Vaccination and religion

Religious attitudes towards the use of vaccination

The relationship between vaccination and religion is complex and multifaceted. While no major religion explicitly prohibits vaccinations, some individuals cite religious adherence[1] as a basis for opting not to vaccinate themselves or their children.[2] Historically, both pro- and anti-vaccination groups have used religious arguments to support their positions. For instance, in Australia, anti-vaccinationists founded the Church of Conscious Living, a "fake church",[3] in an attempt to claim religious exemptions, which ultimately led to the removal of such exemptions in the country. Similarly, a United States pastor has been reported to offer vaccine exemptions in exchange for church membership.[4] This article will explore the historical and contemporary trends surrounding vaccination and religion, including the influence of anti-vaccination movements globally, current debates in the U.S., the significant interplay of politics and religion on vaccination rates, and the use of religious exemptions by parents.

## Historical

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### Early religious influences on vaccination

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One of the earliest documented cases of variolation involved a Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) between 1022 and 1063 CE.[5] She ground smallpox scabs into a fine powder and administered it through the nostrils of an uninfected person to promote immunity. Centuries later, the 14th Dalai Lama continued the tradition of disease prevention by personally supporting polio vaccination campaigns.[6]

### Religious figures and advocacy for vaccination

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Article depicting an ill, non-immunized child with Diphtheria on the left compared to an active immunized child on the right encouraging parents to vaccinate their children.

In 1721, the influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation on a large scale, inoculating himself and more than two hundred members of his congregation with the help of a local doctor. While his view later became standard, there was a strong negative reaction against him at the time.[7]

Rowland Hill (1744–1833) was a popular English preacher acquainted with Edward Jenner, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination, and he encouraged the vaccination of the congregations he visited or preached to.[8] He published a tract on the subject in 1806,[9] at a time when many medical men refused to sanction it. Later he became a member of the Royal Jennererian Society, which was established when vaccination was accepted in Britain, India, the US, and elsewhere. John C. Lettsom, an eminent Quaker physician of the day wrote to Rowland Hill commenting:

> You have done more good than you imagine; and for everyone you may have saved by your actual operation, you have saved ten by your example; and perhaps, next to Jenner, have been the means of saving more lives than any other individual.[10]

In 1804 during an outbreak of smallpox in New Spain Fr. Manuel Abad y Queipo personally paid for and brought the smallpox vaccine from the Capital to Valladolid.[11]

In 1816 Iceland made the clergy responsible for smallpox vaccination and gave them the responsibility of keeping vaccination records for their parishes; Sweden also had similar practices.[12]

Catholic and Anglican missionaries vaccinated Northwest Coast Native Americans during an 1862 smallpox epidemic.[13]

### Religious opposition to vaccination

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In 1798, several Boston clergymen and devout physicians formed a society that opposed vaccination.[14] Others complained that the practice was dangerous, going so far as to demand that doctors who carried out these procedures be tried for attempted murder.[15]

When vaccination was introduced into UK public policy, and adoption followed overseas, there was opposition from trade unionists and others, including sectarian ministers and those interested in self-help and alternative medicines like homeopathy.[16]

Anti-vaccinationists were most common in Protestant countries. Those who were religious often came from minority religious movements outside of mainstream Protestantism, including Quakers in England and Baptists in Sweden.[17]

Jehovah's Witnesses condemned the practice of vaccination in 1931 as "a direct violation of the everlasting covenant that God made with Noah after the flood",[18] but reversed that policy in 1952. The decision of whether to vaccinate themselves or their family is left to individuals. Some more recent Jehovah's Witness publications have mentioned the success of vaccination programs.[19]

Anti-vaccination league postcards from Westminster, England in the 1890s

### Legislation and religious exemptions

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In the UK, a number of Vaccination Acts were introduced to control vaccination and inoculation, starting in 1840, when smallpox inoculation was banned. The 1853 Act introduced compulsory free infant vaccination enforced by local authorities. By 1871, infant vaccination was compulsory and parents refusing to have their child vaccinated were fined and imprisoned if the fines were not paid. Resistance to compulsion grew, and in 1889, after riots in Leicester, a Royal Commission was appointed and issued six reports between 1892 and 1896. It recommended the abolition of cumulative penalties. This was done in an 1898 Act, which also introduced a conscience clause that exempted parents who did not believe vaccination was efficacious or safe. This extended the concept of the "conscientious objector" in English law. A further Act in 1907 made it easier to obtain exemption.[20]

## Current

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See also: Vaccine hesitancy § Religion

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2024)

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### Christianity

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Anti-vaccination protester holding a sign that states, "Kids have a 99.9% Survival rate with NATURAL immunity".

