Urartu

Iron-Age kingdom of the Ancient Near East

Urartu (exonym)[a]

860 BCE – 590 BCE/547 BCE[1]

Urartu under Sarduri II, 743 BCE

Capital|

* Sugunia
* Arzashkun
* Tushpa (after 832 BCE)

Common languages|

* Assyrian[2]
* Urartian
* Proto-Armenian[3]

Religion

| Urartian polytheism[4]

Government| Monarchy

• 858–844

| Arame

• 844–834(?)

| Lutipri(?)

• 834–828

| Sarduri I

• 828–810

| Ishpuini

• 810–785

| Menua

• 785–753

| Argishti I

• 753–735

| Sarduri II

• 735–714

| Rusa I

• 714–680

| Argishti II

• 680–639

| Rusa II

• 639–635

| Sarduri III

• 629–590 or 629–615

| Rusa III

• 615–595

| Sarduri IV

• 590–585

| Rusa IV
Historical era| Iron Age

• Established

| 860 BCE

• Median conquest (or Achaemenid conquest in 547[5])

|  590 BCE/547 BCE[1]

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Nairi

|

| Median Empire |

|

Achaemenid Empire |
Satrapy of Armenia |

Part of a series on the

History of Armenia
Coat of Arms of Armenia

Prehistory

* Shulaveri–Shomu culture
* Kura–Araxes culture
* Legend of Hayk
* Trialeti–Vanadzor culture
* Armani
* Lchashen–Metsamor culture
* Hayasa-Azzi
* Arme–Shupria
* Mushki
* Urumu
* Nairi Confederation
* Urartu (Kingdom of Van)
* Etiuni

Antiquity

* Satrapy of Armenia
* Armenia Minor
* Kingdom of Armenia
* Armenian Empire
* Roman Armenia
* Christianization of Armenia
* Kingdom of Sophene
* Commagene
* Byzantine Armenia
* Sasanian Armenia
* Muslim conquest of Armenia

Middle Ages

* Emirate of Armenia
* Principality of Hamamshen
* Kingdom of Armenia
* Kingdom of Vaspurakan
* Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget
* Kingdom of Syunik
* Kingdom of Artsakh
* Zakarid Armenia
* Principality of Khachen
* Mongol Armenia
* Kingdom of Cilicia

Early modern age

* Iranian Armenia
* Five Melikdoms
* Ottoman Armenia
* Russian Armenia
* Armenian Oblast
* Armenian question
* Armenian genocide
* Western Armenia
* National movement

Modern age

* First Republic of Armenia
* Armenian S.S.R.
* Republic of Mountainous Armenia
* Contemporary Armenia
* Republic of Artsakh

Timeline • Origins • Etymology

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on the

History of Turkey

Prehistory

* Prehistory of Anatolia

|  Palaeolithic Anatolia|  c. 500,000–
10,000 BC

|

Mesolithic Anatolia|  c. 11,000–
9,000 BC
Neolithic Anatolia|  c. 8,000–
5,500 BC

Bronze Age

| Troy|  3000–700 BC

|

Hattians|  2500–2000 BC
Akkadian Empire|  2400–2150 BC
Luwians|  2300–1400 BC
Assyria|  1950–1750 BC
Kussara|  1780–1680 BC
Achaeans (Homer)|  1700–1300 BC
Kizzuwatna|  1650–1450 BC
Hittites|  1680–1220 BC
Arzawa|  1500–1320 BC
Mitanni|  1500–1300 BC
Hayasa-Azzi|  1500–1290 BC
Lycia|  1450–350 BC
Assuwa|  1300–1250 BC
Diauehi|  1200–800 BC
Neo-Hittites|  1200–800 BC
Phrygia|  1200–700 BC
Caria|  1150–547 BC
Tuwanuwa|  1000–700 BC
Ionia|  1000–545 BC
Urartu|  859–595/585 BC

Iron Age

| Diauehi|  1200–800 BC

|

Neo-Hittites|  1200–800 BC
Phrygia|  1200–700 BC
Caria|  1150–547 BC
Doris |  1100–560 BC
Aeolis |  1000–560 BC
Tuwanuwa|  1000–700 BC
Ionia|  1000–545 BC
Urartu|  859–595/585 BC
Median Empire|  678–549 BC
Lydia|  685–547 BC

Classical Age

* Classical Anatolia
* Classical Thrace

| Achaemenid Empire|  559–331 BC

|

Kingdom of Alexander the Great|  334–301 BC
Kingdom of Cappadocia|  322–130 BC
Antigonids|  306–168 BC
Seleucid Empire|  305–64 BC
Ptolemaic Kingdom|  305–30 BC
Kingdom of Pontus|  302–64 BC
Bithynia|  297–74 BC
Attalid kingdom|  282–129 BC
Galatia|  281–64 BC
Parthian Empire|  247 BC–224 AD
Armenian Empire|  190 BC–428 AD
Roman Republic|  133–27 BC
Commagene|  163 BC–72 AD
Ancient Rome|  133 BC-27 BC–330 AD
Sasanian Empire|  224–651 AD (briefly in Anatolia)

Medieval Age

* Medieval Anatolia

| Eastern Roman Empire|  (330–1453; 1204-1261 in exile as Empire of Nicaea)

|

Rashidun Caliphate|  (637–656)
Great Seljuk State|  (1037–1194)
Danishmends|  (1071–1178)
Sultanate of Rum|  (1077–1307)
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|  (1078–1375)
Anatolian beyliks|  (1081–1423)
County of Edessa|  (1098–1150)
Artuqids|  (1101–1409)
Empire of Trebizond|  (1204–1461)
Latin Empire|  (1204–1261)
Karamanids|  (1250–1487)
Ilkhanate|  (1256–1335)
Kara Koyunlu|  (1375–1468)
Ak Koyunlu|  (1378–1501)

Ottoman Era

* Periods of Ottoman Empire

|  Rise|  (1299–1453)

|

Classical Age|  (1453–1566)
Transformation|  (1566–1703)
Old Regime|  (1703–1789)
Decline and modernization|  (1789–1908)
Defeat and dissolution|  (1908–1922)

Republic of Turkey

* Periods of Turkey

|  War of Independence|  (1919–1922)

|

Provisional government|  (1920–1923)
One-party period|  (1923–1930)
(1930–1945)
Multi-party period|  (1945–present)

By topic

* Turkic migration
* Oghuz Turks
* Turkification
* Ancient peoples of Anatolia
* History of Anatolia
* History of Thrace
* Religion
* Islam
* Christianity
* Judaism
* Economic history
* Military history
* Diplomatic history
* Constitutional history
* Cultural history
* Genetic history
* LGBT history

Timeline
Turkey portal

* v
* t
* e

Urartu[b] was an Iron Age kingdom centered around the Armenian highlands between Lake Van, Lake Urmia, and Lake Sevan. The territory of the ancient kingdom of Urartu extended over the modern frontiers of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Armenia.[7][8] Its kings left behind cuneiform inscriptions in the Urartian language, a member of the Hurro-Urartian language family.[8]

The kingdom emerged in the mid-9th century BCE and dominated the Armenian Highlands in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE.[8] Urartu frequently warred with Assyria and became, for a time, the most powerful state in the Near East.[8] Weakened by constant conflict, it was eventually conquered, either by the Iranian Medes in the early 6th century BCE or by Cyrus the Great in the middle of the 6th century BCE.[9][10] Archaeologically, it is noted for its large fortresses and sophisticated metalwork.[8]

## Names and etymology

[edit]

Urartu (Akkadian: ú-ra-áš-tu) is mentioned in the Babylonian Map of the World.[11]

Various names were given to the geographic region and the polity that emerged in the region.

* Urartu/Ararat: The name Urartu (Armenian: Ուրարտու; Assyrian: māt Urarṭu;[6] Babylonian: Urashtu; Hebrew: אֲרָרָט ʾĂrārāṭ) comes from Assyrian sources. Shalmaneser I (1263–1234 BCE) recorded a campaign in which he subdued the entire territory of "Uruatri".[12][13] The Shalmaneser text uses the name Urartu to refer to a geographical region, not a kingdom, and names eight "lands" contained within Urartu (which at the time of the campaign were still disunited). The Assyrian Uruatri seems to correspond with the Azzi of contemporaneous Hittite texts.[14][15] Urartu is cognate with the Biblical Ararat, Akkadian Urashtu, and Armenian Ayrarat.[16][17] In addition to referring to the famous Biblical highlands, Ararat also appears as the name of a kingdom in Jeremiah 51:27, mentioned together with Minni and Ashkenaz. Mount Ararat is located approximately 120 kilometres (75 mi) north of the kingdom's former capital, though the identification of the biblical "mountains of Ararat" with the Mt. Ararat is a modern identification based on postbiblical tradition.[18]
* Biainili/Biaini: The Urartian kings, starting during the co-reign of Ishpuini and his son, Menua, referred to their kingdom as Biainili, or "those of the land of Bia" (sometimes transliterated as Biai or Bias).[19][20] Whoever or whatever "Bia" was remains unclear. It is not to be confused with the nearby land "Biana", which likely became the Armenian Basean (Greek: Phasiane).
* Kingdom of Van (Armenian: Վանի թագավորութիւն, romanized: Vani t′agavorut′yun): A widespread belief is that the Urartian toponym Biainili,[21][22] which was possibly pronounced as Vanele (or Vanili), became Van (Վան) in Old Armenian.[23] The names "Kingdom of Van" and "Vannic Kingdom" were applied to Urartu as a result of this theory and the fact that the Urartian capital, Tushpa, was located near the city of Van and the lake of the same name.
* Nairi: Boris Piotrovsky wrote that the Urartians first appear in history in the 13th century BCE as a league of tribes or countries which did not yet constitute a unitary state. In the Assyrian annals the term Uruatri (Urartu) as a name for this league was superseded during a considerable period of years by the term "land of Nairi".[24] More recent scholarship suggests that Uruatri was a district of Nairi, and perhaps corresponded to the Azzi of contemporaneous Hittite texts.[25][26] Although early rulers of the Kingdom of Urartu referred to their domain as "Nairi" (instead of the later Biainili), some scholars believe that Urartu and Nairi were separate polities. The Assyrians seem to have continued to refer to Nairi as a distinct entity for decades after the establishment of Urartu until Nairi was totally absorbed by Assyria and Urartu in the 8th century BCE.[27]
* Shurili: Linguists John Greppin and Igor M. Diakonoff argued that the Urartians referred to themselves as Shurele (sometimes transliterated as Shurili or Šurili, possibly pronounced as Surili), a name mentioned within the royal titles of the kings of Urartu (e.g. "the king of Šuri-lands").[28][29] The word Šuri has been variously theorized as originally referring to chariots, lances or swords (perhaps related to the Armenian word sur (սուր) meaning "sword"). Others have connected Shurili to an as yet undetermined geographical region, such as Shupria (perhaps an attempt by the ruling dynasty to associate themselves with the Hurrians), Cappadocia,[30] the Ararat plain,[31] or the entire world.[29]
* Armenia: In the late 6th–early 5th century BCE, with the emergence of the Satrapy of Armenia in the region, Urartu (Urashtu in Babylonian) was used as a synonym for Armenia (Old Persian Armina) in the trilingual Behistun Inscription.[32] The name Ararat was translated as Armenia in the 1st century CE in historiographical works[33] and very early Latin translations of the Bible,[34] as well as the Books of Kings[35] and Isaiah in the Septuagint. Some English language translations, including the King James Version,[36] follow the Septuagint translation of Ararat as Armenia.[37] Urartian inscriptions mention lands on the western side of Lake Van called Arme (or Armini) and the nearby districts of Urme and Inner Urumu. It is possible that the name Armenia originates from "Armini," Urartian for "inhabitant of Arme" or "Armean country".[38][16][17] The Arme tribe of Urartian texts may have been the Urumu, who in the 12th century BCE attempted to invade Assyria from the north with their allies the Mushki and the Kaskians. The Urumu apparently settled in the vicinity of Sason, lending their name to the regions of Arme and the nearby Urme and Inner Urumu.[39]

