Vegetable oil

Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of plants

For other uses, see Vegetable oil (disambiguation).

Plant oils

Olive oil

Types

* Vegetable oil (list)
* Macerated oil (list)
* Essential oil (list)

Uses

* Drying oil
* Oil paint
* Cooking oil
* Fuel
* Biodiesel

Components

* Saturated fat
* Monounsaturated fat
* Polyunsaturated fat
* Trans fat

* v
* t
* e

A bottle of peanut oil

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides.[1] Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.[2][3] Vegetable oils are usually edible.

## History

[edit]

### In antiquity

[edit]

Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia.[4] Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC[4] and 4500 BC in present-day Israel.[5] Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho, but cites no source.[citation needed] In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during the mummification process.[6]

Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication.[citation needed] Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.[7]

### Modern history

[edit]

Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight", and B. J. Johnson Company's (now Colgate-Palmolive) "Palmolive,"[8] and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.[9]

In 1780, Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later, Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann, a German chemist, introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats, leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening.[citation needed]

In the United States, cottonseed oil was developed and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911.[10] Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.[citation needed]

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium-viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans.[11] Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex. He invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.[12] By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT).[13]

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had a source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day".[14] The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.[15] Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel, produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.[16]

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of the canola name in January 1985,[17] and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.[citation needed]

The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in palm oil.[18]

## Uses

[edit]

### Culinary

[edit]

See also: Cooking oil

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve several purposes in this role:

* Shortening – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
* Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
* Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
* Flavoring – examples include olive, sesame, or almond oil
* Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,[19] since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods. Oils for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

### Industrial

[edit]

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.[citation needed]

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes, and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid[20] and lubricant.[21]

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid. Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil, are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of a hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11. Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether, which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins.[citation needed]

### Pet food additive

[edit]

Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO[22] defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.[citation needed]

### Fuel

[edit]

Main article: Vegetable oil fuel

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel.[23] Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing[citation needed] and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.[citation needed]

The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.[24]

## Production

[edit]

Main article: Edible oil refining

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.[citation needed]

### Mechanical extraction

[edit]

Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut, etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe.[citation needed] There are several different types of mechanical extraction.[25] Expeller pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.[26] The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:[27]

Method | Percentage extracted

|

Ghani[28] | 20–30%
Expellers | 34–37%
Solvent | 40–43%

### Solvent extraction

[edit]

The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils.[citation needed] After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 149 °C (300 °F).[29]

Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.[30]

### Hydrogenation

[edit]

Main article: Fat hydrogenation

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening, will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in a near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat, has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease,[31] among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.[32]

### Deodorization

[edit]

In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about 232 °C (450 °F),[33] and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water is immediately converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals that are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds.[34][35][36]

### Occupational exposure

[edit]

People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.[37]

### Yield

[edit]

World production of main vegetable oils by main producers

Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.

Crop  | Yield
(t/ha/yr)

|

Palm oil[38] | 4.0
Coconut oil[39] | 1.4
Canola oil[40] | 0.75
Soybean oil[40] | 0.45
Sunflower oil[39] | 0.6

## Particular oils

[edit]

For a more comprehensive list, see List of vegetable oils.

The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:[41]

Oil source  | World consumption
(million metric tons)  | Notes

|
|

Palm | 41.31 | The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make biofuel
Soybean | 41.28 | One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
Rapeseed | 18.24 | One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel.

Canola is a variety (cultivar) of rapeseed.