#### Conservative Christian groups

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Some conservative Christian groups in the United States oppose mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters risky sexual contact.[citation needed] For example, the Family Research Council opposes mandatory vaccination against HPV, a virus that causes [21][22] various cancers: "Our primary concern is with the message that would be delivered to nine- to twelve-year-olds with the administration of the vaccines. Care must be taken not to communicate that such an intervention makes all sex 'safe'."[23][24][25] Studies have shown that HPV vaccination does not result in increased sexual activity.[26]

#### Support for vaccination

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Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position.[27][28]

#### The church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made vaccination an official initiative in its humanitarian relief program.[29][30] The Church has also called on its members to see that their own children are properly vaccinated.[31] In March 2021, the Church added encouragement to vaccinate to its General Handbook of Instructions, noting that "Vaccinations administered by competent medical professionals protect health and preserve life. ... Members of the Church are encouraged to safeguard themselves, their children, and their communities through vaccination."[32] In August 2021, the Church again encouraged vaccination, specifically against COVID-19, in a public statement from the First Presidency: "We know that protection from [Covid and its variants] can only be achieved by immunizing a very high percentage of the population.... To provide personal protection from such severe infections, we urge individuals to be vaccinated."[33]

#### Christian science

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Although the Church of Christ, Scientist encourages reliance on prayer, it does not forbid vaccination or any other medical practice,[34][35][36][37] and in 2015 it did not renew its application for religious exemption for vaccinations in Australia because it deemed the exemption "no longer current or necessary".[38]

### Islam and Judaism

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#### Dietary concerns and medical exceptions

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Islam and Judaism, religions with dietary prohibitions that regard particular animals as unclean, make exceptions for medical treatments derived from those animals.[39][40] However, this may not be universally accepted due to a lack of central authority in these religions. For example, in Aceh Province, an autonomous province of Indonesia with its own Islamic Sharia Law, eighty percent of people refuse all vaccinations due to concerns about pig, or its derivatives, being used to make some vaccines (eating pig is considered haram).[41]

### Hinduism

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Hinduism consists of various denominations that share core beliefs but differ in philosophies and practices. With no single founder, it is known as Sanatan Dharma (the Eternal Tradition) and traces its origins to the Vedic texts of ancient India, dating back to between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE.[42][43]

In Hinduism, the ethical and symbolic meanings of scriptures, as interpreted by spiritually enlightened gurus, are often prioritized over literal interpretations. Vaccination is generally accepted in countries with a predominantly Hindu population.[44]

Hindus uphold the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) and value all forms of life, believing that divinity exists in every being, including plants and animals.[42][43][45][46]

Many Hindus follow a vegetarian diet to honor higher forms of life, while others consume meat only on specific days.[44] Dietary practices differ across regions and communities. This review did not find any current concerns among Hindus regarding the presence of bovine-derived ingredients in some vaccines.[44]

### Buddhism

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Buddhism is a religion with a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, which means "the awakened one."[42][43] The Buddha shared his insights to help people overcome ignorance, desire, and suffering, ultimately leading to Nirvana—a state of liberation from suffering.[47] He taught in the eastern region of what is now India between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, possibly around 563–483 BCE.[42][43]

Buddhism includes several major branches, such as Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Zen, but lacks a single central text or authority to define its doctrines or ethics.[42][43] In predominantly Buddhist countries, vaccination is generally accepted.[44]

Buddhism does not oppose using non-animal-derived medicines to treat illnesses, viewing treatment as an act of compassion.[48][49] For example, while antibiotics destroy microorganisms, they are accepted because they help people stay healthy and maintain the harmony of body and mind, which supports progress toward Enlightenment.[48][49] Preventing disease is seen as a way to preserve this harmony.[50]

### New religious movements and alternative beliefs

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#### Congregation of Universal Wisdom