## History

[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

### Origins

[edit]

Urartu under Arame of Urartu, 860–840 BCE

Assyrian inscriptions of Shalmaneser I (c. 1274 BCE) first mention Uruatri as one of the states of Nairi, a loose confederation of small kingdoms and tribal states in the Armenian Highlands in the thirteenth to eleventh centuries BCE which he conquered. Uruartri itself was in the region around Lake Van. The Nairi states were repeatedly subjected to further attacks and invasions by the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empires, which lay to the south in Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria, especially under Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1240 BCE), Tiglath-Pileser I (c. 1100 BC), Ashur-bel-kala (c. 1070 BCE), Adad-nirari II (c. 900 BCE), Tukulti-Ninurta II (c. 890 BCE), and Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE).

Urartu reemerged in Assyrian language inscriptions in the ninth century BCE as a powerful northern rival to the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Nairi states and tribes became unified kingdom under Arame (c. 860–843 BCE), whose capitals, first at Sugunia and then at Arzashkun, were captured by the Assyrians under the Neo-Assyrian emperor Shalmaneser III.

Urartologist Paul Zimansky speculated that the Urartians, or at least their ruling family after Arame, may have emigrated northwest into the Lake Van region from their religious capital of Musasir.[40] According to Zimansky, the Urartian ruling class were few in number and governed over an ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse population. Zimansky went so far as to suggest that the kings of Urartu might have come from various ethnic backgrounds themselves.[41]

It has long been thought some of the kings of Urartu may have born names with Indo-European etymologies, perhaps suggesting they had ancestry (or at the very least, influence) from neighboring Indo-European peoples, such as the Mushki and Urumu.[42]

### Growth

[edit]

Fragment of a bronze helmet from Argishti I's era. The "tree of life", popular among the ancient societies, is depicted. The helmet was discovered during the excavations of the fortress Of Teyshebaini on Karmir-Blur (Red Hill).

Assyria fell into a period of temporary stagnation for decades during the first half of the 9th century BCE, which had aided Urartu's growth. Within a short time it became one of the largest and most powerful states in the Near East.[41]

Sarduri I (c. 832–820 BCE), the son of Lutipri, established a new dynasty and successfully resisted Assyrian attacks from the south led by Shalmaneser III, consolidated the military power of the state, and moved the capital to Tushpa (modern Van, Turkey, on the shore of Lake Van). His son, Ispuini (c. 820–800 BCE) annexed the neighbouring state of Musasir, which became an important religious centre of the Urartian Kingdom, and introduced the cult of Ḫaldi.[41]

Ispuini was also the first Urartian king to write in the Urartian language (previous kings left records written in Akkadian).[41] He made his son Sarduri II viceroy. After conquering Musasir, Ispuini was in turn attacked by Shamshi-Adad V. His co-regent and subsequent successor, Menua (c. 800–785 BCE) also enlarged the kingdom greatly and left inscriptions over a wide area. During Ispuini's and Menua's joint rule, they shifted from referring to their territory as Nairi, instead opting for Bianili.[41]

Urartu reached the highest point of its military might under Menua's son Argishti I (c. 785–760 BCE), becoming one of the most powerful kingdoms of ancient Near East. Argishti I added more territories along the Aras and Lake Sevan, and frustrated Shalmaneser IV's campaigns against him. Argishti also founded several new cities, most notably Erebuni in 782 BCE. 6600 prisoners of war from Hatti and Supani were settled in the new city.[43][44]

Niche and base for a destroyed Urartian stele, Van citadel, 1973.

At its height, the Urartu kingdom stretched north beyond the Aras and Lake Sevan, encompassing present-day Armenia and even the southern part of present-day Georgia almost to the shores of the Black Sea; west to the sources of the Euphrates; east to present-day Tabriz, Lake Urmia, and beyond; and south to the sources of the Tigris.[citation needed]

Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria defeated Sarduri II of Urartu in the first year of his reign (745 BCE). There the Assyrians found horsemen and horses, tamed as colts for riding, that were unequalled in the south, where they were harnessed to Assyrian war-chariots.[45]

### Decline and recuperation

[edit]

In 714 BCE, the Urartian kingdom suffered heavily from Cimmerian raids and the campaigns of Sargon II. The main temple at Musasir was sacked, and the Urartian king Rusa I was crushingly defeated by Sargon II at Lake Urmia. He subsequently committed suicide in shame.[46]

Rusa's son Argishti II (714–685 BCE) restored Urartu's position against the Cimmerians, however it was no longer a threat to Assyria and peace was made with the new king of Assyria Sennacherib in 705 BC. This, in turn, helped Urartu enter a long period of development and prosperity, which continued through the reign of Argishti's son Rusa II (685–645 BCE).

After Rusa II, however, Urartu grew weaker under constant attacks from Cimmerian and Scythian invaders. As a result, it became dependent on Assyria, as evidenced by Rusa II's son Sarduri III (645–635 BCE) referring to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal as his "father".[47][48]

### Fall

[edit]

Urartian stone arch near Van, 1973. [citation needed]

According to Urartian epigraphy, Sarduri III was followed by two kings—Rusa III (also known as Rusa Erimenahi) (620–609 BCE) and his son, Rusa IV (609–590 or 585 BC). There is speculation that Rusa III's father, Erimena, may have been a king as well, possibly ruling from 635 to 620 BCE, but little is known about him. It is possible that Rusa III established a new dynasty and that his father, Erimena, had not been king.[49][50]

Late during the 7th century BCE (during or after Sarduri III's reign), Urartu was invaded by Scythians and their allies—the Medes. In 612 BC, the Median king Cyaxares the Great together with Nabopolassar of Babylon and the Scythians conquered Assyria after it had been irreversibly weakened by civil war. The Medes then took over the Urartian capital of Van in 590 BCE, effectively ending the sovereignty of Urartu.[51][52] However, some historians believe that Urartu survived until the middle of the 6th century BC and was eventually destroyed by Cyrus the Great.[10] Many Urartian ruins of the period show evidence of destruction by fire.

### Appearance of Armenia

[edit]

Main article: Satrapy of Armenia

Further information: Origin of the Armenians

Urartian tomb complex, Van citadel, 1973.

The Kingdom of Van was destroyed in 590 BCE[53] and by the late 6th century, the Satrapy of Armenia had replaced it.[54] Little is known of what happened to the region between the fall of the Kingdom of Van and the appearance of the Satrapy of Armenia. According to historian Touraj Daryaee, during the Armenian rebellion against the Persian king Darius I in 521 BC, some of the personal and topographic names attested in connection with Armenia or Armenians were of Urartian origin, suggesting that Urartian elements persisted within Armenia after its fall.[55] However, other historians have offered Armenian etymologies for at least some of these names.[56] The trilingual Behistun Inscription left by Darius in the mid-6th century BCE refers to "Armenia" and "Armenians" in its Persian and Elamite texts as synonyms for the "Urartu" and "Urartians" in its Babylonian translation.[32] The toponym Urartu did not disappear, however, as the name of the province of Ayrarat in the center of the Kingdom of Armenia is believed to be its continuum.[57]

Urartian royal tomb. Van citadel, 1973

As the Armenian identity developed in the region, the memory of Urartu faded and disappeared.[58] Parts of its history passed down as popular stories and were preserved in Armenia, as written by Movses Khorenatsi in the form of garbled legends[59][60] in his 5th century book History of Armenia, where he speaks of a first Armenian Kingdom in Van which fought wars against the Assyrians. Khorenatsi's stories of these wars with Assyria would help in the rediscovery of Urartu.[61]

According to Herodotus, the Alarodians (Alarodioi) were part of the 18th Satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and formed a special contingent in the grand army of Xerxes I.[62] Some scholars have tried to link the Alarodians to Urartians, suggesting that Alarodian was a variation of the name Urartian/'Araratian. According to this theory, the Urartians of the 18th Satrapy were subsequently absorbed into the Armenian nation.[63] Modern historians, however, have cast doubt on the Alarodian connection to the Urartians.[64]

Since its re-discovery in the 19th century, Urartu, which is commonly believed to have been at least partially Armenian-speaking,[3][65][66][67][68] has played a significant role in Armenian nationalism.[69]

## Geography

[edit]

Urartu 715–713 BC

Urartu comprised an area of approximately 200,000 square miles (520,000 km2), extending from the Euphrates in the West to Lake Urmia in the East and from the Caucasus Mountains south towards the Zagros Mountains in northern Iraq.[8] More specifically, Urartu was an area directly surrounded by the mountain chains of the eastern Pontus at the north, the Lesser Caucasus at to the northeast, and the Taurus mountains at the south.[70] It was centred around Lake Van, which is located in present-day eastern Anatolia.[71]

At its apogee, Urartu stretched from the borders of northern Mesopotamia to the southern Caucasus, including present-day Turkey, Nakhchivan,[72] Armenia and southern Georgia. The Taurus mountains also served as a natural barrier against southern threats, particularly from the Assyrians.[70]

Archaeological sites associated with Urartu include Altintepe, Toprakkale, Patnos, Sardurihinilli (Çavuştepe), Erebuni Fortress, Van Fortress, Argishtihinili, Anzaf, Başkale, as well as Teishebaini (Karmir Blur) and others.