Sunflower seed | 9.91 | A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
Cottonseed | 4.99 | A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
Palm kernel | 4.85 | From the seed of the African palm tree
Peanut | 4.82 | Mild-flavored cooking oil
Coconut | 3.48 | Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
Olive | 2.84 | Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps

These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars, which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity.[citation needed]

Other significant oils include:

* Corn oil, one of the most common cooking oils, is used for cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
* Grape seed oil, used in cooking and cosmetics
* Hazelnut oil and other nut oils
* Linseed oil, from flax seeds
* Rice bran oil, from rice grains
* Safflower oil, a flavorless and colorless cooking oil
* Sesame oil, used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India
* Açaí palm oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
* Jambú oil, is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (Acmella oleracea), contains spilanthol
* Graviola oil, derived from Annona muricata
* Tucumã oil, from Astrocaryum aculeatum is used to manufacture soap.
* Brazil nut oil, culinary and cosmetics use
* Carapa oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
* Buriti oil, from Mauritia flexuosa, used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
* Passion fruit oil, derived from Passiflora edulis, has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
* Pracaxi oil, obtained from Pentaclethra macroloba, cosmetics use
* Solanium oil, derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking

### Composition of fats

[edit]

Properties of vegetable oils[42]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.  Type | Processing
treatment[43] | Saturated
fatty acids | Monounsaturated
fatty acids | Polyunsaturated
fatty acids | Smoke point

|
|
|
|
|

Total[42] | Oleic
acid
(ω−9) | Total[42] | α-Linolenic
acid
(ω−3) | Linoleic
acid
(ω−6) | ω−6:3
ratio
Avocado[44] |  | 11.6 | 70.6 | 67.9 | 13.5 | 1 | 12.5 | 12.5:1 | 250 °C (482 °F)[45]
Brazil nut[46] |  | 24.8 | 32.7 | 31.3 | 42.0 | 0.1 | 41.9 | 419:1 | 208 °C (406 °F)[47]
Canola[48] |  | 7.4 | 63.3 | 61.8 | 28.1 | 9.1 | 18.6 | 2:1 | 204 °C (400 °F)[49]
Coconut[50] |  | 82.5 | 6.3 | 6 | 1.7 | 0.019 | 1.68 | 88:1 | 175 °C (347 °F)[47]
Corn[51] |  | 12.9 | 27.6 | 27.3 | 54.7 | 1 | 58 | 58:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[52] |  | 25.9 | 17.8 | 19 | 51.9 | 1 | 54 | 54:1 | 216 °C (420 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[53] | hydrogenated | 93.6 | 1.5 |  | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.5:1 |
Flaxseed/linseed[54] |  | 9.0 | 18.4 | 18 | 67.8 | 53 | 13 | 0.2:1 | 107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed[55] |   | 9.6 | 16.1 | 15.8   | 69.9 | 0.10 | 69.6 | very high | 216 °C (421 °F)
Hemp seed[56] |  | 7.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 82.0 | 22.0 | 54.0 | 2.5:1 | 166 °C (330 °F)[57]
High-oleic safflower oil[58] |  | 7.5 | 75.2 | 75.2 | 12.8 | 0 | 12.8 | very high | 212 °C (414 °F)[47]
Olive (extra virgin)[59] |  | 13.8 | 73.0 | 71.3 | 10.5 | 0.7 | 9.8 | 14:1 | 193 °C (380 °F)[47]
Palm[60] |  | 49.3 | 37.0 | 40 | 9.3 | 0.2 | 9.1 | 45.5:1 | 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[61] | hydrogenated | 88.2 | 5.7 |  | 0 |  |  |  |
Peanut[62] |  | 16.2 | 57.1 | 55.4 | 19.9 | 0.318 | 19.6 | 61.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Rice bran oil |  | 25 | 38.4 | 38.4 | 36.6 | 2.2 | 34.4[63] | 15.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[64]
Sesame[65] |  | 14.2 | 39.7 | 39.3 | 41.7 | 0.3 | 41.3 | 138:1 |
Soybean[66] |  | 15.6 | 22.8 | 22.6 | 57.7 | 7 | 51 | 7.3:1 | 238 °C (460 °F)[49]
Soybean[67] | partially hydrogenated | 14.9 | 43.0 | 42.5 | 37.6 | 2.6 | 34.9 | 13.4:1 |
High-oleic sunflower[68] |  | 8.99 | 63.4 | 62.9 | 20.7 | 0.16 | 20.5 | 128:1 | 227 °C (440 °F)[49]
Walnut oil[69] | unrefined | 9.1 | 22.8 | 22.2 | 63.3 | 10.4 | 52.9 | 5:1 | 160 °C (320 °F)[70]

## Seed oil

[edit]

See also: Seed oil misinformation

Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed (endosperm) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

Claims that seed oils are unhealthy are not supported by scientific evidence.[71][72]

### Pre-pressing

[edit]

Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent extraction removes the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.