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The Congregation of Universal Wisdom, a religion based on belief in chiropractic spinal adjustments and Universal Intelligence, forbids vaccinations.[51][52] The New York Times covered the Congregation of Universal Wisdom and noted that many families have used these religious memberships to avoid vaccination requirements.[53] In a court case citing the Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, the United States District Court in New York affirmed the permissibility of claiming religious exemption from vaccination on the basis of such membership.[54]

### Ethical and moral concerns

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#### Use of fetal tissue in vaccines

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The use of fetal tissue in vaccine development has also provoked some controversy among religions opposed to abortion. The cell culture media of vaccines for varicella, rubella (in the MMR vaccine), hepatitis A, rabies (Imovax) and the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine (no longer used in the U.S.) are produced using fetal cells to grow viruses.[55] Since viruses require specific cells to reproduce, human cells are ideal for this purpose.[55] Fetal cells, originally isolated from elective terminations in the 1960s, were chosen for their sterility, minimizing the risk of contamination.[55] Fibroblast cells are used for all these vaccines except the J&J COVID-19 vaccine, which uses fetal retinal cells.[55] Fetal cells obtained in the early 1960s have been continuously grown in laboratories and are still used for vaccine production today, with no need for additional sources.[55] This method has led to moral controversy and considerations based on the principle of double effect by Thomas Aquinas. For example, the principle of double effect, originated by Thomas Aquinas, holds that actions with both good and bad consequences are morally acceptable in specific circumstances, and the question is how this principle applies to vaccination.[56]

#### Catholic church's position

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The Vatican Curia has expressed concern about the rubella vaccine's embryonic cell origin, saying Catholics have "... a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines and to make a conscientious objection with regard to those which have moral problems".[57] The Vatican concluded that until an alternative becomes available it is acceptable for Catholics to use the existing vaccine, writing, "This is an unjust alternative choice, which must be eliminated as soon as possible."[57] The Catholic Church advises its members to choose vaccines that are developed without the use of human cell lines whenever feasible. Nonetheless, the Vatican has stated that "all vaccinations recognized as clinically safe and effective can be used in good conscience, with the certain knowledge that the use of such vaccines does not constitute formal cooperation with the abortion."[58]

### Political opposition to vaccination by religious groups

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#### Opposition to vaccination among Jewish communities

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Opposition to vaccination by Orthodox Jews is not a widespread phenomenon. The majority of Orthodox Rabbis view vaccination as a religious obligation.[59] A magazine called P.E.A.C.H. that presented an anti-immunization message to Orthodox Jews was distributed in Brooklyn, New York in early 2014. 96% of students at Yeshivas (who are essentially all Orthodox Jewish) in New York City were immunized according to information obtained in 2014, although this is a lower than average rate.[60]

#### Opposition to vaccination in Muslim communities

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##### Nigeria

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In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility.[61] The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005.[62] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide.[63] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State.[64] In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident.[65][66] Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign,[67] and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free.[68]

##### Pakistan and Afghanistan

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In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination officials; the head of Pakistan's vaccination campaign in Bajaur Agency was assassinated in 2007, on his way back from a meeting with a religious leader.[69][70] In 2011, a CIA spy ran a fake hepatitis vaccination campaign to search for Osama bin Laden; such actions were strongly condemned by US[71] and international health NGOs,[69] the doctor involved was jailed[72] and the CIA promised not to use vaccination as a cover again.[73] A genuine polio vaccinator had previously vaccinated Osama bin Laden's children and grandchildren in his compound in Abbottabad.[74] Both major sides of the Afghan civil war now support polio vaccination,[75] and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan, with only five cases in January–July 2015.[67] In Pakistan there were 28 cases in the same period.[67]

#### Opposition to vaccination among African American religious groups

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In 2015, leaders of the Nation of Islam spoke out against a California Bill that removed philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements,[76] alleging a link between MMR vaccine and autism. They also said that government mandated vaccines were another Tuskegee Syphilis Study.[77]

##### Opposition to vaccination among Evangelical Christians

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According to a March 2021 poll conducted by The Associated Press/NORC, vaccine skepticism is more widespread among white evangelicals than most other blocs of Americans. 40% of white evangelical Protestants stated they weren't likely to get vaccinated against COVID-19.[78]