## Discovery

[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

A Urartian Bulanık Stele, Bitlis Ahlat Museum. Arinçkus Argishti I Stele belonging to the Urartian King Argishti I, dated between 785 BC and 756 BC, Bitlis Ahlat Museum A Urartian cauldron, in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara Head of a Bull, Urartu, 8th century BC. This head was attached to the rim of an enormous cauldron similar to the one shown above. Walters Art Museum collections.  Silver bucket from Urartu in the Museum zu Allerheiligen in Schaffhausen Switzerland, allegedly from the tomb of Prince Inuspua, 810 BC

Inspired by the writings of the medieval Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi (who had described Urartian works in Van and attributed them to the legendary Ara the Beautiful and Queen Semiramis), the French scholar Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin suggested that his government send Friedrich Eduard Schulz, a German professor, to the Van area in 1827 on behalf of the French Oriental Society.[73] Schulz discovered and copied numerous cuneiform inscriptions, partly in Assyrian and partly in a hitherto unknown language. Schulz also discovered the Kelishin stele, bearing an Assyrian-Urartian bilingual inscription, located on the Kelishin pass on the current Iraqi-Iranian border. A summary account of his initial discoveries was published in 1828. Schulz and four of his servants were murdered by Kurds in 1829 near Başkale. His notes were later recovered and published in Paris in 1840. In 1828, the British Assyriologist Henry Creswicke Rawlinson had attempted to copy the inscription on the Kelishin stele, but failed because of the ice on the stele's front side. The German scholar R. Rosch made a similar attempt a few years later, but he and his party were attacked and killed.

In the late 1840s Sir Austen Henry Layard examined and described the Urartian rock-cut tombs of Van Castle, including the Argishti chamber. From the 1870s, local residents began to plunder the Toprakkale ruins, selling its artefacts to European collections. In the 1880s this site underwent a poorly executed excavation organised by Hormuzd Rassam on behalf of the British Museum. Almost nothing was properly documented.

The first systematic collection of Urartian inscriptions, and thus the beginning of Urartology as a specialized field dates to the 1870s, with the campaign of Sir Archibald Henry Sayce. The German engineer Karl Sester, discoverer of Mount Nemrut, collected more inscriptions in 1890/1. Waldemar Belck visited the area in 1891, discovering the Rusa stele. A further expedition planned for 1893 was prevented by Turkish-Armenian hostilities. Belck together with Lehmann-Haupt visited the area again in 1898/9, excavating Toprakkale. On this expedition, Belck reached the Kelishin stele, but he was attacked by Kurds and barely escaped with his life. Belck and Lehmann-Haupt reached the stele again in a second attempt, but were again prevented from copying the inscription by weather conditions. After another assault on Belck provoked the diplomatic intervention of Wilhelm II, Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to pay Belck a sum of 80,000 gold marks in reparation. During World War I, the Lake Van region briefly fell under Russian control. In 1916, the Russian scholars Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr and Iosif Abgarovich Orbeli, excavating at the Van fortress, uncovered a four-faced stele carrying the annals of Sarduri II. In 1939 Boris Piotrovsky excavated Karmir Blur, discovering Teišebai, the city of the god of war, Teišeba. Excavations by the American scholars Kirsopp and Silva Lake in 1938-40 were cut short by World War II, and most of their finds and field records were lost when a German submarine torpedoed their ship, the SS Athenia. Their surviving documents were published by Manfred Korfmann in 1977.

A new phase of excavations began after the war. Excavations were at first restricted to Soviet Armenia. The fortress of Karmir Blur, dating from the reign of Rusa II, was excavated by a team headed by Boris Piotrovsky, and for the first time the excavators of a Urartian site published their findings systematically. Beginning in 1956 Charles A. Burney identified and sketch-surveyed many Urartian sites in the Lake Van area and, from 1959, a Turkish expedition under Tahsin Özgüç excavated Altintepe and Arif Erzen.

In the late 1960s, Urartian sites in northwest Iran were excavated. In 1976, an Italian team led by Mirjo Salvini finally reached the Kelishin stele, accompanied by a heavy military escort. The Gulf War then closed these sites to archaeological research. Oktay Belli resumed excavation of Urartian sites on Turkish territory: in 1989 Ayanis, a 7th-century BC fortress built by Rusas II of Urartu, was discovered 35 km north of Van. In spite of excavations, only a third to a half of the 300 known Urartian sites in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Armenia have been examined by archaeologists (Wartke 1993). Without protection, many sites have been plundered by local residents searching for treasure and other saleable antiquities.

## Economy and politics

[edit]

Main article: Economy of Urartu

The economic structure of Urartu was similar to other states of the ancient world, especially Assyria. The state was heavily dependent on agriculture, which required centralized irrigation. These works were managed by kings, but implemented by free inhabitants and possibly slave labour provided by prisoners. Royal governors, influential people and, perhaps, free peoples had their own allotments. Individual territories within the state had to pay taxes the central government: grain, horses, bulls, etc. In peacetime, Urartu probably led an active trade with Assyria, providing cattle, horses, iron and wine.

Agriculture in Urartu |  |  |  |

|
|
|
|

Part of iron pitchfork, found near Lake Van and Iron plowshare, found during excavations in Rusahinili (Toprakkale).  | Urartian saddle quern

According to archaeological data, farming on the territory of Urartu developed from the Neolithic, even in the 3rd millennium BC. In the Urartian age, agriculture was well developed and closely related to Assyrian methods on the selection of cultures and methods of processing.[74] From cuneiform sources, it is known that in Urartu grew wheat, barley, sesame, millet, and emmer, and cultivated gardens and vineyards. Many regions of the Urartu state required artificial irrigation, which has successfully been organized by the rulers of Urartu in the heyday of the state. In several regions remain ancient irrigation canals, constructed by Urartu, mainly during the Argishti I and Menua period, some of which are still used for irrigation.

## Art and architecture

[edit]

Main articles: Art of Urartu and Architecture of Urartu

Bronze figurine of the winged goddess Tushpuea, with suspension hook

There is a number of remains of sturdy stone architecture, as well as some mud brick, especially when it has been burnt, which helps survival. Stone remains are mainly fortresses and walls, with temples and mausolea, and many rock-cut tombs. The style, which developed regional variations, shows a distinct character, partly because of the greater use of stone compared to neighbouring cultures. The typical temple was square, with stone walls as thick as the open internal area but using mud brick for the higher part. These were placed at the highest point of a citadel and from surviving depictions were high, perhaps with gabled roofs; their emphasis on verticality has been claimed as an influence of later Christian Armenian architecture.[75]

The art of Urartu is especially notable for fine lost-wax bronze objects: weapons, figurines, vessels including grand cauldrons that were used for sacrifices, fittings for furniture, and helmets. There are also remains of ivory and bone carvings, frescos, cylinder seals and of course pottery. In general their style is a somewhat less sophisticated blend of influences from neighbouring cultures. Archaeology has produced relatively few examples of the jewellery in precious metals that the Assyrians boasted of carrying off in great quantities from Musasir in 714 BC.[75]

## Religion

[edit]

A modern depiction of the god Ḫaldi based on Urartian originals

See also: Urartu religion

The Urartian pantheon seems to have comprised a diverse mix of Hurrian, Akkadian, Armenian, and Hittite deities.[76]

Starting with the reign of Ishpuini, the Urartian pantheon was headed by a triad made up of Ḫaldi (the supreme god), Theispas (Teisheba, god of thunder and storms, as well as sometimes war), and Shivini (a solar god). Their king was also the chief-priest or envoy of Ḫaldi. Some temples to Ḫaldi were part of the royal palace complex, while others were independent structures.

With the expansion of Urartian territory, many of the gods worshipped by conquered peoples were incorporated into the Urartian pantheon as a means of confirming the annexation of territories and promoting political stability. Some main gods and goddesses of the Urartian pantheon include:[77]

* Ḫaldi
* Theispas
* Shivini (Siuini)
* Arubani (Bagvarti)
* Hutuini
* Sebitu
* Kuera
* Tushpuea
* Selardi or Melardi
* Baba
* Arṭuʾarasau

Ḫaldi was not a native Urartian god but apparently an obscure Akkadian deity (which explains the location of the main temple of worship for Ḫaldi in Musasir, believed to be near modern Rawandiz, Iraq).[78] Ḫaldi was not initially worshiped by the Urartians as their chief god. His cult does not appear to have been introduced until the reign of Ishpuini.[78]

Theispas was a version of the Hurrian god, Teshub.[79]

According to Diakonoff and Vyacheslav Ivanov, Shivini (likely pronounced Shiwini or Siwini) was likely borrowed from the Hittites.[80]

On the Gate of Mehr (Mehri-Dur), overlooking modern Van, an inscription lists a total of 79 deities, and what type of sacrificial offerings should be made to each; goats, sheep, cattle, and other animals served as the sacrificial offerings. Urartians did not practice human sacrifice.[81]

A number of the gods mentioned in the Gate of Mehr may be of Armenian origins,[76] including Ara (or Arwaa),[82] and possibly the goddess Selardi (although there is confusion about this deity's gender and name, some believe it is to be read Melardi).[82][83][84]

It has been suggested that the Urartian pantheon could correspond to mountain peaks located within the Armenian Highlands.[85]

## Language

[edit]

The modern name of the written language used by the kingdom's political elite is Urartian; the language is attested in numerous cuneiform inscriptions throughout Armenia and eastern Turkey. It is unknown what other languages were spoken by the peoples of Urartu under the Kingdom of Van, but there is evidence of linguistic contact between the proto-Armenian language and the Urartian language at an early date (sometime between the 3rd—2nd millennium BCE), before the formation of the kingdom.[3][86][87][88][89]

The Urartian language was probably only spoken by a relatively small population who comprised a ruling class.[90]

The first Urartian kings left inscriptions in Akkadian.[2] During the reign of Ishpuini, the Urartian language began to be used for inscriptions.[2] The Urartian language ceased to be written following the dissolution of the state.[91]

### Urartian language

[edit]

Main article: Urartian language

"Urartian" is the modern name for the extinct language used in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Kingdom of Urartu, starting during the reign of Ishpuini. Its only known relative is Hurrian; together they form the small Hurro-Urartian language family. Other names used to refer to the language are "Khaldian" ("Ḫaldian"), or "neo-Hurrian". The latter term is considered problematic, however, as it is now thought that Urartian and Hurrian share a common ancestor; formerly, it was thought that Urartian was descended from, or a dialect of, Hurrian.[64] In fact, according to Paul Zimansky:

> The earliest dialect of Hurrian, seen in the Tiš-atal royal inscription and reconstructed from various early second millennium B.C.E. sources, shows features that disappeared in later Hurrian but are present in Urartian (Wilhelm 1988:63). In short, the more we discover or deduce about the earliest stages of Hurrian, the more it looks like Urartian (Gragg 1995:2170).