## Used oil

[edit]

Main article: Yellow grease

A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a direct fuel, as well as in the production of biodiesel, livestock feed, pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.[73]

## Shelf life

[edit]

Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.[74][75]

## Product labeling

[edit]

In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.[76] Also, oils in Canadian food products that have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient.[77] A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable.[76]

From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.[78]

## See also

[edit]

* Algaculture
* Cholesterol
* Decorticator
* Deodorizer
* Essential oils
* Fatty acid
* Fatty acid methyl ester
* Food extrusion
* Fragrance oil
* Lipid
* List of macerated oils
* List of vegetable oils
* Neem
* Non-food crops
* Oleochemistry
* Seed oil misinformation
* Soap
* Vernonia oil
* Vegetable oil recycling

## References

[edit]

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35. ^ Lawrence Alan Johnson; Pamela J. White; Richard Galloway (2008). Soybeans : chemistry, production, processing, and utilization. Urbana, IL: AOCS Press. ISBN 978-0-12-804352-3. OCLC 491265615.
36. ^ "Chapter 5 : Processing and refining edible oils". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2022-07-09. Retrieved 2021-07-04.
37. ^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Vegetable oil mist". cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
38. ^ Malaysian Palm Oil Industry Archived 2018-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, palmoilworld.org
39. ^ a b Oil Staple Crops Compared Archived 2018-11-18 at the Wayback Machine, gardeningplaces.com
40. ^ a b Global oil yields: Have we got it seriously wrong? Archived 2016-01-31 at the Wayback Machine, Denis J. Murphy, August 2009, aocs.org
41. ^ January 2009 (PDF). Oilseeds: World Market and Trade. Vol. FOP 1-09. USDA. 2009-01-12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-09. Retrieved 2009-01-29., Table 03: Major Vegetable Oils: World Supply and Distribution at Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade Monthly Circular Archived 2010-10-18 at the Wayback Machine
42. ^ a b c "FoodData Central". United States Department of Agriculture. 1 April 2019. All values in this table are from this database unless otherwise cited or when italicized as the simple arithmetic sum of other component columns.
43. ^ "USDA Specifications for Vegetable Oil Margarine Effective August 28, 1996" (PDF).
44. ^ "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g". FoodData Central, United States Department of Agriculture. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2025.
45. ^ Wong M, Requejo-Jackman C, Woolf A (April 2010). "What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?". Aocs.org. The American Oil Chemists' Society. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
46. ^ "Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
47. ^ a b c d Katragadda, Harinageswara Rao; Fullana, Andrés; Sidhu, Sukh; Carbonell-Barrachina, Ángel A. (May 2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils". Food Chemistry. 120 (1): 59–65\. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.
48. ^ "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
49. ^ a b c d e f Wolke RL (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
50. ^ "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
51. ^ "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
52. ^ "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
53. ^ "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
54. ^ "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
55. ^ "Grape seed oil, fat composition, 100 g". FoodData Central, United States Department of Agriculture. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2025.
56. ^ Callaway, James; Schwab, Ursula; Harvima, Ilkka; Halonen, Pirjo; Mykkänen, Otto; Hyvönen, Pekka; Järvinen, Tomi (April 2005). "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis". Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 16 (2): 87–94\. doi:10.1080/09546630510035832. PMID 16019622.
57. ^ Melina V. "Smoke points of oils" (PDF). veghealth.com. The Vegetarian Health Institute.
58. ^ "Safflower oil, salad or cooking, high oleic, primary commerce, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
59. ^ "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
60. ^ "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
61. ^ "Palm oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, filling fat, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
62. ^ "Oil, peanut". FoodData Central. usda.gov.
63. ^ Orthoefer, Frank T. (2020). "Rice Bran Oil". Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products. pp. 1–25\. doi:10.1002/047167849X.bio015.pub2. ISBN 978-0-471-38460-1.
64. ^ "Rice bran oil". RITO Partnership. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
65. ^ "Oil, sesame, salad or cooking". FoodData Central. fdc.nal.usda.gov. 1 April 2019.
66. ^ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
67. ^ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, (partially hydrogenated), fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
68. ^ "FoodData Central". fdc.nal.usda.gov.
69. ^ "Walnut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, United States Department of Agriculture.
70. ^ "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org.
71. ^ "Scientists debunk claims of seed oil health risks". Harvard School of Public Health. 2022-06-22. Retrieved 2024-09-27.
72. ^ "There's no reason to avoid seed oils and plenty of reasons to eat them". www.heart.org. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
73. ^ "Food and cooking oil waste". Food Standards Agency. GOV.UK. 22 May 2018. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022.
74. ^ H. Ramachandra Prabhu (2000). "Lipid peroxidation in culinary oils subjected to thermal stress". Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 15 (1): 1–5\. doi:10.1007/BF02873539. PMC 3453543. PMID 23105229.
75. ^ Tańska, M; Roszkowska, B; Skrajda, M; Dąbrowski, G (2016). "Commercial Cold Pressed Flaxseed Oils Quality and Oxidative Stability at the Beginning and the End of Their Shelf Life". Journal of Oleo Science. 65 (2): 111–21\. doi:10.5650/jos.ess15243. PMID 26782307. Archived from the original on 2018-03-19. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
76. ^ a b "Basic Labelling Requirements", Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 18 February 2014, archived from the original on 2015-04-06, retrieved 2015-04-08
77. ^ "Common Name - Fats and Oils" (PDF), Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-12-22, retrieved 2015-04-08
78. ^ "Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council", Official Journal of the European Union, 2011-11-21, archived from the original on 2017-07-26, retrieved 2013-11-26

