea-Bissau | Yes  | Yes
Guyana | Yes  | Yes
Haiti | Yes  | Yes
Honduras | Yes  | Yes
Hungary | Yes  | Yes
India | Yes  | Yes
Indonesia | Yes  | Yes
Iran | No  | No
Iraq | Yes  | Yes
Israel | Yes  | Yes
Ivory Coast | Yes  | Yes
Jamaica | Yes  | Yes
Jordan | Yes  | Yes
Kazakhstan | Yes  | Yes
Kenya | Yes  | Yes
Kosovo | Yes  | Yes
Kyrgyzstan | Yes  | Yes
Laos | Yes  | Yes
Latvia | Yes  | Yes
Lebanon | Yes  | Yes
Lesotho | Yes  | Yes
Liberia | Yes  | Yes
Libya | No  | No
Lithuania | Yes  | Yes
Madagascar | Yes  | Yes
Malawi | Yes  | Yes
Malaysia | Yes  | Yes
Maldives | Yes  | Yes
Mali | No  | No
Malta | Yes  | Yes
Mauritania | Yes  | Yes
Mauritius | Yes  | Yes
Mexico | Yes  | Yes
Moldova | Yes  | Yes
Mongolia | Yes  | Yes
Montenegro | Yes  | Yes
Morocco | Yes  | Yes
Mozambique | Yes  | Yes
Myanmar | No  | No
Namibia | Yes  | Yes
Nepal | Yes  | Yes
Nicaragua | No  | No
Niger | Yes  | Yes
Nigeria | Yes  | Yes
North Korea | No  | No
North Macedonia | Yes  | Yes
Oman | Yes  | Yes
Pakistan[a] | Unknown or unclear  | No
Palau | Unknown or unclear  | Yes
Palestine | No  | No
Panama | Yes  | Yes
Papua New Guinea | Yes  | Yes
Paraguay | Yes  | Yes
Peru | Yes  | Yes
Philippines | Yes  | Yes
Poland | Yes  | Yes
Romania | Yes  | Yes
Russia | No  | No
Rwanda | Yes  | Unknown or unclear
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Unknown or unclear  | Yes
Saint Lucia | Yes  | Yes
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Yes  | Yes
São Tomé and Principe | Yes  | Yes
Saudi Arabia | Unknown or unclear  | Unknown or unclear
Senegal | Yes  | Yes
Serbia | Yes  | Yes
Seychelles | Yes  | Yes
Sierra Leone | Yes  | Yes
Slovakia | Yes  | Yes
Slovenia | Yes  | Yes
Solomon Islands | No  | No
Somalia | Yes  | Yes
South Africa | Yes  | Yes
South Sudan | Yes  | No
Sri Lanka | Yes  | Yes
Sudan | No  | No
Suriname | Yes  | Yes
Syria | No  | No
Taiwan | Yes  | Yes
Tajikistan | Yes  | Yes
Tanzania | Yes  | Yes
Thailand | Yes  | Yes
Togo | Yes  | Yes
Tonga | Yes  | Yes
Trinidad and Tobago | Yes  | Yes
Tunisia | Yes  | Yes
Turkey | Yes  | Yes
Turkmenistan | Yes  | Yes
Uganda | Yes  | Yes
Ukraine | Yes  | Yes
Uruguay | Yes  | Yes
Uzbekistan | Yes  | Yes
Vanuatu | Yes  | Yes
Venezuela | No  | No
Vietnam | Yes  | Yes
Western Sahara[b] | No  | No
Yemen | No  | Yes
Zambia | Yes  | Yes
Zimbabwe | No  | No

## Notes

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1. ^ Currently, the United States aid to Pakistan only includes civilian assistance, and military assistance has been terminated since 2018.[20][21]
2. ^ The United States does not recognize the Sahrawi Republic established by the Polisario Front. In the late 2020, the United States officially recognized Morocco's sovereignty over Western Sahara.[22]

## See also

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* Military budget of the United States
* United States Foreign Military Financing
* United States Agency for International Development
* Foreign policy of the United States
* Criticism of United States foreign policy
* United States security assistance to the Palestinian National Authority
* Israel–United States military relations
* United States militarism

## References

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1. ^ Foreign Aid. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
2. ^ a b "Foreign Military Financing (FMF)". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
3. ^ a b "Foreign Military Financing (FMF) | The Official Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency". www.dsca.mil. Retrieved 2018-12-28.
4. ^ a b Axelrod, Matthew Craig (April 2011). "Aid as Leverage? Understanding the U.S.-Egypt Military Relationship" (PDF). The Lauder Institute, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
5. ^ a b Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-01.
6. ^ a b Choi, Tae Young (1989). "Effect Analysis of U.S. Military Aid to the Republic of Korea" (PDF). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 24, 2020.
7. ^ a b A Citizen's Guide to Understanding U.S. Foreign Military Aid. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
8. ^ a b Noah GrantJust the Facts: Foreign Aid vs. Military Spending. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
9. ^ Leeson, Peter T., Dean, Andrea, 'The Democratic Domino Theory'. American Journal of Political Science 53.3 (2009), p. 533–551.
10. ^ "How did the Cold War impact the formation of Israel? | TutorChase". www.tutorchase.com. Retrieved 2025-05-30.
11. ^ a b Sullivan, Patricia; Tessman, Brock; Li, Xiaojun (2011). "US Military Aid and Recipient State Cooperation". Foreign Policy Analysis. 7 (3): 275–294\. doi:10.1111/j.1743-8594.2011.00138.x.
12. ^ a b "Foreign Assistance". Office of U.S. Foreign Assistance Resources. Retrieved 2024-05-31.
13. ^ Merrow, Jonathan Masters,Will. "U.S. Aid to Israel in Four Charts | Council on Foreign Relations". www.cfr.org. Retrieved 2025-05-27.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
14. ^ Foreign Military Financing Account Summary. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
15. ^ "Security Assistance Team". U.S. Department of State. 24 January 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
16. ^ "Foreign Military Financing (FMF)". Defense Security Cooperation Agency. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
17. ^ "About Us - Office of Security Assistance". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
18. ^ Tarnoff, Curt; Lawson, Marian L. (29 January 2016). "Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
19. ^ IMET Assessment Project 2007-2008. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
20. ^ Michael, Peel (January 29, 2018). "Pakistan turns to Russia and China after US military aid freeze". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
21. ^ Arshad, Mehmood. "Pakistan requests renewed US military aid as it launches fresh counterterrorism effort". Ynetnews. Retrieved 2024-07-15.
22. ^ "Morocco". World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2 August 2022. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2021.

## External links

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* Fiscal Year 2008 Budget Request: International Affairs (PDF), U.S. Congress.
* Congressional Budget Justification: Foreign Operations (PDF), Fiscal year 2008, U.S. Congress.
* Foreign Aid Explorer U.S. Agency for International Development.
* Where Does U.S. Military Aid Go? (1946-2010), PBS