The Urartian language is an ergative-absolutive, agglutinative language, which belongs to neither the Semitic nor the Indo-European languages families, but to the Hurro-Urartian language family, which is not known to be related to any other language or language family, despite repeated attempts to find genetic links.

Examples of the Urartian language have survived in many inscriptions, written in the Assyrian cuneiform script, found throughout the area of the Kingdom of Urartu. Although, the bulk of the cuneiform inscriptions within Urartu were written in the Urartian language, a minority of them were also written in Akkadian (the official language of Assyria).

There are also claims of autochthonous Urartian hieroglyphs, but this remains uncertain.[92] Unlike the cuneiform inscriptions, Urartian hieroglyphs have not been successfully deciphered. As a result, scholars disagree as to what language is used, or whether they even constitute writing at all.

Urartian cuneiform recording the foundation of Erebuni Fortress by Argishti.

The Kingdom of Urartu, during its dominance, had united disparate tribes, each of which had its own culture and traditions. Thus, when the political structure was destroyed, little remained that could be identified as one unified Urartian culture.[93] According to Zimansky:[94]

> Far from being grounded on long standing cultural uniformities, [Urartu] was merely a superstructure of authority, below which there was plenty of room for the groups to manifest in the Anatolia of Xenophon to flourish. We need not hypothesize massive influxes of new peoples, ethnic replacement, or any very great mechanisms of cultural change. The Armenians, Carduchoi, Chaldaioi, and Taochoi could easily have been there all along, accommodated and concealed within the structure of command established by the Urartian kings.

### Proto-Armenian language

[edit]

Main article: Proto-Armenian language

The presence of existence of Urartian words in the Armenian language and Armenian loanwords into Urartian[95] suggests early contact between the two languages and long periods of bilingualism.[65][28] The presence of toponyms, tribal names, and deities of probable Proto-Armenian etymologies which are attested in records left by Urartian kings, such as Uelikuni, Uduri-Etiuni, Abiliani, and Arzashkun, the personal names Arame and Diuṣini, and the deities Arṣibedini and Aniqu, further supports the presence of an Armenian speaking population in at least the northern regions of Urartu.[96][95][97][65][28][98][76] The Urartian confederation united the disparate peoples of the highlands, which began a process of intermingling of the peoples and cultures (probably including Armenian tribes) and languages (probably including Proto-Armenian) within the highlands. This intermixing would ultimately culminate in the emergence of the Armenian language as the dominant language within the region.[88]

A theory, supported by the official historiography of Armenia and experts in Assyrian and Urartian studies such as Igor M. Diakonoff, Giorgi Melikishvili, Mikhail Nikolsky, and Ivan Mestchaninov, suggests that Urartian was solely the formal written language of the state, while its inhabitants, including the royal family, spoke Proto-Armenian. This theory primarily hinges on the fact that the Urartian language used in the cuneiform inscriptions were very repetitive and scant in vocabulary (having as little as 350–400 roots). Furthermore, over 250 years of usage, it shows no development, which is taken to indicate that the language had ceased to be spoken before the time of the inscriptions or was used only for official purposes.[citation needed]

A complementary theory, suggested by Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in 1984, places the Proto-Indo-European homeland (the location where Indo-European would have emerged from) in the Armenian Highlands, which would entail the presence of proto-Armenians in the area during the entire lifetime of the Urartian state.[99] Although this theory has less support than the more popular Kurgan hypothesis, the Armenian hypothesis would support the theory that the Urartian language was not spoken, but simply written, and postulates that the Armenian language was an in situ development of a 3rd millennium BC Proto-Indo-European language.[99]

In a study published in 2017,[100] the complete mitochondrial genomes of 4 ancient skeletons from Urartu were analyzed alongside other ancient populations found in modern-day Armenia and Artsakh spanning 7,800 years. The study shows that modern-day Armenians are the people who have the least genetic distance from those ancient skeletons. As well, some scholars asserted that the Urartians are the most easily identifiable ancestors of the Armenians.[88][101][102][103]

A 2022 study found that Urartian-era samples from northern Iran possessed ancestry patrilineally related to earlier Bronze Age samples from Armenia. Both groups were discovered to be related to the Yamnaya, who are commonly thought to have been the speakers of Proto-Indo-European. Due to these connections, the researchers suggested the population of Urartian-era northern Iran may have spoken a language connected to Armenian.[104]

## See also

[edit]

* Asia portal

* Hurrians
* Hurro-Urartian languages
* Nairi
* Mushki
* Urumeans
* Etiuni
* Mannaeans
* Architecture of Urartu
* Economy of Urartu
* List of kings of Urartu
* Orontid Armenia

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ See names and etymology.
2. ^ /ʊˈrɑːrtuː/; Armenian: Ուրարտու; Assyrian: māt Urarṭu,[6] Babylonian: Urashtu, Hebrew: אֲרָרָט, Ararat

## References

[edit]

### Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ Nunn, Astrid (2011-05-15). "« The Median 'Empire', the End of Urartu and Cyrus the Great's Campaign in 547 BCE (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16) ». Ancient West & East 7, 2008, p. 51-66". Abstracta Iranica. Revue bibliographique pour le domaine irano-aryen (in French). 31. doi:10.4000/abstractairanica.39422. ISSN 0240-8910. "Après citation des passages pertinents, analyse des toponymes et une nouvelle lecture de la Chronique de Nabonide II 16, dont le nom géographique clef doit être lu « Urartu », il reste : Cyrus le Grand a « marché vers Urartu et vaincu son roi ». Urartu n'a donc pas été détruit par les Mèdes à la fin du VIIe s. mais a continué à exister comme entité politique jusqu'au milieu du VIe s. La Chronique de Nabonide (II 16) montre bien que la conquête de Cyrus le Grand mit fin à ce royaume."
2. ^ a b c Van de Mieroop, Marc (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BCE. Blackwell Publishing. p. 215. Cite error: The named reference "Van de Mieroop 2007 215" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
3. ^ a b c Diakonoff, Igor M (1992). "First Evidence of the Proto-Armenian Language in Eastern Anatolia". Annual of Armenian Linguistics. 13: 51–54\. ISSN 0271-9800.51-54&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0271-9800&rft.aulast=Diakonoff&rft.aufirst=Igor+M&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
4. ^ Avia Taffet; Jak Yakar (1998). "Politics and religion in Urartu". In Takahito, Prince Mikasa (ed.). Essays on Ancient Anatolia in the Second Millennium B.C. Bulletin of the Middle Eastern Culture Center in Japan. Vol. 10\. Chūkintō-Bunka-Sentā Tōkyō: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 133–140\. ISBN 978-3-447-03967-3. ISSN 0177-1647.133-140&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=0177-1647&rft.isbn=978-3-447-03967-3&rft.au=Avia+Taffet&rft.au=Jak+Yakar&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=O60Ho5bIErcC&pg;=PA133&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
5. ^ Nunn, Astrid (2011-05-15). "« The Median 'Empire', the End of Urartu and Cyrus the Great's Campaign in 547 BCE (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16) ». Ancient West & East 7, 2008, p. 51-66". Abstracta Iranica. Revue bibliographique pour le domaine irano-aryen (in French). 31. doi:10.4000/abstractairanica.39422. ISSN 0240-8910. "Après citation des passages pertinents, analyse des toponymes et une nouvelle lecture de la Chronique de Nabonide II 16, dont le nom géographique clef doit être lu « Urartu », il reste : Cyrus le Grand a « marché vers Urartu et vaincu son roi ». Urartu n'a donc pas été détruit par les Mèdes à la fin du VIIe s. mais a continué à exister comme entité politique jusqu'au milieu du VIe s. La Chronique de Nabonide (II 16) montre bien que la conquête de Cyrus le Grand mit fin à ce royaume."
6. ^ a b Eberhard Schrader, The Cuneiform inscriptions and the Old Testament (1885), p. 65.
7. ^ Kleiss, Wolfram (2008). "URARTU IN IRAN". Encyclopædia Iranica.
8. ^ a b c d e f Zimansky, Paul E. (2011-01-01). "Urartu". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-506512-1. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
9. ^ Jacobson, Esther (1995). The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World. BRILL. p. 33\. ISBN 978-90-04-09856-5.
10. ^ a b Nunn, Astrid (2011-05-15). "« The Median 'Empire', the End of Urartu and Cyrus the Great's Campaign in 547 BC (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16) ». Ancient West & East 7, 2008, p. 51-66". Abstracta Iranica. Revue bibliographique pour le domaine irano-aryen (in French). 31. doi:10.4000/abstractairanica.39422. ISSN 0240-8910. "Après citation des passages pertinents, analyse des toponymes et une nouvelle lecture de la Chronique de Nabonide II 16, dont le nom géographique clef doit être lu « Urartu », il reste : Cyrus le Grand a « marché vers Urartu et vaincu son roi ». Urartu n'a donc pas été détruit par les Mèdes à la fin du VIIe s. mais a continué à exister comme entité politique jusqu'au milieu du VIe s. La Chronique de Nabonide (II 16) montre bien que la conquête de Cyrus le Grand mit fin à ce royaume."
11. ^ Horowitz, Wayne (1988). "The Babylonian Map of the World". Iraq. 50. British Institute for the Study of Iraq: 147–165\. doi:10.2307/4200289. JSTOR 4200289.147-165&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/4200289&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200289#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Horowitz&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
12. ^ Abram Rigg Jr., Horace. "A Note on the Names Armânum and Urartu". Journal of the American Oriental Society, 57/4 (December 1937), pp. 416–418.
13. ^ Zimansky, Paul E. Ancient Ararat: A Handbook of Urartian Studies. Delmar, New York: Caravan Books, 1998, p. 28. ISBN 0-88206-091-0.
14. ^ Trevor Bryce. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 310. 2009.
15. ^ Aram Kosyan. "Towards the Hittite Eastern Periphery". Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. VI. Issue 2. 2011. pp. 91–92.
16. ^ a b Lang, David Marshall. Armenia: Cradle of Civilization. London: Allen and Unwin, 1970, p. 114. ISBN 0-04-956007-7.
17. ^ a b Redgate, Anna Elizabeth. The Armenians. Cornwall: Blackwell, 1998, pp. 16–19, 23, 25, 26 (map), 30–32, 38, 43. ISBN 0-631-22037-2.
18. ^ Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (2000-12-31). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.
19. ^ Paul Zimansky. "Urartian and Urartians". In Sharon R. Steadman, Gregory McMahon (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (10,000–323 BCE). Oxford University Press. 2001. p. 549.
20. ^ Birgit Christiansen. "Granaries in Urartu and Neighboring States and the Monumentalization of Administrative Records". In Pavel S. Avestisyan, Roberto Dan, Yervand H. Grekyan (eds.). Over the Mountains and Far Away. Archaeopress Archaeology. 2019. pp. 137, 140.
21. ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (2000), "'Van in This World; Paradise in the Next': The Historical Geography of Van/Vaspurakan", in Hovannisian, Richard G. (ed.), Armenian Van/Vaspurakan, Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, p. 13, OCLC 44774992
22. ^ A. Y. Movsisyan, "The hieroglyphic script of van kingdom (Biainili, Urartu, Ararat)", Publishing House Gitutyun of NAS RA, Yerevan 1998.
23. ^ I. M. Diakonoff, "The Pre-history of the Armenian People". Delmar, New York (1968), p. 72.
24. ^ Piotrovsky, Boris B. The Ancient Civilization of Urartu. New York: Cowles Book Co., Inc., 1969, 51.
25. ^ Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. Taylor & Francis.
26. ^ Kosyan, Aram (2011). "Towards the Hittite Eastern Periphery". Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. VI (2): 91–92.
27. ^ Paul Zimansky. Ecology and Empire: The Structure of the Urartian State. pp. 49–50.
28. ^ a b c Greppin, John A. C.; Diakonoff, I. M. (October–December 1991). "Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians" (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society. 111 (4): 727. doi:10.2307/603403. JSTOR 603403.
29. ^ a b Zimansky, Paul. Ecology and Empire: The Structure of the Urartian State. 1985. p. 67.
30. ^ Simon, Zsolt (2012). "Where is the Land of Sura of the Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscription KARKAMIŠ A4b and Why Were Cappadocians Called Syrians by Greeks?". Altorientalische Forschungen. 39 (1): 167–180\. doi:10.1524/aofo.2012.0011. ISSN 0232-8461. S2CID 163257058.167-180&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163257058#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0232-8461&rft_id=info:doi/10.1524/aofo.2012.0011&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Zsolt&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/1404033&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
31. ^ Payne, M. R.; Ceylan, A. (2003). "A new Urartian inscription from Ağri-Pirabat" (PDF). Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. XLV (2): 191–201.191-201&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rft.au=Ceylan,+A.&rft_id=http://smea.isma.cnr.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Payne-Ceylan_A-New-Urartian-Inscription-from-Agri-Pirabat.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
32. ^ a b Oriental Studies in the USSR. Indiana University: Nauka Publishers, Central Department of Oriental Literature. 1988. p. 312\. "In his view, the first Armenian state was the kingdom of "The House of Togarmah" in the area of Melid (Melitene, modern Malatya) on ... Here, as we know from the abovementionaed inscriptions, "Armenia" and "Urartu" were synonyms ..."
33. ^ Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by Whiston, William. 1.3.5 - via PACE: Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement.
34. ^ "The Book of Genesis: Chapter 8". LatinVulgate.com. Mental Systems. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
35. ^ 2 kings 19:37
36. ^ 2 kings 19:37
37. ^ Brand, Chad; Mitchell, Eric; et al. (November 2015). Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-9935-3.
38. ^ Armen Petrosyan. "The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic". Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. p. 184.
39. ^ Armen Petrosyan. [1] "The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic"]. Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. pp. 166–167.
40. ^ Zimansky, Paul Urartu and the Urartians, pp. 557
41. ^ a b c d e Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire, Paul Zimansky, Page 103 of 103-115
42. ^ Armen Petrosyan. "On the ethnic origin of the ruling elite of Urartu." Over the Mountains and Far Away: Studies in Near Eastern history and archaeology: presented to Mirjo Salvini on occassion of his 80th birthday. eds. Pavel S. Avetisyan, Robert Dan, Yervand H. Grekyan. Archaeopress Archaeology. 2019. pp. 386-391. https://www.academia.edu/46876602/On_the_ethnic_origin_of_the_ruling_elite_of_Urartu
43. ^ Adam T. Smith. The Political Landscape: Constellations of Authority in Early Complex Polities. University of California Press. 2003. [2]
44. ^ (in Armenian) Hovhannisyan, Konstantine. «էրեբունի» (Erebuni). Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. vol. iv. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1979, pp. 90-91.
45. ^ D.D. Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, (1927, vol II:84), quoted in Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer (2008:17).
46. ^ Roux, Georges (1966). \- Ancient Iraq page 314. Penguin. p. 314\. ISBN 978-0-14-020828-3.
47. ^ Journal of Ancient History 1951, No 3. Pages. 243–244
48. ^ Letter of Ashubanipal to Sarduri III. HABL, № 1242.
49. ^ Michael Roaf. "Thureau-Dangin, Lehmann-Haupt, Rusa Sardurihi and Rusa Erimenahi." Aramadz: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Vol. V. Issue I. 2010. https://www.academia.edu/30995418/Thureau_Dangin_Lehmann_Haupt_Rusa_Sardurihi_and_Rusa_Erimenahi
50. ^ Michael Roaf. "Could Rusa son of Erimena have been king of Urartu during Sargon's Eighth Campaign?" BIAINILI-URARTU The Proceedings of the Symposium held in Munich 12–14 October 2007. https://www.academia.edu/30995381/Could_Rusa_son_of_Erimena_have_been_king_of_Urartu_during_Sargon_s_Eighth_Campaign_
51. ^ Chahin, M. (2001). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Psychology Press. p. 107\. ISBN 978-0-7007-1452-0.
52. ^ Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1994). Badmoutioun Hayots, Volume I (in Armenian). Hradaragoutioun Azkayin Oussoumnagan Khorhourti. pp. 46–48.46-48&rft.pub=Hradaragoutioun+Azkayin+Oussoumnagan+Khorhourti&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Kurdoghlian&rft.aufirst=Mihran&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
53. ^ "Urartu – Lost Kingdom of Van". Archived from the original on 2015-07-02. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
54. ^ Van de Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East c. 3000 – 323 BC. Cornwall: Blackwell, 2007, p. 217. ISBN 1-4051-4911-6.
55. ^ Daryaee, Touraj The Fall of Urartu and the Rise of Armenia, 2018, pp. 39.[3]
56. ^ Gregory E. Areshian. "Bīsotūn, ‘Urartians’ and ‘Armenians’ of the Achaemenid Texts, and the Origins of the Exonyms Armina and Arminiya." Over the Mountains and Far Away: Studies in Near Eastern history and archaeology: presented to Mirjo Salvini on occassion of his 80th birthday. eds. Pavel S. Avetisyan, Robert Dan, Yervand H. Grekyan. Archaeopress Archaeology. 2019. p. 8.
57. ^ Hewsen, R. H. "AYRARAT". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
58. ^ Armen Asher The Peoples of Ararat. 2009, p. 291. ISBN 978-1-4392-2567-7.
59. ^ Edwards, I. E. S., ed. (1970–2005). The Cambridge ancient history (3rd ed.). Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 314. ISBN 978-0-521-85073-5. OCLC 121060. "In 1828, a French scholar, J. St Martin, [...] began to grope towards an explanation by connecting [Urartian cuneiform inscriptions] with the garbled legends preserved by an Armenian chronicler, Moses of Khorene (Moses Khorenatsi), probably of the eighth century A.D., according to whom the region was invaded from Assyria by a great army under its queen Semiramis who built a wondrous fortified city, citadel, and palaces at Van itself beside the lake. [...] It is clear that by the time of Moses of Khorene all other memory of this kingdom [Kingdom of Urartu], once the deadly rival of Assyria itself, had been forgotten and remained so, except for these popular legends."
60. ^ Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan. (2000–2005). Hacikyan, A. J. (ed.). The heritage of Armenian literature. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. pp. 31. ISBN 978-0-8143-2815-6. OCLC 42477084. "The story [of the legend of Hayk] retains a few remote memories from tribal times, and reflects the struggles between Urartu-Ararat and Assyro-Babylonia from the ninth to the seventh centuries B.C. The tale had evolved through the ages, and by the time Movses Khorenatsi heard it and put it into writing, it had already acquired a coherent structure and literary style."
61. ^ Çilingiroğlu, Altan; Darbyshire, G., eds. (2005). Anatolian Iron Ages 5. Fifth Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium held at Van, 6-10 August 2001. London: British Institute at Ankara. p. 146\. ISBN 978-1-912090-57-0. OCLC 607821861. "What had for some time attracted the attention of scholars, and had led the Iranianist Saint-Martin of the Académie des Inscription in Paris to send the young Schulz to explore these sites [in Van], was to be found written in chapter 16 of Khorenatsi's work."
62. ^ Lang, pp. 112, 117
63. ^ Diakonov, I. The Pre-history of the Armenian People. Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1984.
64. ^ a b Zimansky, Paul "Urartian and Urartians." The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia (2011): 557.[4]
65. ^ a b c Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 30. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. OCLC 37931209. "Armenian presence in their historical seats should then be sought at some time before c 600 BC; ... Armenian phonology, for instance, appears to have been greatly affected by Urartian, which may suggest a long period of bilingualism."
66. ^ Robert Drews. Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe. Routledge. 2017. p. 228. "The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it was brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; ... Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo--European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age."
67. ^ Hrach Martirosyan (2013). "The place of Armenian in the Indo-European language family: the relationship with Greek and Indo-Iranian*" Leiden University. p. 85-86.
68. ^ Petrosyan, Armen. "The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu." Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 2010. [5]
69. ^ Redgate, Anne Elizabeth (2000). The Armenians. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-22037-4., p. 276.
70. ^ a b Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (2023). The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East Volume IV: The Age of Assyria. Oxford University Press. p. 769\. ISBN 978-0-19-068763-2.