## Sources

[edit]

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

## Further reading

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vegetable oils.

* Gupta, Monoj K. (2007). Practical guide for vegetable oil processing. AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois. ISBN 978-1-893997-90-5.
* Jee, Michael, ed. (2002). Oils and Fats Authentication. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England. ISBN 1-84127-330-9.
* Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. ISBN 0-442-00112-6.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

* v
* t
* e

Edible fats and oils

Fats|

| Pork fats|

* Fatback
* Lardo
* Salo
* Lard
* Lardon

|

Beef/Mutton fats|

* Dripping
* Suet
* Tail fat
* Tallow

Dairy fats|

* Butter
* Clarified butter
* Ghee
* Manteiga-da-terra
* Niter kibbeh
* Smen
* Urfa butter

Poultry fats|

* Chicken fat
* Duck fat
* Goose fat
* Schmaltz

Other animal fats|

* Blubber
* Muktuk
* Whale oil

Vegetable fats|

* Borneo tallow
* Cocoa butter
* Coconut oil
* Mango butter
* Margarine
* Palm kernel oil
* Shea butter
* Vegetable shortening

Oils|

| Marine oils|

* Cod liver oil
* Krill oil
* Seaweed oil
* Shark liver oil

|

Vegetable
oils (List)|

| Fruit oils|

* Avocado oil
* Olive oil
* Palm oil

|

Nut oils|

* Almond oil
* Argan oil
* Cashew oil
* Hazelnut oil
* Macadamia oil
* Marula oil
* Mongongo nut oil
* Pecan oil
* Pine nut oil
* Pistachio oil
* Walnut oil

Seed oils|

* Ambadi seed oil
* Apple seed oil
* Castor oil
* Corn oil
* Cottonseed oil
* Grape seed oil
* Hemp oil
* Linseed (flaxseed) oil
* Mustard oil
* Peanut oil
* Pequi oil
* Perilla oil
* Poppyseed oil
* Pumpkin seed oil
* Rapeseed (canola) oil
* Rice bran oil
* Safflower oil
* Sesame oil
* Soybean oil
* Sunflower oil
* Tea seed oil
* Watermelon seed oil