## Impact of COVID-19 on religious perspectives and vaccination rates

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The spread of COVID-19 has brought vaccine hesitancy into the global spotlight, but what influences the significant differences in vaccination rates across regions? Research spanning 195 regions worldwide suggests that religiosity (an institutionalized belief) and spirituality (more personal and intuition-based) play a key role in shaping vaccination trends.[79]

In the first study, data from 23 global regions revealed a negative correlation between both spirituality and religiosity and COVID-19 vaccination rates.[79] These findings remained consistent even after adjusting for vaccine supply limitations. The second study, which analyzed data from 144 regions, reinforced this trend—religiosity continued to be a strong negative predictor of vaccination rates, even when accounting for factors such as GDP, population age, collectivism, vaccine skepticism, and past vaccination history.[79] The third study focused on all U.S. states and the District of Columbia, once again showing that higher levels of spirituality and religiosity were linked to lower vaccination rates, even after controlling for other variables.[79] Overall, these studies highlight a strong relationship between spirituality, religiosity, and vaccine uptake, suggesting that regional differences in these factors may significantly influence real-world vaccination behaviors.[79]

Additionally, in another study, Cross-National Comparison of Religion as a Predictor of COVID-19 Vaccination Rates, researchers explored the impact of religiosity on COVID-19 vaccination rates across nations while accounting for socio-economic and cultural factors.[80] Analyzing data from 90 countries, covering 86% of the global population, they found a negative correlation between Christianity and vaccination rates, whereas no such relationship was observed for Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, or non-belief.[80] Factors such as the importance of religion, freedom of expression, sex ratio, median age, and most cultural variables showed no significant connection to vaccination rates, while the Human Development Index did.[80] The study also highlighted how different religions influence vaccine uptake.

## Exemptions

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This image depicts a color-coded map of the United States based on the different exemption policies for school immunizations. The exemption categories include: religious exemptions, personal exemptions, religious and personal exemptions, or no non-medical exemptions.

In the U.S., all 50 states and Washington D.C. require certain vaccines for students to attend school, aligning with recommendations from the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.[81] While medical exemptions are permitted in every state, laws regarding non-medical exemptions for religious or personal reasons differ. Thirty states and D.C. permit religious exemptions, while thirteen allow either religious or personal exemptions.[81] Louisiana and Minnesota do not specify whether non-medical exemptions must be religious or personal. Five states (Mississippi, California, West Virginia, Maine, and New York) are the only states that do not allow any non-medical exemptions, meaning all other states permit religious exemptions for parents who choose not to vaccinate their children for religious reasons.[82]

The number of religious exemptions rose greatly in the late 1990s and early 2000s; for example, in Massachusetts, the rate of those seeking exemptions rose from 0.24% in 1996 to 0.60% in 2006.[83] Some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get exemptions.[84] The American Medical Association opposes such exemptions, saying that they endanger health not only for the unvaccinated individual but also for neighbors and the community at large.[85]

On January 1, 2016, Australia introduced legislation that removed eligibility for childcare and welfare benefits if parents refuse to vaccinate their children, removing religious exemptions at the same time as the only religion to apply for an exemption (Church of Christ, Scientist) deemed their exemption to no longer be relevant.[38]

### Recent measles outbreaks in religious communities

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Mennonite Community in Texas: In early 2025, a significant measles outbreak occurred in Gaines County, Texas, primarily affecting an under-vaccinated Mennonite community.[86] Despite the church not opposing vaccinations, some members' hesitancy contributed to the outbreak, leading to over 200 infections, hospitalizations, and two deaths.[87][88]

Amish Community in New York: Concurrently, New York's Amish community faced legal challenges regarding religious exemptions to vaccination mandates. After the state's 2019 repeal of religious exemptions following a 2018 measles outbreak, the Amish contested this decision. In March 2025, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the repeal, emphasizing public health over religious exemptions.[89]

### Legislative actions on religious exemptions

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West Virginia's Legislative Decision: In March 2025, West Virginia's House of Delegates rejected a bill that would have introduced religious and philosophical exemptions to mandatory childhood vaccinations. This decision was influenced by concerns over public health, especially amid ongoing measles outbreaks in neighboring states.[90]

### Declining vaccination rates and public health concerns

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Expert Warnings in Texas: Dr. Peter Hotez, co-director of the Center for Vaccine Development, highlighted the dangers of declining vaccination rates in Texas. He warned that reduced immunization could lead to the resurgence of diseases like measles, emphasizing the need for increased public awareness and vaccination efforts.[86][87]

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80. ^ a b c Trepanowski R, Drążkowski D (June 2022). "Cross-National Comparison of Religion as a Predictor of COVID-19 Vaccination Rates". Journal of Religion and Health. 61 (3): 2198–2211\. doi:10.1007/s10943-022-01569-7. PMC 9095816. PMID 35556198.
81. ^ a b "State Non-Medical Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements". www.ncsl.org. Retrieved 2025-03-06.
82. ^ "New York Ends Religious Exemptions for School Vaccinations". The Wall Street Journal.
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Artificial induction of immunity / Immunization: Vaccines, Vaccination, Infection, Inoculation (J07)

Development|

* Adjuvants
* Vaccine ingredients
* list
* Mathematical modelling
* Storage
* Timeline
* Trials

Classes|

* Conjugate
* Inactivated
* Live
* Attenuated
* Heterologous
* Subunit/component / Peptide / Virus-like particle / Synthetic
* DNA / mRNA
* Therapeutic
* Toxoid

Administration|

* Global:
* GAVI Alliance
* NITAG
* SAGE
* Vaccine wastage
* Policy
* Schedule
* Vaccine injury
* US:
* ACIP
* Vaccine court
* Vaccines for Children Program
* VAERS
* VSD

Vaccines|

| Bacterial|

* Anthrax
* Brucellosis
* Cholera#
* Diphtheria#
* Hib#
* Leptospirosis
* Lyme disease‡
* Meningococcus#
* MeNZB
* NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
* Pertussis#
* Plague
* Pneumococcal#
* PCV
* PPSV
* Q fever
* Tetanus#
* Tuberculosis
* BCG#
* Typhoid#
* Ty21a
* ViCPS
* Typhus
* combination:
* DPT/DTwP/DTaP
* Td/Tdap
* research:
* Clostridioides difficile
* Group B streptococcal disease
* Shigellosis

|

Viral|

* Adenovirus
* Chikungunya
* Ebola
* rVSV-ZEBOV
* Flu#
* H1N1 (Pandemrix)
* H5N1
* H5N8
* LAIV
* Hantavirus
* Hepatitis A#
* Hepatitis B#
* Hepatitis E
* HPV#
* Cervarix
* Gardasil
* Japanese encephalitis#
* Measles#
* Mpox
* Mumps#
* Polio#
* Sabin
* Salk
* Rabies#
* Rotavirus#
* Rubella#
* SARS-CoV-2
* Corbevax†
* Bharat Biotech†
* CanSino†
* CoronaVac†
* EpiVacCorona†
* Janssen
* Kostaive
* Moderna
* Novavax
* Oxford–AstraZeneca
* Pfizer–BioNTech
* Sanofi–GSK†
* Sinopharm BIBP†
* Skycovione†
* Sputnik V†
* Valneva†
* Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
* Smallpox
* Tick-borne encephalitis#
* Varicella zoster
* Chicken pox#
* Shingles
* Yellow fever#
* combination:
* Hepatitis A and B
* MMR
* MMRV
* research:
* Cytomegalovirus
* Dengue#
* Epstein–Barr virus
* Hepatitis C
* Herpes simplex
* HIV
* Zika

Protozoan|

* Malaria
* RTS,S
* research:
* Trypanosomiasis

Helminthiasis|

* research:
* Hookworm
* Schistosomiasis

Other|

* Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
* Cancer vaccines
* ALVAC-CEA
* BCG#
* Hepatitis B#
* HPV#
* Cervarix
* Gardasil
* Prostvac
* NicVAX
* Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
* TA-CD
* TA-NIC
* combination:
* DTaP-IPV/Hib
* DTaP-IPV-HepB
* DTwP-HepB-Hib
* Hexavalent vaccine

Inventors/
researchers|

* Edward Jenner
* Louis Pasteur
* Hilary Koprowski
* Jonas Salk
* John Franklin Enders
* Maurice Hilleman
* Stanley Plotkin
* H. Fred Clark
* Paul Offit
* Katalin Karikó
* Drew Weissman

Controversy|

* General
* MMR (Lancet MMR autism fraud)
* NCVIA
* Pox party
* Thiomersal
* Vaccines and SIDS
* Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
* Alternative vaccination schedule
* 2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference

Related|

* Epidemiology
* Eradication of infectious diseases
* Vaccinate Your Family
* List of vaccine topics

* #WHO-EM
* ‡Withdrawn from market
* Clinical trials:
* †Phase III
* §Never to phase III

* v
* t
* e

Vaccine safety

Vaccine hesitancy|

* Chemophobia
* Blood-injection-injury type phobia
* MMR vaccine and autism
* Oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis
* Thiomersal and vaccines
* Vaccines and autism
* Vaccines and SIDS

Disease resurgence|

Before 2019

* 1990–1991 Philadelphia measles outbreak
* 2013 Swansea measles epidemic
* 2018 Madagascar measles outbreak

2019

* v
* t
* e

2019–2020 measles outbreaks

>10,000 confirmed cases|

* Democratic Republic of the Congo (380,766, 7,018 deaths)
* Philippines (31,056, 415 deaths)

1,000 to 10,000 confirmed cases|

* Samoa (5,700, 83 deaths)
* New Zealand (2,194, 2 deaths)

<1,000 confirmed cases|

* Tonga (612)
* New York (423)
* Pacific Northwest (73)
* Kuala Koh (43, 15 deaths) (113 suspected)
* Freewinds (1)

Related: Measles resurgence in the United States

Others

* Mumps outbreaks in the 21st century

Legal|

* Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
* Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2008
* National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program
* Countermeasures Injury Compensation Program (CICP)
* Vaccine Damage Payment
* Vaccination policy
* National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act
* Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005
* Operation Warp Speed

Vaccine safety procedures|

* Vaccine vial monitor
* Cold chain
* Vaccine trial
* Vaccine Safety Datalink
* Vaccine Information Statement

Anti-vaxxer media|

* "Deadly Immunity"
* The Greater Good
* Hear the Silence
* Melanie's Marvelous Measles
* Natural News
* Plandemic
* Vaxxed

Controversies|

* Pandemrix
* Dengvaxia controversy
* Lancet MMR autism fraud

Organizations|

* National Immunization Technical Advisory Group
* Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
* Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation
* Patient safety organization
* Brighton Collaboration
* Strategic Advisory Group of Experts
* Immunization Alliance
* Northern Rivers Vaccination Supporters

Scientists|

* Paul Offit
* Neal Halsey
* Riko Muranaka
* Frank DeStefano
* David Baskin
* Jeffrey Brent
* Richard Deth
* Mark Geier
* H. Vasken Aposhian
* Boyd Haley
* Mady Hornig
* Michael Pichichero

Anti-vaxxer personalities|

* Taylor Winterstein
* Jeanette Wilson
* Robert F. Kennedy Jr.
* Joseph Mercola
* Andrew Wakefield
* Jenny McCarthy
* Ethan Lindenberger

Anti-vaxxer organizations|

United States of America

* Learn The Risk
* Children's Medical Safety Research Institute
* New Jersey Coalition for Vaccination Choice
* Informed Consent Action Network
* Anti-Vaccination Society of America
* Association of American Physicians and Surgeons
* Children's Health Defense
* Children's Medical Safety Research Institute
* National Vaccine Information Center
* New Jersey Coalition for Vaccination Choice
* Palmetto Family Council
* The Autism Community in Action
* Texans for Vaccine Choice
* World Chiropractic Alliance

United Kingdom

* National Anti-Vaccination League
* Homeopathy Plus!
* Humanitarian League
* Pioneer Club (women's club)

Australia

* Australian Vaccination-risks Network
* Church of Conscious Living
* Informed Medical Options Party

France

* National League for Liberty in Vaccination

Others

* Stop Mandatory Vaccination
* Vaccine Choice Canada
* Warnings About Vaccination Expectations NZ

Epidemiology and surveillance|

* Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
* Number needed to vaccinate
* STEP Study
* Yellow Card Scheme
* Immunization registry

Others|

* Vaccine efficacy
* Vaccine shedding
* Vaccination and religion
* Marker vaccine
* Vaccine-induced seropositivity
* 2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference
* Vaccine adverse event
* Vaccine-associated sarcoma
* Alternative vaccination schedule
* Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic
* CEASE therapy
* Shoulder injury related to vaccine administration
* Turbo cancer

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