71. ^ Burney, Charles (2009-01-01). "Urartu". The Oxford Companion to Architecture. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198605683.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-860568-3. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
72. ^ Dan, Roberto (2014). "Inside the Empire: Some Remarks on the Urartian and Achaemenid Presence in the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan". Iran & the Caucasus. 18 (4): 327–344\. doi:10.1163/1573384X-20140402. ISSN 1609-8498. JSTOR 43899165.327-344&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1609-8498&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43899165#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/1573384X-20140402&rft.aulast=Dan&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
73. ^ Lynch, H.F.B. Armenia, Travels and Studies, Volume 2. London: Longmans, 1901, p. 54.
74. ^ Piotrovskii, Boris, B. Ванское царство (Урарту), Moscow: Vostochnoy Literaturi Publishing, 1959.
75. ^ a b C. A. Burney, "Urartian". Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed December 30, 2012, online, subscription required
76. ^ a b c Yervand Grekyan. "Urartian State Mythology". Yerevan Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography Press. 2018. pp. 44-45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351107801_Biaynili-Owrartu_Astvacner_tacarner_pastamunk_BIAINILI-URARTU_GODS_TEMPLES_CULTS
77. ^ Piotrovsky, Boris B. (1969). The Ancient Civilization of Urartu: An Archaeological Adventure. Cowles Book Co. ISBN 978-0-214-66793-0.
78. ^ a b Zimansky, Paul (2012). "Imagining Haldi". Stories of Long Ago: Festschrift für Michael Roaf: 714.
79. ^ [6] (Encyclopædia Britannica)
80. ^ Petrosyan, Armen. "The Eastern Hittites in the South and East of the Armenian Highland?" Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. IV, 1 (2009). p. 63
81. ^ Chahin, Mark (1987). The Kingdom of Armenia. Dorset Press. ISBN 978-0-88029-609-0.
82. ^ a b The Cambridge Ancient History: III Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries BC. Cambridge University Press. 1971. p. 335.
83. ^ Adontz, Nicholas. The World-view of Ancient Armenians. Hayrmik Motuhty. 1926. No. 12, p. 75.
84. ^ Yervand Grekyan. "Urartian State Mythology". Yerevan Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography Press. 2018. p. 34 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351107801_Biaynili-Owrartu_Astvacner_tacarner_pastamunk_BIAINILI-URARTU_GODS_TEMPLES_CULTS
85. ^ Mirjo Salvini (1994). Çilingiroğlu A., French D. H. (ed.). The historical background of the Urartian monument of Meher Kapisi. Vol. 16 (Anatolian Iron Ages 3; The proceedings of the Third Anatolian Iron Ages Colloquium held at Van, 6—12 1990 ed.). Ankara: British Institute of Archaeology in Ankara. pp. 205–210\. ISBN 1-898249-05-9. JSTOR 10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.31.205-210&rft.edition=Anatolian+Iron+Ages+3;+The+proceedings+of+the+Third+Anatolian+Iron+Ages+Colloquium+held+at+Van,+6—12+1990&rft.pub=British+Institute+of+Archaeology+in+Ankara&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.18866/j.ctt1pc5gxc.31#id-name=JSTOR&rft.isbn=1-898249-05-9&rft.au=Mirjo+Salvini&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
86. ^ Róna-Tas, András.Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. Budapest: Central European University Press, 1999 p. 76 ISBN 963-9116-48-3.
87. ^ Greppin, John A. C. (1991). "Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 3 (4): 720–730\. doi:10.2307/603403. JSTOR 603403. "Even for now, however, it seems difficult to deny that the Armenians had contact, at an early date, with a Hurro-Urartian people."720-730&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/603403&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/603403#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Greppin&rft.aufirst=John+A.+C.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
88. ^ a b c Chahin, M. (2001). The kingdom of Armenia: a history (2nd revised ed.). Richmond: Curzon. p. 182\. ISBN 978-0-7007-1452-0.
89. ^ Scarre, Chris, ed. (2013). Human past: world prehistory and the development of human societies (3rd ed.). W W Norton. ISBN 978-0-500-29063-7.
90. ^ Zimansky, Paul (1995). "Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 299/300 (299/300): 103–115\. doi:10.2307/1357348. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1357348. S2CID 164079327. "Although virtually all the cuneiform records that survive from Urartu are in one sense or another royal, they provide clues to the existence of linguistic diversity in the empire. There is no basis for the a priori assumption that a large number of people ever spoke Urartian. Urartian words are not borrowed in any numbers by neighboring peoples, and the language disappears from the written record along with the government"103-115&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0003-097X&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164079327#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357348#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/1357348&rft.aulast=Zimansky&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1357348&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
91. ^ Zimansky, Paul (1995). "Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 299/300 (299/300): 103–115\. doi:10.2307/1357348. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1357348. S2CID 164079327. "Although virtually all the cuneiform records that survive from Urartu are in one sense or another royal, they provide clues to the existence of linguistic diversity in the empire. There is no basis for the a priori assumption that a large number of people ever spoke Urartian. Urartian words are not borrowed in any numbers by neighboring peoples, and the language disappears from the written record along with the government"103-115&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0003-097X&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164079327#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357348#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/1357348&rft.aulast=Zimansky&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1357348&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
92. ^ Sayce, Archibald H. "The Kingdom of Van (Urartu)" in Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982, vol. 3, p. 172. See also C. F. Lehman-Haupt, Armenien Einst und Jetzt, Berlin, 1931, vol. 2, p. 497.
93. ^ Armen Asher The Peoples of Ararat. 2009, p. 290-291. ISBN 978-1-4392-2567-7.
94. ^ Zimansky, Paul "Xenophon and the Urartian legacy." Dans les pas des Dix-Mille (1995): 264-265 [7]
95. ^ a b Petrosyan, Armen (2010). "The Armenian Elements in the Language and Onomastics of Urartu". ARAMAZD: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. V (1): 133–140.133-140&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Petrosyan&rft.aufirst=Armen&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/2939663&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
96. ^ Petrosyan, Armen (2016). "Indo-European *wel- in Armenian mythology". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 44: 129–146\. ISSN 0092-2323.129-146&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0092-2323&rft.aulast=Petrosyan&rft.aufirst=Armen&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/33109045&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
97. ^ Hrach Martirosyan (2014). "Origins and Historical Development of the Armenian Language". Leiden University: 9. Retrieved 16 February 2020.[8]
98. ^ Petrosyan, Sargis (2019). "Լույսի պաշտամունքի էթիունյան վայրերը" [Sites of the Etiuni Light Cult]. Shirak Centre of Armenological Studies of NAS RA. 22 (1–2): 5–19.1–2&rft.pages=5-19&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Petrosyan&rft.aufirst=Sargis&rft_id=https://arar.sci.am/dlibra/publication/217299/edition/197942/content&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
99. ^ a b Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Ivanov, Vyacheslav (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0.
100. ^ Margaryan, A.; Derenko, M.; Hovhannisyan, H.; Malyarchuk, B.; Heller, R.; Khachatryan, Z.; Avetisyan, P.; Badalyan, R.; Bobokhyan, A.; Melikyan, V.; Sargsyan, G.; Piliposyan, A.; Simonyan, H.; Mkrtchyan, R.; Denisova, G.; Yepiskoposyan, L.; Willerslev, E.; Allentoft, M. E. (June 29, 2017). "Eight Millennia of Matrilineal Genetic Continuity in the South Caucasus". Current Biology. 27 (13): 2023–2028.e7. Bibcode:2017CBio...27E2023M. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.087. PMID 28669760. S2CID 23400138. "To shed light on the maternal genetic history of the region, we analyzed the complete mitochondrial genomes of 52 ancient skeletons from present-day Armenia and Artsakh spanning 7,800 years and combined this dataset with 206 mitochondrial genomes of modern Armenians. We also included previously published data of seven neighboring populations (n = 482). Coalescence-based analyses suggest that the population size in this region rapidly increased after the Last Glacial Maximum ca. 18 kya. We find that the lowest genetic distance in this dataset is between modern Armenians and the ancient individuals, as also reflected in both network analyses and discriminant analysis of principal components.
[...]
A total of 19 archaeological sites are represented, covering large parts of Armenia as well as Artsakh (Figure 1), and estimated to be between 300–7800 years old based on contextual dating of artifacts. This time span is accompanied by at least seven well-defined cultural transitions: Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Kura-Araxes, Trialeti-Vanadzor 2, Lchashen-Metsamor, Urartian and Armenian Classical/Medieval (Figure 1)."
101. ^ Frye, Richard N. (1984). The History of Ancient Iran. Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 73. ISBN 978-3-406-09397-5. "The real heirs of the Urartians, however, were neither the Scythians nor Medes but the Armenians."
102. ^ Redgate, A. E. (2000). The Armenians. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-631-22037-4. "However, the most easily identifiable ancestors of the later Armenian nation are the Urartians."
103. ^ Lang, David Marshall (1980). Armenia: Cradle of Civilization (3rd ed.). London: Allen & Unwin. pp. 85–111\. ISBN 978-0-04-956009-3.85-111&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Allen+&+Unwin&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-04-956009-3&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=David+Marshall&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=HG4MAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">
104. ^ Lazaridis, Iosif; et al. (26 August 2022). "A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia". Science. 377 (6609): 940–951\. Bibcode:2022Sci...377..940L. doi:10.1126/science.abq0755. PMC 10019558. PMID 36007020.940-951&rft.date=2022-08-26&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10019558#id-name=PMC&rft_id=info:pmid/36007020&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126/science.abq0755&rft_id=info:bibcode/2022Sci...377..940L&rft.aulast=Lazaridis&rft.aufirst=Iosif&rft.au=Alpaslan-Roodenberg,+Songül&rft.au=Acar,+Ayşe&rft.au=Açıkkol,+Ayşen&rft.au=Agelarakis,+Anagnostis&rft.au=Aghikyan,+Levon&rft.au=Akyüz,+Uğur&rft.au=Andreeva,+Desislava&rft.au=Andrijašević,+Gojko&rft.au=Antonović,+Dragana&rft.au=Armit,+Ian&rft.au=Atmaca,+Alper&rft.au=Avetisyan,+Pavel&rft.au=Aytek,+Ahmet+İhsan&rft.au=Bacvarov,+Krum&rft.au=Badalyan,+Ruben&rft.au=Bakardzhiev,+Stefan&rft.au=Balen,+Jacqueline&rft.au=Bejko,+Lorenc&rft.au=Bernardos,+Rebecca&rft.au=Bertsatos,+Andreas&rft.au=Biber,+Hanifi&rft.au=Bilir,+Ahmet&rft.au=Bodružić,+Mario&rft.au=Bonogofsky,+Michelle&rft.au=Bonsall,+Clive&rft.au=Borić,+Dušan&rft.au=Borovinić,+Nikola&rft.au=Bravo+Morante,+Guillermo&rft.au=Buttinger,+Katharina&rft.au=Callan,+Kim&rft.au=Candilio,+Francesca&rft.au=Carić,+Mario&rft.au=Cheronet,+Olivia&rft.au=Chohadzhiev,+Stefan&rft.au=Chovalopoulou,+Maria-Eleni&rft.au=Chryssoulaki,+Stella&rft.au=Ciobanu,+Ion&rft.au=Čondić,+Natalija&rft.au=Constantinescu,+Mihai&rft.au=Cristiani,+Emanuela&rft.au=Culleton,+Brendan+J.&rft.au=Curtis,+Elizabeth&rft.au=Davis,+Jack&rft.au=Davtyan,+Ruben&rft.au=Demcenco,+Tatiana+I.&rft.au=Dergachev,+Valentin&rft.au=Derin,+Zafer&rft.au=Deskaj,+Sylvia&rft.au=Devejyan,+Seda&rft.au=Djordjević,+Vojislav&rft.au=Duffett+Carlson,+Kellie+Sara&rft.au=Eccles,+Laurie+R.&rft.au=Elenski,+Nedko&rft.au=Engin,+Atilla&rft.au=Erdoğan,+Nihat&rft.au=Erir-Pazarcı,+Sabiha&rft.au=Fernandes,+Daniel+M.&rft.au=Ferry,+Matthew&rft.au=Freilich,+Suzanne&rft.au=Frînculeasa,+Alin&rft.au=Galaty,+Michael+L.&rft.au=Gamarra,+Beatriz&rft.au=Gasparyan,+Boris&rft.au=Gaydarska,+Bisserka&rft.au=Genç,+Elif&rft.au=Gültekin,+Timur&rft.au=Gündüz,+Serkan&rft.au=Hajdu,+Tamás&rft.au=Heyd,+Volker&rft.au=Hobosyan,+Suren&rft.au=Hovhannisyan,+Nelli&rft.au=Iliev,+Iliya&rft.au=Iliev,+Lora&rft.au=Iliev,+Stanislav&rft.au=İvgin,+İlkay&rft.au=Janković,+Ivor&rft.au=Jovanova,+Lence&rft.au=Karkanas,+Panagiotis&rft.au=Kavaz-Kındığılı,+Berna&rft.au=Kaya,+Esra+Hilal&rft.au=Keating,+Denise&rft.au=Kennett,+Douglas+J.&rft.au=Deniz+Kesici,+Seda&rft.au=Khudaverdyan,+Anahit&rft.au=Kiss,+Krisztián&rft.au=Kılıç,+Sinan&rft.au=Klostermann,+Paul&rft.au=Kostak+Boca+Negra+Valdes,+Sinem&rft.au=Kovačević,+Saša&rft.au=Krenz-Niedbała,+Marta&rft.au=Krznarić+Škrivanko,+Maja&rft.au=Kurti,+Rovena&rft.au=Kuzman,+Pasko&rft.au=Lawson,+Ann+Marie&rft.au=Lazar,+Catalin&rft.au=Leshtakov,+Krassimir&rft.au=Levy,+Thomas+E.&rft.au=Liritzis,+Ioannis&rft.au=Lorentz,+Kirsi+O.&rft.au=Łukasik,+Sylwia&rft.au=Mah,+Matthew&rft.au=Mallick,+Swapan&rft.au=Mandl,+Kirsten&rft.au=Martirosyan-Olshansky,+Kristine&rft.au=Matthews,+Roger&rft.au=Matthews,+Wendy&rft.au=McSweeney,+Kathleen&rft.au=Melikyan,+Varduhi&rft.au=Micco,+Adam&rft.au=Michel,+Megan&rft.au=Milašinović,+Lidija&rft.au=Mittnik,+Alissa&rft.au=Monge,+Janet+M.&rft.au=Nekhrizov,+Georgi&rft.au=Nicholls,+Rebecca&rft.au=Nikitin,+Alexey+G.&rft.au=Nikolov,+Vassil&rft.au=Novak,+Mario&rft.au=Olalde,+Iñigo&rft.au=Oppenheimer,+Jonas&rft.au=Osterholtz,+Anna&rft.au=Özdemir,+Celal&rft.au=Özdoğan,+Kadir+Toykan&rft.au=Öztürk,+Nurettin&rft.au=Papadimitriou,+Nikos&rft.au=Papakonstantinou,+Niki&rft.au=Papathanasiou,+Anastasia&rft.au=Paraman,+Lujana&rft.au=Paskary,+Evgeny+G.&rft.au=Patterson,+Nick&rft.au=Petrakiev,+Ilian&rft.au=Petrosyan,+Levon&rft.au=Petrova,+Vanya&rft.au=Philippa-Touchais,+Anna&rft.au=Piliposyan,+Ashot&rft.au=Pocuca+Kuzman,+Nada&rft.au=Potrebica,+Hrvoje&rft.au=Preda-Bălănică,+Bianca&rft.au=Premužić,+Zrinka&rft.au=Price,+T.+Douglas&rft.au=Qiu,+Lijun&rft.au=Radović,+Siniša&rft.au=Raeuf+Aziz,+Kamal&rft.au=Rajić+Šikanjić,+Petra&rft.au=Rasheed+Raheem,+Kamal&rft.au=Razumov,+Sergei&rft.au=Richardson,+Amy&rft.au=Roodenberg,+Jacob&rft.au=Ruka,+Rudenc&rft.au=Russeva,+Victoria&rft.au=Şahin,+Mustafa&rft.au=Şarbak,+Ayşegül&rft.au=Savaş,+Emre&rft.au=Schattke,+Constanze&rft.au=Schepartz,+Lynne&rft.au=Selçuk,+Tayfun&rft.au=Sevim-Erol,+Ayla&rft.au=Shamoon-Pour,+Michel&rft.au=Shephard,+Henry+M.&rft.au=Sideris,+Athanasios&rft.au=Simalcsik,+Angela&rft.au=Simonyan,+Hakob&rft.au=Sinika,+Vitalij&rft.au=Sirak,+Kendra&rft.au=Sirbu,+Ghenadie&rft.au=Šlaus,+Mario&rft.au=Soficaru,+Andrei&rft.au=Söğüt,+Bilal&rft.au=Sołtysiak,+Arkadiusz&rft.au=Sönmez-Sözer,+Çilem&rft.au=Stathi,+Maria&rft.au=Steskal,+Martin&rft.au=Stewardson,+Kristin&rft.au=Stocker,+Sharon&rft.au=Suata-Alpaslan,+Fadime&rft.au=Suvorov,+Alexander&rft.au=Szécsényi-Nagy,+Anna&rft.au=Szeniczey,+Tamás&rft.au=Telnov,+Nikolai&rft.au=Temov,+Strahil&rft.au=Todorova,+Nadezhda&rft.au=Tota,+Ulsi&rft.au=Touchais,+Gilles&rft.au=Triantaphyllou,+Sevi&rft.au=Türker,+Atila&rft.au=Ugarković,+Marina&rft.au=Valchev,+Todor&rft.au=Veljanovska,+Fanica&rft.au=Videvski,+Zlatko&rft.au=Virag,+Cristian&rft.au=Wagner,+Anna&rft.au=Walsh,+Sam&rft.au=Włodarczak,+Piotr&rft.au=Workman,+J.+Noah&rft.au=Yardumian,+Aram&rft.au=Yarovoy,+Evgenii&rft.au=Yavuz,+Alper+Yener&rft.au=Yılmaz,+Hakan&rft.au=Zalzala,+Fatma&rft.au=Zettl,+Anna&rft.au=Zhang,+Zhao&rft.au=Çavuşoğlu,+Rafet&rft.au=Rohland,+Nadin&rft.au=Pinhasi,+Ron&rft.au=Reich,+David&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10019558&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Urartu" class="Z3988">