See also
Cooking oil
Plant oil
Essential oil

* v
* t
* e

Palm oil

Oil palms|

* Attalea
* A. maripa
* A. speciosa
* Elaeis
* E. guineesis
* E. oleifera

Diseases and
pests|

* Bagworm moth
* Basal stem rot (Ganoderma orbiforme)
* Cadang-cadang disease
* Little leaf syndrome
* Oryctes rhinoceros
* Rhynchophorus palmarum
* Oil palm bunch moth
* Tirathaba mundella
* Tirathaba rufivena
* Red ring disease (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus)

Components|

* Mesocarp
* Palm kernel
* lauric acid
* oil
* Palm oil
* linoleic acid
* myristic acid
* oleic acid
* palmitic acid
* stearic acid
* stearin

Processes|

* Biodiesel production
* Fat hydrogenation
* Fractionation
* Hydrolysis
* Milling
* Saponification
* Transesterification

Products|

* Biodiesel
* by region
* Neste
* Bioplastics
* Cellulosic ethanol
* Girl Scout Cookies
* Oleochemicals
* Vegetable oil
* cooking
* fuel

Organisations|

| Producers|

* Bumitama Agri
* Cargill
* Carson Cumberbatch
* Eagle High Plantations
* Equatorial Palm Oil
* Feronia Inc.
* FGV Holdings
* IOI Group
* Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad
* Sime Darby
* TH Plantations
* Wilmar International

|

Buyers / processors|

* AAK
* GreenPalm
* Neste
* Unilever

Governmental /
non-governmental|

* FELCRA Berhad
* Federal Land Development Authority
* Indonesia Commodity and Derivatives Exchange
* Malaysia Derivatives Exchange
* Malaysian Palm Oil Board
* Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

Policies, impacts
and debates|

* Biofuel policy of Malaysia
* Certified sustainable palm oil
* Deforestation by continent
* Southeast Asian haze
* Environmental impact of biodiesel
* Food vs. fuel
* Issues relating to biofuels
* Social and environmental impact of palm oil
* Vegetable oils as alternative energy

By country|

* Colombia
* Indonesia
* Malaysia

* Category
* by country

* v
* t
* e

Non-timber forest products

Animal products|

* Furs
* Honey
* pine
* Wild game

* Berries / tree fruit

* Banana
* Bilberry
* Binukaw
* Blackberry
* Blueberry
* Breadfruit
* Cocoa bean
* Coconut
* Durian
* Gambooge
* Huckleberry
* Jackfruit
* Juniper berry
* Lingonberry
* Raspberry
* Strawberry
* Tamarind
* Woodland strawberry

Edible plants / roots|

* Betel
* Fiddlehead ferns
* Heart of palm
* Mahuwa flowers
* Sago palm
* queen
* Sassafras
* filé powder
* root beer
* Saw palmetto
* Wild ginseng
* Wild onions
* Bear garlic
* Canada onion
* Crow garlic
* Twincrest onion
* Pacific mountain onion
* Ramps

Mushrooms|

* Bare-toothed russula
* Bay bolete
* Birch bolete
* Cep
* Chanterelle
* Honey mushroom
* Lingzhi (reishi)
* Matsutake
* Meadow mushroom
* Morel
* Oyster mushroom
* Parasol mushroom
* Red cap
* Saffron milk cap
* Slippery jack
* Truffle
* Yellow knight

* Nuts
* spices

* Allspice
* Areca nut
* Bay leaf
* Black pepper
* Brazil nut
* Cinnamon
* Clove
* Hazelnut
* Malva nut
* Nutmeg
* Pine nut
* Vanilla

* Oil
* waxes

* Allanblackia
* Babassu
* Bacuri
* Candlenut
* Capuacu
* Carnauba
* Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana)
* Cocoa butter
* Eucalyptol
* Eucalyptus
* Illipe
* Japan wax
* Kokum
* Kombo
* Kpangnan
* Kusum
* Mafura
* Mahua
* Mango butter
* Murumuru
* Nagkesar
* Palm (kernel)
* Phulwara
* Pilu
* Pongamia
* Sal-seed (Shorea robusta)
* Sandalwood
* Shea butter
* Tamanu
* Tea-seed
* Tea-tree
* Tucuma
* Ucuuba
* Vateria indica

