Ur

Ancient Mesopotamian city-state

This article is about the ancient city-state in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see Ur (disambiguation).

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Location| Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq
Region| Mesopotamia, Middle East
Coordinates| 30°57′42″N 46°06′18″E﻿ / ﻿30.9616529°N 46.1051259°E﻿ / 30.9616529; 46.1051259
Type| Settlement
History
Founded| c. 3800 BC
Abandoned| After 500 BC
Periods| Ubaid period to Iron Age
Cultures| Sumerian
Site notes
Excavation dates| 1853–1854, 1922–1934, 2015-present
Archaeologists| John George Taylor, Charles Leonard Woolley, Elizabeth C Stone, Paul Zimansky, Adelheid Otto

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name| Ur Archaeological City
Part of| Ahwar of Southern Iraq
Criteria| Mixed: (iii)(v)(ix)(x)
Reference| 1481-006
Inscription| 2016 (40th Session)
Area| 71 ha (0.27 sq mi)
Buffer zone| 317 ha (1.22 sq mi)

Ur[a] (/ʊr/ or /ɜːr/[3]) was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar[b] (Arabic: تَلّ ٱلْمُقَيَّر, lit. 'mound of bitumen') in Dhi Qar Governorate, southern Iraq. Although Ur was once a coastal city near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, the coastline has shifted and the city is now well inland, on the south bank of the Euphrates, 16 km (10 mi) southwest of Nasiriyah in modern-day Iraq.[4] The city dates from the Ubaid period c. 3800 BC, and is recorded in written history as a city-state from the 26th century BC, its first recorded king being King Tuttues.

The city's patron deity was Nanna (in Akkadian, Sin), the Sumerian and Akkadian moon god, and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god's name, UNUGKI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna".[4] The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which contained the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC (short chronology), during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon.[5]

The name 𒋀𒀊𒆠 URIM5KI for "Country of Ur" on a seal of King Ur-Nammu

## Society and culture

[edit]

Archaeological discoveries have shown that Ur was a major Sumerian urban center on the Mesopotamian plain. The discovery of Ur's Royal Tombs further confirmed this. These tombs, which date to the Early Dynastic IIIa period (approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC), contained many luxury items made of precious metals and semi-precious stones imported from long distances (Ancient Iran, Afghanistan, India, Asia Minor, the Levant and the Persian Gulf).[5] This immense wealth shows Ur's economic importance during the Early Bronze Age.[6]

Lizard-headed nude woman nursing a child, from Ur, Ubaid period, c. 4500–4000 BC; Iraq Museum

Enthroned King Ur-Nammu (c. 2047–2030 BC)

Excavation in the old city of Ur in 1929 revealed the Lyres of Ur, instruments similar to the modern harp but in the shape of a bull and with eleven strings.[7]

Standard of Ur mosaic (c. 2600 BC)

The Standard of Ur mosaic, from the royal tombs of Ur, is made of red limestone, bitumen, lapis lazuli, and shell. The "peace" side shows comfort, music, and prosperity. The "war" side shows the king, his armies, and chariots trampling on enemies.

## History

[edit]

The site consists of a mound, roughly 1200 by 800 metres with a height of about 20 metres above the plain. The mound is split by the remnants of an ancient canal into north and south portions.[8] The remains of a city wall are visible surrounding the site. The occupation size ranged from about 15 hectares in the Jemdet Nasr period to 90 hectares in the Early Dynastic period and then peaking in the Ur III period at 108 hectares and the Isin-Larsa period at 140 hectares, extending beyond the city walls. Subsequent period had varying lesser degrees of occupation.[9]

### Prehistory

[edit]

When Ur was founded, the Persian Gulf's water level was two-and-a-half metres higher than today. Ur is thought, therefore, to have had marshy surroundings; irrigation would have been unnecessary, and the city's evident canals likely were used for transportation. Fish, birds, tubers, and reeds might have supported Ur economically without the need for an agricultural revolution sometimes hypothesized as a prerequisite to urbanization.[10][11]

#### Prehistoric Ubaid period

[edit]

Archaeologists have discovered evidence of early occupation at Ur during the Ubaid period (c. 5500–3700 BC), a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia.[12] The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially in 1919 by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.[13][14]

Later, a layer of soil covered the occupation levels from the Ubaid period. Excavators of the 1920s interpreted the layer of soil as evidence for the Great Flood of the Epic of Gilgamesh and Book of Genesis. It is now understood that the South Mesopotamian plain was exposed to regular floods from the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, with heavy erosion from water and wind, which may have given rise to the Mesopotamian and derivative Biblical Great Flood stories.[15]

### Early Bronze Age

[edit]

There are various main sources informing scholars about the importance of Ur during the Early Bronze Age.

#### Early Dynastic period II

[edit]

Proto-cuneiform tablets from the Early Dynastic period, c. 2900 BC, have been recovered.[16][17]

#### Early Dynastic period III

[edit]

Main article: First Dynasty of Ur

The First Dynasty of Ur seems to have had great wealth and power, as shown by the lavish remains of the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The Sumerian King List provides a tentative political history of ancient Sumer and mentions, among others, several rulers of Ur. Mesannepada is the first king mentioned in the Sumerian King List, and appears to have lived in the 26th century BC. That Ur was an important urban centre already then seems to be indicated by a type of cylinder seal called the City Seals. These seals contain a set of Proto-Cuneiform signs which appear to be writings or symbols of the name of city-states in ancient Mesopotamia. Many of these seals have been found in Ur, and the name of Ur is prominent on them.[18]

* Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur. West is at top, north at right.

* Gold helmet of King of Ur I Meskalamdug, c. 2600–2500 BC

* Mesopotamian female deity seated on a chair, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Ur

* Sumer and Elam c. 2350 BC. Ur was located close to the coastline near the mouth of the Euphrates.

#### Akkadian period

[edit]

Ur came under the control of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire (c. 2334-2154 BC) founded by Sargon the Great between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. This was a period when the Semitic-speaking Akkadians, who had entered Mesopotamia in approximately 3000 BC, gained ascendancy over the Sumerians, and indeed much of the ancient Near East.

#### Ur III period

[edit]

Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur

Map of the world around 2000 BC showing the Third Dynasty of Ur

After a short period of chaos following the fall of the Akkadian Empire the third Ur dynasty was established when the king Ur-Nammu came to power, ruling between c. 2047 BC and 2030 BC. During his rule, temples, including the Ziggurat of Ur, were built, and agriculture was improved through irrigation. His code of laws, the Code of Ur-Nammu (a fragment was identified in Istanbul in 1952) is one of the oldest such documents known, preceding the Code of Hammurabi by 300 years. He and his successor Shulgi were both deified during their reigns, and after his death he continued as a hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur-Nammu and his journey to the underworld.[19]

Ur-Nammu was succeeded by Shulgi, the greatest king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, who solidified the hegemony of Ur and reformed the empire into a highly centralized bureaucratic state. Shulgi ruled for a long time (at least 42 years) and deified himself halfway through his rule.[20]

Ziggurat of Ur

The Ur empire continued through the reigns of three more kings with Akkadian names, Amar-Sin, Shu-Sin, and Ibbi-Sin. It fell around 1940 BC to the Elamites in the 24th regnal year of Ibbi-Sin, an event commemorated by the Lament for Ur.[21][22]

According to one estimate, Ur was the largest city in the world from c. 2030 to 1980 BC. Its population was approximately 65,000 (or 0.1 per cent share of global population then).[citation needed]

### Middle Bronze Age

[edit]

The site was occupied in the Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian periods. The city of Ur lost its political power after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Nevertheless, its important position which kept on providing access to the Persian Gulf ensured the ongoing economic importance of the city during the second millennium BC. The city came to be ruled by the Amorite first dynasty of Babylon which rose to prominence in southern Mesopotamia in the 19th century BC. During the Old Babylonian Empire, in the reign of Samsu-iluna, Ur was abandoned. It later became a part of the native Sealand Dynasty for several centuries.

### Late Bronze Age

[edit]

It then came under the control of the Kassites in the 16th century BC, and sporadically under the control of the Middle Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries BC.[23]

### Iron Age

[edit]

The city, along with the rest of southern Mesopotamia and much of the Near East, Asia Minor, North Africa and southern Caucasus, fell to the north Mesopotamian Neo-Assyrian Empire from the 10th to late 7th centuries BC. From the end of the 7th century BC Ur was ruled by the so-called Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon. In the 6th century BC there was new construction in Ur under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus, improved the ziggurat. However, the city started to decline from around 530 BC after Babylonia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, and was no longer inhabited by the early 5th century BC. The demise of Ur was perhaps owing to drought, changing river patterns, and the silting of the outlet to the Persian Gulf.

## Identification with the Biblical Ur

[edit]

Further information: Ur of the Chaldees

"Abraham's House" in Ur, photographed in 2016

Ur is possibly the city of Ur Kasdim mentioned in the Book of Genesis as the birthplace of the Jewish and Muslim patriarch Abraham (Avraham in Hebrew, Ibrahim in Arabic), traditionally believed to have lived some time in the 2nd millennium BC.[24][25] There are, however, conflicting traditions and scholarly opinions identifying Ur Kasdim with the sites of Şanlıurfa, Urkesh, Urartu, or Kutha.

The biblical Ur is mentioned four times in the Torah or Hebrew Bible (Tanakh in Hebrew), with the distinction "of the Kasdim"—traditionally rendered in English as "Ur of the Chaldees". The Chaldeans had settled in the vicinity by around 850 BC, but were not extant anywhere in Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BC period when Abraham is traditionally held to have lived. The Chaldean dynasty did not rule Babylonia (and thus become the rulers of Ur) until the late 7th century BC, and held power only until the mid 6th century BC. The name is found in Genesis 11:28, Genesis 11:31, and Genesis 15:7. In Nehemiah 9:7, a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of Genesis.[citation needed]

Pope John Paul II wanted to visit the city according to the biblical tradition as part of his trip to Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian territories but the visit was cancelled due to a dispute between the Government of Saddam Hussein and representatives of the Holy See.[26]

In March 2021, Pope Francis visited Ur during his journey through Iraq.[27]

## Archaeology

[edit]

Rawlinson's March 1854 letter to The Athenaeum announcing his reading of the Nabonidus cylinders which connected Muqeyer or "Um Qeer" with the name Ur[28]

Bitumen "mortar" among Ur's mudbricks

Circular groups of bricks excavated in 1900

In 1625, the site was visited by Pietro Della Valle, who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols, cemented together with bitumen, as well as inscribed pieces of black marble that appeared to be seals. He retrieved several inscribed bricks.[29] European archaeologists did not identify Tell el-Muqayyar as the site of Ur until Henry Rawlinson successfully deciphered some bricks from that location, brought to England by William Loftus in 1849.[30][31]

The site was first excavated in 1853 and 1854, on behalf of the British Museum and with instructions from the Foreign Office, by John George Taylor, British vice consul at Basra from 1851 to 1859.[32][33][34] Taylor uncovered the Ziggurat of Ur and a structure with an arch later identified as part of the "Gate of Judgment".[35] Among the finds were copies of a standard cylinder of Nabonidus, Neo-Babylonian ruler, mentioning the prince regent Belshar-uzur, usually thought to be the Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible.[36] Between 1854 and 1918 locals excavated over two hundred tablets from the site, mostly from the temple Ê-nun-maḫ, of the moon god Sin.[37] Built by the Ur III ruler Ur-Nammu, the ziggurat was later repaired by Isin ruler Ishme-Dagan early in the 2nd millennium BC.[38] Stamped bricks on the ziggurat detail the rebuilding of the temple of Ningal by 14th century BC Kassite ruler Kurigalzu I.[39]

Some cuneiform tablets were found. Thirty four of these tablets were inadvertently mixed in with those excavated at Kutalla. Only in recent years has this error been recognized.[40] Typical of the era, his excavations destroyed information and exposed the tell. Natives used the now loosened, 4,000-year-old bricks and tile for construction for the next 75 years, while the site lay unexplored,[41] the British Museum having decided to prioritize archaeology in Assyria.[35]

The site was considered rich in remains, and relatively easy to explore. After some soundings were made during a week in 1918 by Reginald Campbell Thompson, H. R. Hall worked the site for one season (using 70 Turkish prisoners of war) for the British Museum in 1919, laying the groundwork for more extensive efforts to follow. Some cuneiform tablets from the Isin-Larsa period were found, including omen and medical texts. They are now in the British Museum.[42][43][44]

Aerial photograph of Ur in 1927

Excavations from 1922 to 1934 were funded by the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania and led by the archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Woolley.[45] The last two seasons focused on closing the site properly.[46][41][47] A total of about 1,850 burials were uncovered, including 16 that were described as "royal tombs" containing many valuable artifacts, including the Standard of Ur. Most of the royal tombs were dated to about 2600 BC. The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen Puabi (formerly transcribed as Shub-ab), known from a cylinder seal found in the tomb, although there were two other different and unnamed seals found in the tomb. Many other people had been buried with her, in a form of human sacrifice.[48] Near the ziggurat were uncovered the temple E-nun-mah and buildings E-dub-lal-mah (built for a king), E-gi-par (residence of the high priestess) and E-hur-sag (a temple building).

Outside the temple area, many houses used in everyday life were found. Excavations were also made below the royal tombs layer: a 3.5-metre-thick (11 ft) layer of alluvial clay covered the remains of earlier habitation, including pottery from the Ubaid period, the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia. Woolley later wrote many articles and books about the discoveries.[49] One of Woolley's assistants on the site was the British archaeologist Max Mallowan.[50]

A number of royal inscriptions were found during the Woolley excavations.[51][52] Numerous cuneiform tablets were also recovered. These included archives, temple and domestic, from the Early Dynastic and Sargonic periods,[53][54][55][56] the Ur III period,[57][58] Old and Middle Babylonian period,[59][60] and the Neo-Babylonian and Persian periods.[61] Many literary and religious texts were also recovered.[62][63][64]

The discoveries at the site reached the headlines in mainstream media in the world with the discoveries of the Royal Tombs. As a result, the ruins of the ancient city attracted many visitors. One of these visitors was the already famous Agatha Christie, who as a result of this visit ended up marrying Max Mallowan.[65][66] During this time the site was accessible from the Baghdad–Basra railway, from a stop called "Ur Junction".[67]

In 2009, an agreement was reached for a joint University of Pennsylvania and Iraqi team to resume archaeological work at the site of Ur.[68] Excavations began in 2015 under the direction of Elizabeth C Stone and Paul Zimansky of the State University of New York.[69] The first excavation season was primarily to re-excavate Woolley's work in an Old Babylonian housing area with two new trenches for confirmation. Among the finds were a cylinder seal and balance pan weights. A number of cuneiform tablets were unearthed, a few Ur III period, a few Old Babylonian period, and a number of Old Akkadian period.[70] A similar though smaller dig was made in a Neo-Babylonian housing area. [71][72] In the 2017 season an urban area adjacent to Wooleys very large AH area was excavated. The burial vault of a Babylonian general Abisum was found. Abisum is known from year 36 of Hammurabi into the reign of Samsu-iluna. Thirty cuneiform tablets were found around the vault and another 12 inside the tomb itself. Some distance south of Area AH a German team of Munich University directed by Adelheid Otto excavated an Old Babylonian home. In levels below the final occupation were found tablets dating to Sin-Eribam and Silli-Adad, rulers of Larsa. They included a new copy of the Lament for Sumer and Ur.[73][74][75]

### The Royal Tomb Excavation

[edit]

When the Royal Tombs at Ur were discovered, their size was unknown. Excavators started digging two trenches in the middle of the desert to see if they could find anything that would allow them to keep digging. They split into two teams – A and team B. Both teams spent the first few months digging a trench and found evidence of burial grounds by collecting small pieces of golden jewelry and pottery. This was called the "gold trench". After the first season of digging finished, Woolley returned to England. In Autumn, Woolley returned and started the second season. By the end of the second season, he had uncovered a courtyard surrounded by many rooms.[76] In their third season of digging archaeologists had uncovered their biggest find yet, a building that was believed to have been constructed by order of the king, and a second building thought to be where the high priestess lived. As the fourth and fifth season came to a close, they had discovered so many items that most of their time was now spent recording the objects they found instead of actually digging objects.[77] Items included gold jewelry, clay pots and stones. One of the most significant objects was the Standard of Ur. By the end of their sixth season they had excavated 1850 burial sites and deemed 17 of them to be "Royal Tombs". Some clay sealings and cuneiform tablet fragment were found in an underlying layer.[78]

Woolley finished his work excavating the Royal Tombs in 1934, uncovering a series of burials. Many servants were killed and buried with the royals, who he believed went to their deaths willingly. Computerized tomography scans on some of the surviving skulls have shown signs that they were killed by blows to the head that could be from the spiked end of a copper axe, which showed Woolley's initial theory of mass suicide via poison to be incorrect.[79]

Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi in the "Royal tombs" of Ur

Inside Puabi's tomb there was a chest in the middle of the room. Underneath that chest was a hole in the ground that led to what was called the "King's Grave": PG-789. It was believed to be the king's grave because it was buried next to the queen. In this grave, there were 63 attendants who were all equipped with copper helmets and swords. It is thought to be his army buried with him. Another large room was uncovered, PG-1237, called the "Great death pit". This large room had 74 bodies, 68 of which were women. This was based on artifacts found with the bodies, weapons and whetstones in the case of males and simple, non-gold, jewelry in the case of females. There is some debate about the gender of one body. Two large ram statues were found in PG-1237 which are believed to be the remains of lyres. Several lyres were found just outside the entrance. The bodies were found to have perimortem blunt force injuries which caused their death. They also had skeleton markers for long term manual labor.[80][81][82]

Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the British Museum, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Baghdad Museum. At the Penn Museum the exhibition "Iraq's Ancient Past",[83] which includes many of the most famous pieces from the Royal Tombs, opened to visitors in late Spring 2011. Previously, the Penn Museum had sent many of its best pieces from Ur on tour in an exhibition called "Treasures From the Royal Tombs of Ur." It traveled to eight American museums, including those in Cleveland, Washington and Dallas, ending the tour at the Detroit Institute of Art in May 2011.[citation needed]

Samples from two stratigraphic layers in the royal cemetery area, from before the royal burials, have been radiocarbon dated. The ED Ia layer dated to c. 2900 BC and the ED Ic layer to c. 2679 BC.[84][85]

## Current status and preservation

[edit]

Though some of the areas that were cleared during modern excavations have sanded over again, the Great Ziggurat is fully cleared and stands as the best-preserved and most visible landmark at the site.[86] The famous Royal tombs, also called the Neo-Sumerian Mausolea, located about 250 metres (820 ft) south-east of the Great Ziggurat in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city, are nearly totally cleared. Parts of the tomb area appear to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilization.[citation needed]

There are cuneiform (Sumerian writing) on many walls, some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud-bricks. The text is sometimes difficult to read, but it covers most surfaces. Modern graffiti has also found its way to the graves, usually in the form of names made with coloured pens (sometimes they are carved).[citation needed]

The Great Ziggurat itself has far more graffiti, mostly lightly carved into the bricks. The graves are completely empty. A small number of the tombs are accessible. Most of them have been cordoned off. The whole site is covered with pottery debris, to the extent that it is virtually impossible to set foot anywhere without stepping on some. Some have colours and paintings on them. Some of the "mountains" of broken pottery are debris that has been removed from excavations.

Pottery debris and human remains form many of the walls of the royal tombs area. In May 2009, the United States Army returned the Ur site to the Iraqi authorities, who hope to develop it as a tourist destination.[87]

Wall plaque from Ur, 2500 BC; the British Museum

Since 2009, the non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to protect and preserve Ur against the problems of erosion, neglect, inappropriate restoration, war and conflict. GHF's stated goal for the project is to create an informed and scientifically grounded Master Plan to guide the long-term conservation and management of the site, and to serve as a model for the stewardship of other sites.[88]

Since 2013, the institution for Development Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS[89] and the SBAH, the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage of the Iraqi Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, have started a cooperation project for "The Conservation and Maintenance of Archaeological site of UR". In the framework of this cooperation agreement, the executive plan, with detailed drawings, is in progress for the maintenance of the Dublamah Temple (design concluded, works starting), the Royal Tombs—Mausolea 3rd Dynasty (in progress)—and the Ziqqurat (in progress). The first updated survey in 2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) operated in March 2014. This is the first high-resolution map, derived from more than 100 aerial photograms, with an accuracy of 20 cm or less. A preview of the ortho-photomap of Archaeological Site of Ur is available online.[90]

## Tell Sakhariya

[edit]

The site (30º 58’ 33.84” N by 46º 08’ 28.36” E) was first noted, as Tell Abu Ba’arura Shimal ("Father of Sheep Droppings, North"), as a Kassite period occupation (300 NE X 150 X 2.5. Cassite: 3.5 ha) during an archaeological survey of the region in the 1960s.[91] The site, which lies 6.45 kilometers northeast of Ur, was excavated in a five week season from December to January 2011 – 2012 by a joint Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage and the State University of New York at Stony Brook team led by Elizabeth Stone and Paul Zimansky. It was measured at about 250 meters by 200 meters with two high points, about 3.5 meters above the plain, separated by a saddle. Seven trenches were dug, some small, and three yielded simple slope wash.[92] On the surface were found Kassite and Old Babylonian period ceramics and satellite imagery suggested the presence of a large square building and a number of other walls but the excavators found no building remains in surface or magnetic gradiometry surveys, or in the later trenches. Three occupational levels were determined. The top layer contained Kassite pottery fragments, a late Kassite kiln, and a number of late Kassite burials. The second held Sealand Dynasty ceramics along with lithic (grinding stones, cuboids and one balance weight), metal, floral and faunal (primarily cattle, sheep, and goats) remains.[93] The excavators deemed the occupations to be repeated but transient. Neither level showed signs of formal or residential architecture.

The final, earliest level also lacked notable architecture but featured a very large mud or clay platform, made from clean material, devoid of sherds, bones, or other living debris. Coring to a depth of 4 meters (1 meter below the plain) failed to find the bottom of the platform. Part of the platform is underlain by a square baked brick pavement and remains of a fish pond were found. Two 5 meter by 10 meter trenches, 55 meters apart, were excavated in this platform. An inscribed brick of the first Ur III ruler Ur-Nammu (c. 2112-2094 BC) "describing the construction of a barag - a pedestal or podium and a garden" was found out of context. Also found were four fragmentary inscribed bricks (surface finds), three inscribed cones (one datable to Larsa ruler Rim-Sîn I (c. 1822-1763 BC) year 15), and two Sumerian language cuneiform tablets. One tablet was from the early Kassite period and the other tablet was a receipt for copper utensils is dated to year 28 of Ur III ruler Shulgi (c. 2094-2046 BC). After this excavation season a nearby prison was expanded by the Iraqi government blocking access to the site and precluding further campaigns.[94] It has been proposed as the site of Ur III Ga’eš. The ziggurat at Ur can be seen from the summit of the site.[95][96][97][98]

### Ga’eš

[edit]

Based on the archaeology the site of Tell Sakhariya has been proposed as the Ur III period city of Ga’eš (ga-eški and ga-eš5ki), site of the Akiti festival of Nanna/Sin, held every year for 11 days in the seventh month of the year and 7 days in the first month of the year. The festival began at Nanna’s temple in Ur and ended in Ga’eš, possibly traveling via a canal.[99] The temple of Nanna/Sin there was called the Karzida (kar-zi-da) was located at Ga’eš (the names Karzida and Ga’eš appear to have been used interchangeably for the city). The 36th year name of Ur III ruler Shulgi read "Year Nanna of Ga’eš was brought into his temple" and the 9th year name of Ur III ruler Amar-Sin read "Year En-Nanna-Amar-Sin-kiagra, was installed for the third time as en-priestess of Nanna of Ga’eš / of Karzida". Amar-Sin established a Giparu (nunnery) for the en-priestess of Nanna at Karzida saying "he caused En-aga-zi-ana, his beloved priestess (en), to enter there".[100] When the en-priestess died she was buried a with "golden crown (aga), which is followed by five other golden objects".[101][102][103] From tablets found at Ur it is known that wrestling competitions were held at Ga’eš reading "for the ‘house of wrestling’ in the Akiti (building), issued in Ga’eš, during the Akiti month" and "100 liters of ordinary beer, the beer for the ‘house of wrestling’ … issued in Ga’eš", for example.[104] All that is known with certainty about its location is that it lay one days journey from Ur and was on a canal. A sketch in a 1990's paper concerning the Iturungal Canal placed Ga’eš in a location corresponding to Tell Sakhariya.[105] It has been suggested that Ga’eš was mentioned in Early Dynastic II period administrative texts.[106] The final textual mention of was from the time of Larsa ruler Sin-Iddinam (c. 1849-1843 BC) a cone reading "Sm-i[ddinam], mighty man, [s]on [born] in Ga’eš provider of U[r], king of Lars[a], king of the land of S[umer] and Akkad] ...".[107] Apparently Ga’eš had a gate tower based on a text from Drehem "1 fattened sheep for the great gate tower in Ga’eš" dating to the reign of Su-Sin.[108]

One of the Temple Hymns of Enheduanna, the daughter of Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334-2279 BC), is dedicated to Ga’eš and the Karzida temple of Nanna/Sin there.[109]

> "Shrine, great sanctuary?, founded at a cattle-pen, ‘Small’ city, . . . . of Suen Karzida, your interior is a . . . . place, your foundation is holy and clean, Shrine, your Gipar is founded in purity, Your door is (of) strong copper, set up at a great place, Cattle-pen (filled with) the lowing (of the cows), like a young bull you . . . the horn,Your prince, the lord of heaven, standing in the . . . ., At noon (like the sun) radiating . . . ., O Karzida, he, Ašimbabbar, has placed the house upon your . . . . has taken his place on your dais. The house of Nanna in Ga’eš"[94]

Ga’eš was also mentioned in the Sumerian literary composition Lament for Sumer and Ur

> "... Mighty strength was set against the banks of the Id-nuna-Nanna canal. The settlements of the E-danna of Nanna, like substantial cattle-pens, were destroyed. Their refugees, like stampeding goats, were chased (?) by dogs. They destroyed Gaeš like milk poured out to dogs, and shattered its finely fashioned statues. 'Alas, the destroyed city, my destroyed house,' Its sacred Ĝipar of en priesthood was defiled. Its en priestess was snatched from the Ĝipar and carried off to enemy territory. A lament was raised at the dais that stretches out toward heaven. Its heavenly throne was not set up, was not fit to be crowned (?)."[110][111]

And in another composition:

> "O, sanctuary, big chamber built like ? a stall, mighty beaming city of Suen, Karzida, your interior is a powerful place, your foundation is holy and clean. O, sanctuary, your Ĝipar is established in purity, your door is copper, something (very) strong, established in the Underworld. O, cattle-pen, which rai[ses] the horns like a breeding bull, your prince, the lord of heaven standing in ... joy. ... at midday and ... O Karzida, Ašimbabbar, a house has established in your holy space and took (his) residence in your sanctuary!"[112]

## List of rulers

[edit]

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The Sumerian King List (SKL) gives a list of only thirteen rulers from three dynasties of Ur. The once supposed second dynasty of Ur may have never existed.[113] The first dynasty of Ur may have been preceded by one other dynasty of Ur (the "Kalam dynasty") unnamed on the SKL—which had extensive influence over the area of Sumer and apparently led a union of south Mesopotamian polities. This predynastic period of Ur may include at least two rulers out of the first eight on this list (Meskalamdug and Akalamdug). The following list should not be considered complete:

#  | Depiction  | Ruler  | Succession  | Titles | Approx. dates  | Notes

|
|
|
|
|
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Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC)
Predynastic Ur (c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC)
|  | A-Imdugud
𒀀𒀭𒅎𒂂  |  | Governor of Ur  | fl. c. 2600 BC |

* Historicity certain
* His name does not appear on the SKL
* Known from an inscribed cylinder seal found in tomb PG 1236 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur[114]

|  | Ur-Pabilsag
𒌨𒀭𒉺𒉋𒊕  | Son of A-Imdugud (?)[115] | King of Ur  | d. c. 2550 BC |

* temp. of Ursangpae[116]
* Known from an inscription fragment found in tomb PG 779 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

#  | Depiction  | Ruler  | Succession  | Titles  | Approx. dates  | Notes
Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC)
Kalam dynasty (c. 2550 – c. 2500 BC)
|  | Akalamdug
𒀀𒌦𒄭  | Son of Meskalamdug (?)  | King of Ur  | reigned c. 2500 BC |

* temp. of Akurgal[116]
* Known from dynastic beads and tomb inscriptions found in tomb PG 1332 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

|  | Meskalamdug
𒈩𒌦𒄭  | Son of Akalamdug (?)  | King of Kish | r. c. 2500 BC |

* temp. of Enakalle[116]
* Known from dynastic beads and tomb inscriptions found in tomb PG 755 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

|  | Puabi
𒅤𒀜  | Coregent with Meskalamdug (?)  | Queen of Ur  | m. c. 2500 to Meskalamdug (?)  |

* Known from inscriptions found in tomb PG 800 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur
* She may have ruled in her own right as queen regnant[117]

#  | Depiction  | Ruler  | Succession  | Titles  | Approx. dates  | Notes
First dynasty of Ur / Ur I dynasty (c. 2500 – c. 2340 BC)

> "Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to Ur."

— SKL

1  |  | Mesannepada
𒈩𒀭𒉌𒅆𒊒𒁕  | Son of Meskalamdug (?)  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Kish

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2500 BC
(80 years) |

* temp. of Ur-Lumma[116]
* Known from the SKL, Tummal Chronicle, and an inscribed seal found in tomb PG 1232/1237 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

2  |  | Meskiagnun I
𒈩𒆠𒉘𒉣  | Son of Mesannepada (?)  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2485 – c. 2450 BC
(30 or 36 years) |

* temp. of Epa'e[116]
* Known from the Tummal Chronicle his tomb PG 1157 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

3  |  | Elulu
𒂊𒇻𒇻  |  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | Uncertain, r. c. 2445 BC
(25 years) |

* Historicity certain.[116]
* temp. of Lugalanda[116]

4  |  | Balulu
𒁀𒇻𒇻  |  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | Uncertain
(36 years) |

* Known from the SKL; very little otherwise
* Historicity uncertain

> "4 kings; they ruled for 171 years. Then Ur was defeated and the kingship was taken to Awan."

— SKL

|  | Enshakushanna
𒂗𒊮𒊨𒀭𒈾  | Son of Elulu (?)[116] | Lord of Sumer and King of all the Land

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Uruk

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2430 BC
(60 years) |

* temp. of Urukagina[116]

|  | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
𒈗𒆠𒉌𒂠𒌌𒌌  |  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Uruk and Ur[116]

* * *

King of Kish

* * *

King of Uruk

* * *

Governor of Uruk

* * *

Lord of Uruk  | r. c. 2400 BC
(120 years) |

* Originally from Uruk
* temp. of Enannatum II[116]

|  | Lugal-kisal-si
𒈗𒆦𒋛  | Son of Lugal-kinishe-dudu[116] | King of Uruk and Ur[116]

* * *

King of Kish

* * *

King of Uruk

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2400 BC |

* temp. of Enentarzi[116]

Proto-Imperial period (c. 2350 – c. 2334 BC)
|  | A'annepada
𒀀𒀭𒉌𒅆𒊒𒁕  | Son of Mesannepada | King of Ur  | r. c. 2400 BC |

* temp. of Entemena[116]
* Known from dedication tablets with inscriptions found in tomb PG 580 located in the Royal Cemetery at Ur

|  | Lunanna
𒇽𒀭𒋀𒆠  |  | King of Ur  | Uncertain; this ruler may have r. c. 2350 – c. 2112 BC sometime during the Proto-Imperial period.[116] |

* Historicity certain.[116]
* temp. of Sargon[116]

#  | Depiction  | Ruler  | Succession  | Titles  | Approx. dates  | Notes
Akkadian period (c. 2334 – c. 2154 BC)
Second dynasty of Ur / Ur II dynasty (c. 2340 – c. 2112 BC)

> "Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to Ur."

— SKL

1  |  | Nanni
𒈾𒀭𒉌  |  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2340 BC
(54 or 120 years) |

* Known from the SKL; very little otherwise
* Historicity uncertain

2  | Meskiagnun II
𒈩𒆠𒉘𒉣  | Son of Nanni | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | Uncertain
(48 years) |

* Known from the SKL; very little otherwise
* Historicity uncertain

3  | Unknown |  | King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | Uncertain
(2 years) |

* Known from the SKL; very little otherwise
* Historicity uncertain

> "3 kings; they ruled for 578 years. Then Ur was defeated and the kingship was taken to Adab."

— SKL

#  | Depiction  | Ruler  | Succession  | Titles  | Approx. dates  | Notes
Ur III period (c. 2154 – c. 2004 BC)
Third dynasty of Ur / Ur III dynasty (c. 2112 – c. 2004 BC)

> "Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to Ur."

— SKL

1  |  | Ur-Nammu
𒌨𒀭𒇉  | Son of Utu-hengal (?)  | King of Sumer and Akkad

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2112 – c. 2094 BC
(18 years) |
2  |  | Shulgi
𒀭𒂄𒄀  | Son of Ur-Nammu | King of the Four Corners

* * *

King of Sumer and Akkad

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2094 – c. 2046 BC
(46, 48, or 58 years) |
3  |  | Amar-Sin
𒀭𒀫𒀭𒂗𒍪  | Son of Shulgi | King of the Four Corners

* * *

King of Sumer and Akkad

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2046 – c. 2037 BC
(9 or 25 years) |
4  |  | Shu-Sin
𒀭𒋗𒀭𒂗𒍪  | Son of Amar-Sin | King of the Four Corners

* * *

King of Sumer and Akkad

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2037 – c. 2028 BC
(7, 9, 16, or 20 years) |
5  |  | Ibbi-Sin
𒀭𒄿𒉈𒀭𒂗𒍪  | Son of Shu-Sin | King of the Four Corners

* * *

King of Sumer and Akkad

* * *

King of Sumer

* * *

King of Ur  | r. c. 2028 – c. 2004 BC
(15, 23, 24, or 25 years) |

> "5 kings; they ruled for 108 years. Then the reign of Ur was abolished. The very foundation of Sumer was torn out. The kingship was taken to Isin."

— SKL

## See also

[edit]

This article contains  cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.

* Correspondence of the Kings of Ur
* History of Iraq
* History of Sumer
* List of cities of the ancient Near East
* Lyres of Ur
* Ram in a Thicket
* Royal Game of Ur
* Short chronology
* Tal Abu Tbeirah

Portals:

* Iraq
* History
* Geography

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Sumerian: 𒌶𒆠, 𒋀𒀕𒆠, or 𒋀𒀊𒆠,[note 1] romanized: Urim;[1] Akkadian: 𒋀𒀕𒆠, romanized: Uru;[2] Arabic: أُور, romanized: ʾŪr; Hebrew: אוּר, romanized: ʾŪr.
2. ^ Also variously transcribed as Tell el-Mugheir, Tell el-Mughair, Tell el-Moghair, etc., based on the local Iraqi Arabic pronunciation.

1. ^ Literal transliteration: Urim2 = ŠEŠ. ABgunu = ŠEŠ.UNUG (𒋀𒀕) and Urim5 = ŠEŠ.AB (𒋀𒀊), where ŠEŠ=URI3 (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.)

## References

[edit]

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68. ^ Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty – Free Media in Unfree Societies U.S. Archaeologists To Excavate In Iraq
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98. ^ Zimansky, Paul, and Elizabeth C. Stone, "Excavations at Tell Sakhariya: A Sealand Site near Ur", 58e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Leiden, July 2012
99. ^ Falkenstein, A., "akiti-Fest und akiti-Festhaus", R. von Kienle et a!. (eds.), Festschrift Johannes Friedrich. Heidelberg, pp. 147-182, 1959
100. ^ Nett, Seraina, "The Office and Responsibilities of the En Priestess of Nanna: Evidence from Votive Inscriptions and Documentary Texts", Women and Religion in the Ancient Near East and Asia, edited by Nicole Maria Brisch and Fumi Karahashi, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 93-120, 2023
101. ^ Ga’eš year names at CDLI
102. ^ Sallaberger, W., "Der Kultische Kalender der Ur ril-Zeit Teill", Untersuchungen zur Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archaologie 7/1, Berlin, 1993
103. ^ Stol, Marten, "Priestesses", Women in the Ancient Near East, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 555-583, 2016
104. ^ Steinkeller, Piotr, "The Reluctant En of Inana — or the Persona of Gilgameš in the Perspective of Babylonian Political Philosophy", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 5, no. 1-2, pp. 149-177, 2018
105. ^ Carroue, F., "Etudes de Geographie et de Topographie Sumeriennes III. L'lturungal et le Sud Sumerien", Acta Sumerologica 15, pp. 11-69, 1993
106. ^ Sallaberger, W., Schrakamp, I., "History and Philology", ARCANE III, Turnhout, 2015
107. ^ Douglas Frayne, "Larsa", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 107-322, 1990
108. ^ Owen, David I., "Transliterations, Translations, and Brief Comments", The Nesbit Tablets, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 13-110, 2016
109. ^ Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023
110. ^ "CDLI Literary 000380 (Lament for Sumer and Ur) Composite Artifact Entry", (2014) 2024. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI), July 15, 2024
111. ^ Kröll, N., & Fink, S.,"How to Destroy Sanctity? Some Insights from Sumerian Cuneiform Texts", in The Human and the Divine, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, pp. 124-147, 2025
112. ^ [10] D'Agostino, Franco, and Angela Greco, "Abu Tbeirah. philological and epigraphic point of view", Abu Tbeirah. Excavations I. Area 1. Last Phase and Building A – Phase 1, pp. 465-477, 2019
113. ^ "The so-called Second Dynasty of Ur is a phantom and is not recorded in the SKL" in Frayne, Douglas (2008). Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods, Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC). University of Toronto Press. p. 910\. ISBN 978-1-4426-9047-9.
114. ^ Woolley, Leonard; Hall, Henry; Legrain, L. (1900). Ur excavations (Report). Vol. II. Trustees of the British Museum and of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania by the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. ISBN 9780598629883. `{{cite report}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Alt URL
115. ^ Aruz, J.; Wallenfels, R. (2003). Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus. Metropolitan Museum of Art Series. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300098839.
116. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Marchesi, Gianni (January 2015). Sallaberger, Walther; Schrakamp, Ingo (eds.). "Toward a Chronology of Early Dynastic Rulers in Mesopotamia". History and Philology (ARCANE 3; Turnhout): 139–156.
117. ^ "Queen Puabi's Headdress from the Royal Cemetery at Ur". Penn Museum. Retrieved 2019-03-28.

## Further reading

[edit]

* [11] Benati, Giacomo, "Re-modeling political economy in early 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamia: patterns of socio-economic organization in Archaic Ur (Tell al-Muqayyar, Iraq)", Cuneiform Digital Library Journal 2015.2, 2015
* Benati, Giacomo, "The Beginning of the Early Dynastic Period at Ur", Iraq, vol. 76, 2014, pp. 1–17, 2014
* Black, J. and Spada, G., "Texts from Ur: Kept in the Iraq Museum and the British Museum.", Nisaba 19, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichitá 2008 ISBN 9788882680107
* [12] Chambon, Grégory "Archaic metrological systems from Ur", Cuneiform Digital Library Journal 2003.5, 2003
* D. Charpin, "Le Clergé d'Ur au siècle d'Hammurabi (XIXe-XVIIIe siècles av. J.-C.)", HEO 22, Geneva-Paris, 1986
* D. Charpin, "Le pillage d'Ur et la protection du temple de Ningal en l'an 12 de Samsu-iluna", in: D. Charpin (ed.), Archibab 4. Nouvelles recherches sur la ville d'Ur à l'époque paléo babylonienne, Mémoires de NABU 22, Paris, 2019
* Charvát, Petr, "Signs from Silence: Ur of the First Sumerians (Late Uruk Through ED I)", Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE: Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelphia, July 11–15, 2016, edited by Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 195–204, 2021
* Crawford, Harriet, "Ur: The City of the Moon God", London: Bloomsbury, 2015. ISBN 978-1-47252-419-5
* D’Agostino, F., Pomponio, F., and Laurito, R., "Neo-Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum.", Nisaba 5, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichitá, 2004 ISBN 9788882680107
* C. J. Gadd, "History and monuments of Ur, Chatto & Windus", 1929 (Dutton 1980 reprint: ISBN 0-405-08545-1).
* [13] Leon Legrain, "Archaic seal-impressions", Ur Excavations III, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, 1936
* [14] Leon Legrain, "Seal cylinders", Ur Excavations X, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, 1951
* P. R. S. Morrey, "Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur?", Iraq, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 1984.
* [15] P.R.S. Morrey, "What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery?", Expedition Magazine, Penn Museum, vol. 20, iss. 1, pp. 24–40, 1977
* J. Oates, "Ur and Eridu: The Prehistory", Iraq, vol. 22, pp. 32–50, 1960.
* Pardo Mata, Pilar, "Ur, ciudad de los sumerios". Cuenca: Alderaban, 2006. ISBN 978-84-95414-38-0.
* Susan Pollock, "Chronology of the Royal Cemetery of Ur", Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 129–158, British Institute for the Study of Iraq, 1985
* Susan Pollock, "Of Priestesses, Princes and Poor Relations: The Dead in the Royal Cemetery of Ur", Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol. 1, iss. 2, 1991
* Wencel, M. M., "New radiocarbon dates from southern Mesopotamia (Fara and Ur)", Iraq, 80, pp. 251–261, 2018
* [16] Woolley, Leonard, "The Royal Cemetery: a report on the predynastic and Sargonid graves excavated between 1926 and 1931", Ur Excavations II, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, 1927
* [17] Woolley, Leonard, "The early periods: a report on the sites and objects prior in date to the third dynasty of Ur discovered in the course of the excavations", Ur excavations IV, London : Published for the Trustees of the Two Museums, Oxford University Press, 1955
* [18] Woolley, Leonard, "The Ziggurat and Its Surroundings", Ur Excavations V, Oxford University Press, 1939
* [19] Woolley, Leonard, "The buildings of the third dynasty", Ur Excavations VI, London : Published for the Trustees of the Two Museums, 1974
* [20] Woolley, Leonard and with M.E.L. Mallowan, "The Old Babylonian Period", Ur Excavations VII, Oxford University Press, 1976
* [21] Woolley, Leonard, "The Kassite period and the period of the Assyrian kings", Ur Excavations VIII, London : Published for the Trustees of the Two Museums, 1965
* [22] Woolley, Leonard and M.E.L. Mallowan, "The Neo-Babylonian and Persian Periods", Ur Excavations IX, London : Published for the Trustees of the Two Museums, 1962
* [23] Woolley, Leonard, "Ur of the Chaldees: A record of seven years of excavation", Ernest Benn Limited, 1920
* C. L. Woolley, "The Excavations at Ur, 1923–1924", Antiquaries Journal 5, pp. 1–20, 1925
* C. L. Woolley, "The Excavations at Ur, 1924–1925", Antiquaries Journal 5, pp. 347–402, 1925
* C. L. Woolley, "The Excavations at Ur, 1925–1926", Antiquaries Journal 6, pp. 365–401, 1926
* C. L. Woolley, "The Excavations at Ur, 1926–1927", Antiquaries Journal 7, pp. 385–423, 1927
* C. L. Woolley, "Excavations at Ur, 1927–1928", Antiquaries Journal 8, pp. 415–448, 1928
* C. L. Woolley, "Excavations at Ur, 1928–1929", Antiquaries Journal 9, pp. 305–343, 1929
* C. L. Woolley, "Excavations at Ur, 1929–1930", Antiquaries Journal 10, pp. 315–343 and pl. XXVIII, 1930
* C. L. Woolley, "Excavations at Ur, 1930–1931", Antiquaries Journal 11, pp. 343–381, 1931
* C. L. Woolley, "Excavations at Ur, 1931–1932", Antiquaries Journal 12, pp. 355–392 and pl. LVIII, 1932

## External links

[edit]

Ur at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Data from Wikidata

* City of the Moon New Excavations at Ur – Penn Museum – 2017
* An exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur, with a comprehensive selection of high-resolution photographs detailing the treasures found in the tombs
* Explore some of the Royal Tombs, Mesopotamia website from the British Museum
* Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine
* British Museum and Penn Museum Ur site – has field reports
* Jewish Encyclopedia: Ur
* Woolley’s Ur Revisited, Richard L. Zettler, BAR 10:05, September/October 1984.
* Ur Excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum
* At Ur, Ritual Deaths That Were Anything but Serene on The New York Times

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt–Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Meshkiangasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indo-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mesh-he
Melem-ana
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi
Enna-Dagan | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-Tarana
Napi-Ilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kikku-Siwe-Temti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugal-Anne-Mundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugal-zage-si
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025–1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil An-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty of Egypt
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty of Egypt

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire (1450–1180 BCE)
Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II

Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states
Carchemish
Tabal | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Eight Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judaea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, William W.; Simpson, William Kelly (1971). The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49\. ISBN 978-0-15-502755-8.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy, eds. (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per the Sumerian King List.
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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* Kulturenvanteri monument
* Yale LUX

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