### Literature

[edit]

* Ashkharbek Kalantar, Materials on Armenian and Urartian History (with a contribution by Mirjo Salvini), Civilisations du Proche-Orient: Series 4 – Hors Série, Neuchâtel, Paris, 2004;ISBN 978-2-940032-14-3
* Boris B. Piotrovsky, The Ancient Civilization of Urartu (translated from Russian by James Hogarth), New York:Cowles Book Company, 1969.
* M. Salvini, Geschichte und Kultur der Urartäer, Darmstadt 1995.
* R. B. Wartke, Urartu — Das Reich am Ararat In: Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt, Bd. 59, Mainz 1993.
* P. E. Zimansky, Ecology and Empire: The Structure of the Urartian State, [Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization], Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1985.
* P. E. Zimansky, Ancient Ararat. A Handbook of Urartian Studies, New York 1998.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Urartu.

* Livius History of Urartu/Armenia
* An Urartian Ozymandias Archived 2008-10-12 at the Wayback Machine – article by Paul Zimansky, Biblical Archaeologist
* Urartu Civilization
* Urartu (Greek Ararat)
* Capital and Periphery in the Kingdom of Urartu, Yehuda Dagan, Israel Antiquities Authority

* v
* t
* e

Urartu topics

Language|

* Proto-Armenian
* Hurro-Urartian languages
* Kelashin Stele
* Cuneiform script
* Anatolian Hieroglyphs

Urartu (Ararat) at its greatest expanse, ca. 743 BC

Kings|

* Aramu
* Lutipri
* Sarduri I
* Ishpuini
* Argishti I
* Sarduri II
* Rusa I
* Argishti II
* Rusa II
* Sarduri III
* Erimena
* Rusa III
* Sarduri IV
* Rusa IV

Cities and Fortresses|

* Argistinikhili
* Arzashkun1
* Altıntepe
* Bastam
* Erebuni
* Haykaberd
* Horom
* Kelashin
* Musasir
* Rusahinili
* Sugunia
* Teishebaini
* Teyseba
* Tushpa2
* Van

Mythology|

* Artinis
* Bagvarti
* Khaldi
* Selardi
* Siwini
* Theispas

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Armenia articles

History
(timeline)|

| Early|

* Origins
* Name
* Shulaveri–Shomu culture
* Kura–Araxes culture
* Hayk
* Hayasa-Azzi
* Mitanni
* Nairi
* Mushki
* Urumeans
* Diauehi
* Etiuni
* Kingdom of Urartu
* Median kingdom
* Orontid dynasty
* Achaemenid Empire
* Satrapy of Armenia
* Kingdom of Armenia
* Roman Armenia
* Parthian Empire
* Byzantine Armenia
* Sasanian Armenia

|

Middle|

* Arminiya
* Sajids
* Bagratid Armenia
* Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
* Sallarids
* Ilkhanate
* Chobanids
* Aq Qoyunlu
* Kara Koyunlu
* Ottoman Armenia
* 1508–1828 Iranian Armenia
* Safavid Iran
* Afsharid Iran
* Qajar Iran
* Erivan Khanate
* Karabakh Khanate
* Treaty of Turkmenchay
* Russian Armenia

Modern|

* First Republic of Armenia
* Soviet Armenia
* Independent Armenia

By topic|

* Armenian genocide
* Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
* Armenian national movement
* more...

Geography|

* Ararat Plain
* Armenian highlands
* Cities
* Climate
* Earthquakes
* Extreme points
* Lake Sevan
* Mountains
* Municipalities
* Rivers
* Lakes
* Shikahogh State Reserve
* Shirak Plain
* more...

Politics|

* Administrative divisions
* Constitution
* Corruption
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Human rights
* LGBT rights
* Judiciary
* Military
* National Assembly
* National Security Service
* Police
* Political parties
* President
* Prime Minister
* President of the National Assembly
* more on government
* on politics

Economy|

* Agriculture
* AMX (stock exchange)
* Central Bank
* Central Depository
* Dram (currency)
* Energy
* Mining
* Pension reform
* Taxation
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Waste management

Transport|

* South Caucasus Railway

Culture|

* Alphabet
* Architecture
* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine (wine)
* Dance
* Dress
* Language
* Eastern
* Western
* Literature
* Music
* Sport
* Theatre
* more...