Resins|

* Benzoin
* Birch tar
* Camphor
* Creosote
* Frankincense
* Gamboge
* Kauri
* Lacquer
* Mastic
* Myrrh
* Pine tar
* Pitch
* Rosin
* Turpentine
* Varnish

Sap / gum / etc.|

* Birch syrup
* Chicle
* chewing gum
* Coconut sugar
* Date sugar
* Fruit syrup
* Gum arabic
* Gutta-percha
* Kino
* Latex
* Maple sugar
* Maple syrup
* Palm sugar
* Palm wine
* akpeteshie
* ogogoro
* Rubber
* Spruce gum

Other|

* Amadou
* Bamboo
* edible
* musical instruments
* textiles
* Birch bark
* Birch beer
* Cork
* Ferns
* Forage
* Gambier
* Moss
* Natural dyes
* henna
* Peat
* Quinine
* Rattan
* Shellac
* Tanbark
* tannin
* Tendu leaves
* Thatching
* Vegetable ivory
* Willow bark

Related|

* Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry)
* Forest farming / gardening
* Honey hunting
* Indian forest produce
* Mushroom hunting
* Naval stores
* Resin extraction
* Rubber tapping
* Wildcrafting

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Major industries by economic sector

Primary sector or ′Natural sector′ (raw materials)

| Biotic|

| Agriculture|

* Arable farming
* Cereals
* Legumes
* Vegetables
* Fiber crops
* Oilseeds
* Sugar
* Tobacco
* Permanent crops
* Apples et al.
* Berries
* Citrus
* Stone fruits
* Tropical fruit
* Viticulture
* Cocoa
* Coffee
* Tea
* Nuts
* Olives
* Medicinal plants
* Spices
* Horticulture
* Flowers
* Seeds
* Animal husbandry
* Beef cattle
* Dairy farming
* Fur farming
* Horses
* Other livestock
* Pig
* Wool
* Poultry
* Beekeeping
* Cochineal
* Shellac
* Silk
* Hunting
* Fur trapping

|

Forestry|

* Silviculture
* Bamboo
* Logging
* Firewood
* Rattan
* Tree tapping
* Frankincense
* Gum arabic
* Gutta-percha
* Maple syrup
* Mastic
* Natural rubber
* Palm sugar, syrup, & wine
* Pine resin
* Wild mushrooms
* Fungiculture
* Truffles

Aquatic|

* Fishing
* Anchovies
* Herring
* Sardines
* Cod
* Haddock
* Pollock
* Mackerel
* Shark
* Swordfish
* Tuna
* Crabs
* Lobsters
* Sea urchins
* Squid
* Whaling
* Aquaculture
* Carp
* Catfish
* Tilapia
* Abalone
* Mussels
* Oysters
* Pearls
* Microalgae
* Seaweed
* Both
* Clams
* Sea cucumbers
* Scallops
* Salmon
* Shrimp

Geological|

* Fossil fuels
* Coal
* Peat
* Natural gas
* Oil shale
* Petroleum
* Tar sands
* Mining of ores
* Aluminum
* Copper
* Iron
* Gold
* Silver
* Palladium
* Platinum
* Lithium
* Rare-earth metals
* Uranium
* Other minerals
* Gemstones
* Phosphorus
* Potash
* Salt
* Sulfur
* Quarrying
* Gravel
* Sand
* Chalk
* Clay
* Gypsum
* Limestone
* Dimension stone
* Granite
* Marble

Secondary sector or ′Industrial sector′ (goods manufacturing)

| Manufacturing|

| Light industry|

* Food
* Animal feed
* Baking
* Canning
* Dairy products
* Flour
* Meat
* Prepared
* Preserved
* Sweets
* Vegetable oils
* Beverages
* Beer
* Bottled water
* Liquor
* Soft drinks
* Wine
* Textiles
* Carding
* Dyeing
* Prints
* Spinning
* Weaving
* Carpets
* Lace
* Linens
* Rope
* Clothing
* Accessories
* Dressmaking
* Furs
* Hatmaking
* Sewing
* Shoemaking
* Tailoring
* Printing
* Bookbinding
* Embossing
* Engraving
* Secure
* Typesetting
* Media reproduction
* Cassette tapes
* Phonographs
* Optical discs
* Metal fabrication
* Boilermaking
* Builders' & household hardware
* Cutlery
* Gunsmithing
* Locksmithing
* Machining
* Other smithing
* Powder metallurgy
* Prefabrication
* Surface finishing
* Other fabrication
* 3D printing
* Blow molding
* Drawing
* Extrusion
* Glassblowing
* Injection moulding
* Pottery
* Sintering
* Stonemasonry
* Woodworking
* Furniture
* Other goods
* Baggage
* Bicycles
* Jewellery
* Medical supplies
* Musical instruments
* Office supplies
* Outdoors & sports equipment
* Personal protective equipment
* Toys

|

Electrical
& optical|

* Electronics
* Components
* Circuit boards
* Semiconductors
* Computers
* Computer systems
* Parts & peripherals
* Blank storage media
* Communications equipment
* Mobile phones
* Network infrastructure
* Consumer electronics
* Televisions
* Video game consoles
* Instrumentation
* Clocks and watches
* GPS devices
* Scientific instruments
* Medical imaging systems
* Optical instruments
* Cameras
* Gun & spotting scopes
* Laser construction
* Lens grinding
* Microscopes
* Telescopes
* Electrical equipment
* Batteries
* Electrical & fiber optic cables
* Electric lighting
* Electric motors
* Home appliances
* Transformers

Chemicals|

* Coal & oil refining
* Bitumen
* Coke
* Diesel fuel
* Fuel oil
* Gasoline
* Jet fuel
* Kerosene
* Mineral oil
* Paraffin wax
* Petrochemicals
* Petroleum jelly
* Propane
* Synthetic oil
* Tar
* Commodity chemicals
* Fertilizers
* Industrial gases
* Pigments
* Pure elements
* Speciality chemicals
* Adhesives
* Agrochemicals
* Aroma compounds
* Cleaning products
* Cosmetics
* Explosives
* Fireworks
* Paints & inks
* Perfumes
* Soap
* Toiletries
* Fine chemicals
* Pharmaceuticals
* Antibiotics
* Blood products
* Chemical & hormonal contraceptives
* Generic drugs
* Illegal drugs
* Supplements
* Vaccines

Materials|

* Leather
* Liming & deliming
* Tanning
* Currying & oiling
* Wood
* Drying
* Sawmilling
* Engineered
* Lumber
* Composite
* Paper
* Sizing
* Cardboard
* Pulp
* Tissue
* Rubber
* Tires
* Vulcanized rubber
* Plastics
* Commodity
* Engineered
* Specialty
* Pellets
* Synthetic fibers
* Thermoplastics & thermosets
* Glass
* Borosilicate
* Fused quartz
* Soda-lime
* Float glass
* Glass fiber
* Glass wool & fiberglass
* Safety glass
* Ceramics
* Brick
* Earthenware
* Porcelain
* Refractory
* Tile
* Cement
* Mortar
* Plaster
* Ready-mix concrete
* Other mineral
* Abrasives
* Carbon fibers & advanced materials
* Mineral wool
* Synthetic gems
* Metal refining
* Iron
* Aluminum
* Copper
* Alloys
* Steel
* Formed metal
* Rolled
* Forged
* Cast metal

Heavy industry|

* Machinery
* Conveyors
* Heavy
* Hydraulic
* Machine tools
* Power & wind turbines
* Automobiles
* Other heavy vehicles
* Aerospace & space
* Rail vehicles
* Ships & offshore platforms
* Weapons

Utilities|

* Power
* Electric
* Gas distribution
* Renewable
* Water
* Sewage
* Waste management
* Collection
* Dumping
* Hazardous
* Recycling
* Remediation
* Telecom networks
* Cable TV
* Internet
* Mobile
* Satellite
* Telephone

Construction|

* Buildings
* Commercial
* Industrial
* Residential
* Civil engineering
* Bridges
* Railways
* Roads
* Tunnels
* Canals
* Dams
* Dredging
* Harbors
* Specialty trades
* Cabinetry
* Demolition
* Electrical wiring
* Elevators
* HVAC
* Painting and decorating
* Plumbing
* Site preparation

Tertiary sector or ′Service sector′ (services)

| Sales|

* Retail
* Car dealership
* Consumer goods
* General store
* Grocery store
* Department store
* Mail order
* Online shopping
* Specialty store
* Wholesale
* Auction
* Brokerage
* Distribution

|

Transport
& Storage|

* Cargo
* Air cargo
* Intermodal
* Mail
* Moving company
* Rail
* Trucking
* Passenger transport
* Airlines
* Car rentals
* Passenger rail
* Ridesharing
* Taxis
* Warehousing
* Self storage

Hospitality|

* Foodservice
* Drink service
* Cafés
* Catering
* Fast food
* Food delivery
* Restaurants
* Teahouses
* Hotels

Asset management|

* Financial services
* Banking
* Credit
* Financial advice
* Holding company
* Money transfer
* Payment cards
* Risk management
* Securities
* Insurance
* Health
* Life
* Pension funding
* Property
* Reinsurance
* Real estate
* Brokerage
* Property management

Professional|

* Accounting
* Assurance
* Audit
* Bookkeeping
* Tax advice
* Architecture & engineering
* Inspection
* Surveying
* Physical, product, & system testing
* Design
* Fashion
* Interior
* Product
* Legal services
* Management
* Consulting
* Public relations
* Marketing
* Advertising
* Creative
* Language
* Research and development
* Basic research

Healthcare|

* Medicine
* Dentist offices
* Hospitals
* Nursing
* Residential care
* Veterinary medicine

Entertainment
& leisure|

* Audio-visual
* Film
* Music
* Video games
* Broadcasting
* News
* Radio
* Television
* Sport
* Travel
* Business travel
* Cruise lines
* Tourism
* Gambling
* Online
* Venues
* Arcades
* Amusement parks
* Fairgrounds
* Nightclubs
* Tabletop games

Publishing
& Mass media|

* Written
* Books
* Periodicals
* Software
* Internet
* Hosting
* Social networks
* Streaming
* Websites

Education|

* Primary
* Secondary
* Tertiary
* Vocational school
* University
* Testing
* Tutoring

Other|

* Administrative
* Customer service
* Leasing
* Renting
* Staffing
* Private investigation & security
* Maintenance
* Janitors
* Landscaping
* Repairs
* Personal services
* Beauty
* Dry cleaning
* Funeral
* Maid service
* Pet care
* Sex
* Poverty

Related

| Classification
standards|

* Production-based
* ANZSIC
* ISIC
* NACE
* NAICS
* SIC
* UKSIC
* Market-based
* GICS
* ICB
* TRBC
* Other
* Aftermarket
* Generic
* OEM

|

Inputs
& outputs|

* Externalities
* Community
* Crime
* Culture
* Pollution
* Well-being
* Funding
* Goods
* Commodities
* Final
* Intermediate
* Raw material
* Innovation
* Primary inputs
* Labor
* Natural resources
* Physical capital
* Services
* Technology

Organization|

* Centralization
* Cartel
* Conglomerate
* Horizontal integration
* Mergers and acquisitions
* Monopoly
* Monopsony
* Vertical integration
* Decentralization
* Enforced breakup
* Freelancing
* Homesteading
* Outsourcing
* Putting-out system
* Spinning-off
* Temporary work
* Ownership
* Cooperative
* Joint-stock company
* Nationalization
* Nonprofit organization
* Partnership
* Privatization
* Sole proprietorship
* State-owned enterprise

* Category
* Commons
* Outline

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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