Demographics|

* Census
* Crime
* Education
* Ethnic minorities
* Health
* People
* diaspora
* Social issues
* Women
* more...

Religion|

* Armenian Apostolic Church
* Armenian Catholic Church
* Armenian Evangelical Church
* Armenian Brotherhood Church
* Judaism
* Islam
* more...

Symbols|

* Armenian Cross
* Armenian eternity sign
* Coat of arms
* Flag
* Mount Ararat
* National anthem
* Apricot
* Grape
* Pomegranate

* Outline
* Index

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Historical states and regions of Armenia

Independent Armenian
states|

* Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) (Orontids, Artaxiads and Arsacids, 553 BC–428 AD)
* Kingdom of Armenia (Middle Ages) (Bagratunis, 884–1045)
* Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Rubenids, Hethumids and Lusignans, 1080–1375)
* Republic of Armenia (1918–1920)
* Republic of Armenia (1991–present)

Minor or dependent
Armenian states|

* Satrapy of Armenia (Orontids, 522–331 BC)
* Principality of Hamamshen (790–1486)
* Kingdom of Vaspurakan (Artsrunis, 908–1021)
* Kingdom of Vanand (963–1064)
* Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget (Kiurikians, 979–1118)
* Kingdom of Syunik (Siunis, 987–1170)
* Kingdom of Artsakh (Khachen, 1000–1261)
* Zakarid Principality of Armenia (Zakarians, 1201–1335)
* Melikdoms of Karabakh (Beglarians, Israelians, Hasan-Jalalians, Shanazarians and Avanians, 1603–1822)
* Republic of Mountainous Armenia (1921, unrecognized)
* Soviet Armenia (1920–1991)
* Artsakh (1991–2023, unrecognized)

Provinces or Ashkhars
of Armenia Major|

* Upper Armenia
* Sophene
* Arzanene
* Turuberan
* Moxoene
* Corduene
* Nor Shirakan
* Vaspurakan
* Syunik
* Artsakh
* Paytakaran
* Utik
* Gugark
* Tayk
* Ayrarat

Other Armenian regions|

* Lesser Armenia
* First
* Second
* Third
* Armenian Mesopotamia
* Cilicia
* Mountainous
* Plain
* Rocky

Other provinces under
Tigranes the Great|

* Syria
* Atropatene
* Adiabene
* Assyria
* Iberia
* Albania
* Cappadocia
* Judea
* Osroene

* v
* t
* e

Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography|

| Modern|

* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Mesopotamian Marshes
* Persian Gulf
* Syrian Desert
* Taurus Mountains
* Tigris–Euphrates river system
* Euphrates
* Tigris
* Zagros Mountains
* Hamrin Mountains
* Sinjar Mountains

|

Ancient|

* Fertile Crescent
* Adiabene
* Akkad
* Armani
* Assyria
* Babylonia
* Chaldea
* Elam
* Gutium
* Hamazi
* Hittites
* Kassites
* Media
* Mitanni
* Simurrum
* Subartu
* Suhum
* Sumer
* Tukri
* Urartu
* Cities

(Pre)history|

| Prehistory|

* Acheulean
* Mousterian
* Trialetian
* Zarzian
* Natufian
* Nemrik
* Khiamian
* Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
* Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
* Hassuna/Samarra
* Halaf
* Ubaid
* Uruk
* Jemdet Nasr
* Kish civilization

|

History|

* Early Dynastic
* Akkadian
* Gutians
* Simurrum
* Ur III
* Isin-Larsa
* Old Babylonian
* Kassite
* Middle Babylonian
* Neo-Assyrian
* Neo-Babylonian
* Fall of Babylon
* Achaemenid
* Seleucid
* Parthian
* Roman
* Sasanian
* Muslim conquest

Languages|

* Akkadian
* Amorite
* Aramaic
* Eblaite
* Elamite
* Gutian
* Hittite
* Hurrian
* Kassite
* Luwian
* Median
* Middle Persian
* Old Persian
* Parthian
* Proto-Armenian
* Sutean
* Sumerian
* Urartian

Culture/society|

* Architecture
* Art
* Akitu
* Cuneiform
* Babylonian astronomy
* Babylonian mathematics
* Akkadian literature
* Economy of Sumer
* Warfare in Sumer
* Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Sumerian cuisine
* Sumerian literature
* Music
* Indus-Mesopotamia relations
* Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
* Royal titles
* List of rulers

Archaeology|

* Looting
* Destruction by ISIL
* Tell

Religion|

* Ancient Mesopotamian religion
* Sumerian religion
* Deities
* Mesopotamian myths
* Divination
* Prayers
* Ziggurat (Temple)

Academia|

* Assyriology
* Assyriologists
* Hittitology
* Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
* Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
* Chicago Hittite Dictionary

* v
* t
* e

Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia

Bronze Age|

* Ahhiyawa
* Arzawa
* Assuwa League
* Carchemish
* Hapalla
* Hatti
* Hayasa-Azzi
* Hittite Empire
* Hurrian States (Isuwa, Kizzuwatna, Mitanni)
* Kalašma
* Kaskia
* Kussara
* Lukka
* Luwia
* Miletus
* Mira
* Mysia
* Nairi
* Pala
* Pisidia/Sagalassos
* Purushanda
* Seha
* Shupria
* Urshu
* Urumu
* Wilusa/Troy
* Zalpuwa

Iron Age|

* Aeolia
* Caria
* Cimmerians
* Colchis
* Diauehi
* Doris
* Etiuni
* Ionia
* Lycia
* Lydia
* Mushki
* Neo-Hittites (Atuna, Carchemish, Gurgum, Ḫilakku, Kammanu, Kummuh, Quwê, Tabal)
* Phrygia
* Urartu

Classical Age|

* Antigonids
* Armenia
* Armenia Minor
* Bithynia
* Cappadocia
* Cilicia
* Commagene
* Galatia
* Gordyene
* Osroene
* Paphlagonia
* Pergamon
* Pontus

* Turkey portal

* v
* t
* e

Empires

Ancient
(colonies)|

* Akkadian
* Armenian
* Urartu
* Orontid
* Ancient
* Assyrian
* Middle Assyrian
* Neo-Assyrian
* Babylonian
* Old Babylonian
* Kassite
* Neo-Babylonian
* Chinese
* Qin
* Han
* Jin
* Dʿmt
* Egyptian
* Old Kingdom
* Middle Kingdom
* New Kingdom
* Goguryeo
* Harsha
* Hellenistic
* Macedonian
* Seleucid
* Ptolemaic
* Bactrian
* Indo-Greek
* Hittite
* Hunnic
* White
* Xiongnu
* Iranian
* Median
* Achaemenid
* Parthian
* Sasanian
* Kush
* Kushan
* Magadha
* Haryanka
* Shaishunaga
* Nanda
* Maurya
* Shunga
* Gupta
* Phoenician
* Carthaginian
* Roman
* Western
* Eastern
* Satavahana
* Neo-Sumerian
* Xianbei
* Rouran

Post-classical|

* Angevin
* Aragonese
* Armenian
* Bagratid
* Vaspurakan
* Artsakh
* Cilician
* Zakarid
* Ayyubid
* Aztec
* Benin
* Bornu
* Bruneian
* Bulgarian
* First
* Second
* Burmese
* First
* Calakmul
* Caliphate
* Rashidun
* Umayyad
* Abbasid
* Fatimid
* Chalukya
* Western
* Eastern
* Chinese
* Sui
* Tang
* Liao
* Song
* Jīn
* Yuan
* Chola
* Ethiopian
* Aksum
* Zagwe
* Solomonic
* Genoese
* Georgian
* Huetar
* Inca
* Kannauj
* Pala
* Gurjara-Pratihara
* Rashtrakuta
* Iranian
* Tahirid
* Saffarid
* Samanid
* Buyid
* Japanese
* Yamato
* Kamakura
* Muromachi
* Edo
* Kanem
* Khmer
* Latin
* Lithuanian
* Grand Duchy
* Commonwealth
* Majapahit
* Mali
* Mongol
* Yuan
* Golden Horde
* Chagatai Khanate
* Ilkhanate
* Moroccan
* Idrisid
* Almoravid
* Almohad
* Norwegian
* North Sea
* Oyo
* Polish
* Kingdom
* Commonwealth
* Hellenic Roman
* Byzantine
* Nicaea
* Thessalonica
* Trebizond
* Epirus
* Morea
* Romano-Germanic
* Carolingian
* Holy Roman
* Serbian
* Singhasari
* Songhai
* Srivijaya
* Tibetan
* Tikal
* Tiwanaku
* Toltec
* Turco-Persian
* Ghaznavid
* Great Seljuk
* Khwarezmian
* Timurid
* Turkic
* First
* Western
* Eastern
* Second
* Türgesh
* Uighur
* Kyrgyz
* Venetian
* Vietnamese
* Dinh
* Early Le
* Ly
* Tran
* Ho
* Later Tran
* Later Le
* Vijayanagara
* Wagadou
* Wari

Modern|

* Afghan
* Ashanti
* Austrian
* Austro-Hungarian
* Brazilian
* Burmese
* Second
* Third
* Central African
* Chinese
* Ming
* Qing
* China
* Manchukuo
* Contemporary
* Ethiopian
* Haitian
* First
* Second
* French
* First
* Second
* German
* German Empire
* Nazi Germany
* Indian
* Indo-Persian
* Mughal
* Sikh
* Iranian
* Safavid
* Afsharid
* Zand
* Qajar
* Pahlavi
* Japanese
* Korean
* Maratha
* Mexican
* First
* Second
* Mongol
* Oirat
* Khoshut
* Dzungar
* Kalmyk
* Bogd
* Moroccan
* Saadi
* 'Alawi
* Ottoman
* Polish
* Russian
* Tsarist
* Imperial
* Contemporary
* Sokoto
* Somali
* Isaaq
* Tongan
* Vietnamese
* Mạc
* Revival Lê
* Tay Sơn
* Dainam
* Vietnam

| Colonial|

* American
* Belgian
* British
* English
* Scottish
* Chinese
* Danish
* Dutch
* French
* German
* Italian
* Japanese
* Mongol
* Omani
* Polish–Lithuanian
* Couronian
* attempts
* Portuguese
* Russian
* Spanish
* Swedish

|

Lists|

* Empires
* largest
* Ancient great powers
* Medieval great powers
* Modern great powers
* European colonialism
* African empires

Miscellaneous|

* "Empire" as a description of foreign policy
* American Empire
* Soviet empire

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* Latvia
* Israel

Geographic|

* Pleiades

38°30′00″N 43°20′33″E﻿ / ﻿38.50000°N 43.34250°E﻿ / 38.50000; 43.34250
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa